HSP 3UOFall 2014

studied cultures of the Pacific islands particularly in Samoa; compared Samoan &North American

adolescents; Samoans considered adults once reached

puberty, acted co-operatively, did not experience teen conflicts;

N. Americans were not considered adults until their twenties, acted aggressively and experienced teen conflicts since they competed with each other

concluded that personality is largely influenced by society/culture in which we live

Agreed with Mead that culture affects personality development but she also considered role of religion in shaping one’s personality;

She spent time studying the Aboriginal peoples of the American Plains;

During WWII studied Japanese culture to understand national personality

One of first researchers to locate & examine fossils & other remains to learn about the evolutionary development

of humans; 1924 = Dart made a famous discovery

of a skull in South Africa – believed to rep. the transitional stage b/w apes & humans = called Australopithecus africanus, meaning “Southern Ape”;

Became accepted as a valuable discovery despite earlier criticism

Produced some of paleontology’s most groundbreaking discoveries; Esp. the 3.2 million year old “Lucy”

skeleton discovered in 1974 in Ethiopia = Australopithecus afarensis

Provided crucial link b/w apes & humans; She had ape-like features such as a

small brain + projecting face but also human traits such as upright walking (bipedalism) providing an important step to dev. of Homo Sapiens

Developed cultural relativism = there is NO cultural progression from savagery to culture;

Also stated that there were no differences b/w the races of man;

He established the “4 field approach” due to his concern with human evolution, archaeology, language & culture;

Emphasized the importance of language study as cultural window

Mary: (1913 – 1996) Louis: (1903 – 1972) Richard: (b. 1944)

Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania was the site of many important discoveries by the Leakey family;

1976/77 Mary found the fossilized footprints near Olduvai Gorge at a site called Laetoli;

these footprints belonged to a species known as Australopithecus anamensis = confirmed that upright walking came before brain size expansion or modern tooth structure;

Louis made radical changes in the way we view early humans – he confirmed human evolution began in Africa;

Pushed back dates for the existence of various species, suggested parallel lines of evolution in human family & stimulated further research (primatology)

Discovered that chimps use tools, not strictly vegetarian since chimpswould murder & cannibalize; Alpha male system = use of aggression

& strength, he alone mates until defeated by a younger male;

Through her work it was discovered that our ancestors had a highly dev. social structure based on aggression & intimidation = we became meat eaters & hunters

Lived with mountain gorillas in Rwanda; First researcher to actually touch a wild gorilla since she gained their trust by

imitating their behaviour; Discovered that gorillas shared a lot in

common with our earliest ancestors – had a highly organized social system;

Showed affection towards family members & aggression towards outsiders;

She protected the gorillas from poachers even though they threatened Fossey so that she would abandon her work;

Murdered Dec. 26, 1985 by persons unknown

Orangutans share 98% of its genetic material with humans; Observations similar to Goodall =

orangutans live in a highly structured social community;

Violence is ever present; Although largely vegetarian orangutans

may cannibalize

Most influential sociologist of all time; wrote The Communist Manifesto in response to the working conditions during the Industrial

Revolution; Struggle b/w rich and poor for wealth & power

results in class struggle; He argued that capitalist society leaves most

pple with NO control over own destiny = armed revolution will result in change

Terms: factory owners (upper class) = Bourgeoisie versus the working class = Proletariat

Charles Darwin favoured Marxism as it agrees with the natural struggle to survive and he coined the term

“survival of the fittest”

1st sociologist to use statistics & scientific method to study human groups; He believed that reform of criminals was more effective than punishment; Developed theory of social facts = customs,

institutions & organizations exert control over pple;

His research concentrated on religion, education and esp. suicide – 3 types – 1. egoistic suicide = ind. isolated from societal values, 2. altruistic suicide = sacrifice to protect others, 3. anomic suicide = overwhelmed with social change;

Founder of functionalism = society works to protect the interests of most of its members

Disagreed with Marx that social class/economics was most important in

determining how society worked; Power can arise from religion, education,

politics and family structure as easily as money;

Believes society can be reformed & improved;

He favours creation of bureaucracies to provide essential social services making revolution unnecessary;

Coined term verstehen = understand social behaviour by putting ourselves mentally in another person’s place

Founder of psychology; Significant contribution to the development of of psychiatry; The mind is divided into conscious and unconscious

– the unconscious mind which stores memories can be “unlocked” by free association (patient responds to a list of words while relaxed) and dream analysis;

There are also three elements to the human mind: 1. ID = the “pleasure principle”, primitive responses – aggression & sex drive; 2. EGO = deals with reality; organizing/ synthesizing force of the personality; 3. SUPEREGO = “the moral arm of the personality”, opposes forces of ID; your conscience – sense of right & wrong;

Freudian therapy (psychoanalysis) involves replacing ID by EGO; psychological health largely a function of ego strength

Divided the psyche into three parts: 1. ego = conscious mind; 2. personal

unconscious = includes anything which is not presently conscious, includes memories; 3. collective unconscious = could call it your “psychic inheritance” – a reservoir of our experiences as a species, knowledge we are all born with;

Jung originated four psychological functions – sensation, intuition, thinking, feeling – personality types are determined by which function is dominant – result = introvert vs extrovert;

Developed archetypes – contents of the collective unconscious – archetype is an unlearned tendency to experience things in a certain way;

Reflect universal themes/patterns common to us all Examples: hero, mother, wise old man, maiden, shadow, etc.

Developed Classical Conditioning – interested in stimulus and response & if this pattern could be used to teach animals new behaviours; Conducted experiments using dogs

unconditioned stimulus (US) = food) → unconditioned response (UR) = drooling, natural reaction) then Pavlov rang a bell before giving food & the dog would associate the bell with food & drool, therefore, the conditioned stimulus (CS) = bell ringing → conditioned response (CR) drooling with only bell ringing & no food;

Conclusion, responses can be conditioned, meaning behaviour can be manipulated;

Humans can also be conditioned & their behaviour manipulated, therefore, behaviour can be consistent across species

Developed Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning = learning through reward & punishment;

An association is made between a behaviour and a consequence for that behaviour;

The learner “operates” on the environment & receives a reward for certain behaviour (operations);

Positive reinforcement (Reward): a stimulus such as food can be delivered when good behavior happens

Negative reinforcement (Escape): the removal of an aversive stimulus, increases a behavior's frequency ex. a loud noise is removed upon completion of a behavior…this is what fire alarms are about – the correct behavior is to leave the building!

Positive punishment (Punishment) (also called "Punishment by contingent stimulation") occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a stimulus, such as introducing a shock or loud noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.

Negative punishment (Penalty) (also called

"Punishment by contingent withdrawal") occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of a stimulus, such as taking away a child's toy following an undesired behavior, resulting in a decrease in that behavior

cognitive development (learning & knowledge use) are influenced by

social & psychological factors; there are 4 stages of mental

development that change with age & which are influenced by social experiences –

1. age 0 – 2: sensorimotor stage = learn by direct experience;

2. ages 2 – 7: pre-operational stage = see world from their own point of view;

3. ages 7 – 11: concrete operational stage = can do complex operations with the objects, understand cause & effect, see things from others’ point of view;

4. Adolescence: formal operational stage = can think abstractly, use of logic, imagine alternatives to reality

human psychological & personality growth lifelong process – “psychosocial stages”; success in meeting the challenge at each stage allows one

to move on to the next; (0 – 11) infancy & childhood = child matures

emotionally, socially, intellectually & physically; (11 – 18) adolescence = strives for personal identity; (18 – 25) early adulthood = learn to form close,

lasting relationships & career; (25 – 50) middle adulthood = productivity @ work &

with children, some tackle new endeavors; (50+) = late adulthood = feelings of power &

prestige, still active & productive Each stage MUST be completed before moving to the next.

Developed a theory that human needs could be arranged in a pyramid = Maslow’s

Hierarchy of Needs – We need to fulfill our basic physiological

needs first before fulfilling esteem, cognitive & aesthetic needs; also identified personality traits of a self-actualized individual –

i.e. live according to definite moral or ethical standards, have a task or mission in life rather than focus primarily on themselves, see things as they are, not as they wish them to be, etc.

Believed that all kinds of power motivates people not just sex (unlike Freud); Downplays the unconscious mind; People are aware of guiding goals & values; Introduced our struggle against feeling

inferior (inferiority complex); Becoming well-adjusted requires high self-

esteem & pursuit of worthwhile goals help; Believed that dreams were important in

understanding human personality (similar to Freud); developed a system of therapy know as individual psychology