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HUMAN BIOLOGY

Units 3 & 4 ATAR

2017 Year 12 Mrs Brown

NAME Now the LORD God formed a man from the dust of the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living being (Genesis 2:7)

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TERM 1. SEMESTER 1. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Text book Dot Point Unit 3 Assessments Chapters 2 1. The endocrine system Task 1: Endocrine dysfunction 5.1 Synthetic hormones

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Endocrine glands: location & hormones

Hypothalamus: ADH, oxytocins, releasing & inhibiting factors

Pituitary: FSH, LH, GH, TSH, ACTH, prolactin

Pancreas: insulin, glucagon

Parathyroid: PTH

Thyroid: thyroxine

Adrenal glands: adrenaline, noradrenalin, cortisol, aldosterone

ELABORATIONS to do: Task 1

Exocrine and endocrine glands – categorised by the method of distribution of their products

Hormones as products of endocrine glands have a role in controlling co-ordination by chemical means

Hormones affect specific target organs.

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Hypothalamus/pituitary connections

Posterior & anterior lobes of pituitary gland

Neurosecretory cells / blood transport of releasing and inhibiting factors

Lipid and water soluble hormones

Mechanisms of hormonal action

Activity 6: Endocrines – when things go wrong

ELABORATIONS

Hypothalamus/pituitary connections Posterior & anterior lobes of pituitary gland Neurosecretory cells / blood transport of releasing and

inhibiting factors

Lipid soluble hormones (steroid)

Water soluble hormones (protein & amine)

Mechanisms of hormonal action

The mode of action of lipid soluble hormones (steroid) and water soluble (protein and amine) hormones differ due to their ability to cross the cell membrane

Lipid soluble hormones cross cell membrane, bind with receptors within cell, activate specific genes on the DNA to effect protein synthesis

Water soluble hormones bind with receptors on cell membrane, activate secondary messenger within cell to trigger cascade of cellular reactions

SHE (Science as a human endeavour)

Hormones and vaccines are developed using recombinant DNA and associated biotechnological techniques

Synthetic hormones, use and risks

TERM 1. SEMESTER 1. NERVOUS SYSTEM

Text book Dot Point Unit 3 Assessments Chapters 3-5 2. The central & peripheral nervous system Task 2: Reflexes & reactions Task 3: Topic test

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Overview of the nervous system Efferent / afferent Central / peripheral Autonomic / somatic Autonomic: sympathetic /

parasympathetic Structure of neurons Nerves vs hormones Activity 22: Brain dissection

ELABORATIONS validation: Task 1

Afferent division: somatic and visceral sensory neurons

Efferent division: somatic and visceral motor neurons

Autonomic nervous system: involuntary motor output of smooth and cardiac muscle in organs and blood vessels

Somatic nervous system: voluntary motor output of skeletal muscle contraction

Sympathetic division involved in ‘fight or flight’ responses which prepares the body for action

Parasympathetic division works in opposition to the sympathetic division to maintain the body at normal functioning levels

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TERM 1. SEMESTER 1. NERVOUS SYSTEM Cont’d

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CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM The brain

Cerebrum Cerebellum Medulla oblongata

Spinal cord Protection of the CNS (cranium, meninges, cerebrospinal fluid)


Central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord: parts and areas of each have specific functions

Cerebrum: regions controlling body functions Contain sensory and motor areas

Cerebellum: subconscious control of posture and locomotion

Medulla oblongata: control of body functions such as breathing and the cardiovascular system

Spinal cord: transmission of neural signals between the brain and the rest of the body but also contains neural circuits that can independently control numerous reflexes

Meninges, cerebrospinal fluid and the skeleton protect the CNS

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PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Receptors

Thermoreceptors

Osmoreceptors

Chemoreceptors

Pain/touch receptors Changes detected by receptors Reflex arcs

ELABORATIONS

Location of receptors: Thermoreceptors: hypothalamus skin mucus membranes,

abdominal organs Osmoreceptors: hypothalamus Chemoreceptors: medulla, aorta, carotid artery,

pancreas/Islets of Langerhans Pain/touch receptors: internal organs and skin

Changes detected by receptors External: temperature, pressure/touch, light, sound,

chemicals (taste, smell) Internal: temperature, body fluid concentration, blood sugar

concentration, blood pressure, pH, carbon dioxide levels

Types of receptors: use the skin receptors as examples

Reflexes and reactions are differentiated in terms of neural pathways reflex actions are important in protection of the body

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NERVE IMPULSES Generation and propagation of nerve impulses

Distribution of +/- ions across the membrane

Sodium / potassium pump

An action potential: polarization / depolarisation

Refractory period

Continuous and saltatory conduction

All-or-nothing response Transmission across a synapse Neurotransmitters


Electrochemical processes occurring during an action potential depend on movement of ions across the cell membrane

Continuous and saltatory conduction of a nerve impulse is due to the presence of the myelin sheath and influences the speed of transmission of the nerve impulse

The process of nerve impulse transmission across a synapse, including the role of neurotransmitters, calcium ions and vesicles is related to the unidirectional pathway of nerve transmission

Control of nerve transmission across the synapse is via the control of neurotransmitter molecules and there are consequences if their actions are blocked

SHE Cell replacement therapy has the potential to treat nervous system disorders including Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases

multipotent, pluripotent and totipotent stem cells differ in their ability to produce a variety of cells

stem cells from different sources can used in processes involved in cell replacement therapy

the causes, symptoms and long term effects of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases

cell replacement therapy can be used in the treatment of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases

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TERM 1: SEMESTER 1: HOMEOSTASIS

Text book Dot Point Unit 3 Assessments Chapters 6-9 3. Homeostasis Task 4: Nephron structure & function 5.2 Gene therapy Task 5: Topic test 5.5 Cell replacement therapy

7 CAMP

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Tolerance limits Stimulus-response feedback model Thermoregulation

Role of metabolism in heat production

Methods of heat transfer: conduction, convection, evaporation, radiation

Physiological & behavioural responses

Stimulus-response flow diagrams

Activity 2b: Introduction to homeostasis Excursion: Perth Zoo

ELABORATIONS to do: Task 3 (test)

Homeostasis as maintain bodily function within tolerance limits for efficient functioning

Tolerance limits are different for different factors and there are effects on the body if factors are outside these limits

The components of the stimulus-response feedback model include: stimulus, receptor, modulator, effector, feedback

Body actions and the environment can cause tolerance limits to be breached temperature regulation involves balancing heat input and output in cold and hot conditions

Methods of heat transfer include conduction, convention, radiation and evaporation

Metabolism has an important role in heat production

Physiological mechanism of thermoregulation include TSH secretion, vasoconstriction/vasodilation, sweat production, shivering

Behavioural mechanisms include changing SA:Vol (huddling or spreading out), clothing, activity

Stimulus-response feedback models of thermoregulation including include TSH/thyroxine, vasoconstriction/dilation, heat loss/gain (radiation, conduction, convection evaporation), sweating, shivering, metabolic rate (activity levels) and behavioural actions

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Blood glucose levels (BGL)

Role of liver, pancreas and skeletal muscle

Hormones: insulin, glucagon, adrenaline, cortisol

Metabolic processes: glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis

Physiological responses after eating & exercise Stimulus-response flow

diagrams Activity 6: Diabetes diagnosis

ELABORATIONS to do: Task 4 Blood glucose levels (BGL)

The liver, skeletal muscle, pancreas and adrenal glands are involved in the use and storage glucose in the body

Differentiate between: Chemicals involved in blood sugar regulation (glucose, glycogen) The processes of regulation (glycogenolysis,

glycogenesis, gluconeogenesis) The hormones controlling blood sugar levels (insulin,

glucagon, cortisol, adrenaline/epinephrine) Alpha and beta cells in the islets of Langerhans of the

pancreas

Stimulus-response feedback models for glucose regulation change after eating and during exercise

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TERM 1: SEMESTER 1: HOMEOSTASIS Cont’d

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Osmoregulation

Role of nephron Salt and water balance

Physiological response Nervous response: thirst Endocrine response: ADH

& aldosterone

Stimulus-response flow diagrams

ELABORATIONS

Importance of water in body functions; importance of maintaining body fluid concentrations in terms of osmosis and hydration

Osmoregulation is the balance between the water and salt contents of the body fluids and is affected by inputs and outputs from various locations which differs for different environmental conditions eg hot and cold weather, drinking and dehydration

Osmoregulation controlled by nervous responses (thirst) and endocrine responses (ADH and aldosterone)

Salt and water are ingested via the digestive system and are lost as sweat (for thermoregulation), urine (excretion of metabolic wastes) and elimination from the digestive system (faeces); water is also a by-product of cellular respiration

Structure of the nephron: locations of filtration, re-absorption and active secretion

Effects of ADH and aldosterone on the activities of the nephron

Stimulus-response feedback models for water regulation including thirst reflex, ADH and aldosterone

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Gas concentrations

Role of H+ ions, O2 and CO2

Chemical reaction of CO2

dissolving in water: ph of blood

Dangers of hyperventilation

Physiological response Respiratory centre in

medulla oblongata Stimulus-response flow

diagrams Disruptions to homeostasis


CO2, hydrogen ions and O2 concentration are involved in the regulation of breathing rate and depth

CO2 and hydrogen ion levels in the blood are related due to the chemical reaction of CO2 dissolving in water

the nervous control of breathing (rate and depth) by the respiratory muscles is by the breathing centre in medulla oblongata

conscious control of breathing may have risks of hyperventilation

stimulus response feedback model for control of gas concentration changes with the level of activity

the control of CO2 and O2 are the independent of one another

SHE

Synthetic hormones may be developed to control or treat endocrine dysfunction including diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism, to improve the quality of life for individuals

Gene therapy could be used to treat a range of diseases including diabetes mellitus

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TERM 2: SEMESTER 1: RESPONSE TO INFECTION

Text book Dot Point Unit 3 Assessments

Chapters 10-11 4. Response to infection Task 6: Immunisation 5.3 Hormones & vaccines treat disease Task 7: Topic test 5.4 Immunisation programs

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Pathogens

Bacteria and viruses

Differences in structure, reproduction & size

Transmission of disease

Direct and indirect contact

Transfer of body fluids

Vectors

Contaminated food and water

External defence mechanisms

Skin: lysosyme, sebum, dermal layers

Digestive tract:ph, vomiting, diarrhoea

Urogenital tract: urine flow, ph

Respiratory system: nostril hair, cilia, sneezing, mucus

Ears: cerumen, hair

Eye: tears, blinking, eyelashes Activity 24: Immunity – protection against invaders


Difference between bacteria and viruses are based on structure, reproduction and size

Infectious disease can be transmitted to unrelated hosts whereas non-infectious diseases causes are not eg. genetic conditions, cardiovascular disease

Different diseases are transferred by each method and control of spread is related to the prevention of transmission: Direct/indirect contact: problems of sharing drink bottle and

syringes; coughing and sneezing Transfer of body fluids: blood transfusion, sexual contact and

kissing Vectors: mosquitoes, fleas Contaminated water/food: problems of using re-cycled water

(have all viruses been removed) or potable water sources during flood; sources of food contamination

The body has physical barriers depending on the location within the body: Skin: lysozyme, sebum, layers of skin Digestive tract: pH, vomitting, diarrhoea Urogenital tract: pH, urine flow Respiratory system: nostril hair, cilia, mucus, sneezing, Ear: hairs, cerumen Eye: tears, blinking, eyelashes

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Non-specific resistance to infection Inflammatory response

Mast cells

Change in blood flow: histamines and heparin

Macrophages Fever


The inflammatory response involves mast cells, histamine, heparin changing blood flow and delivering macrophages to the site of damage

The causes and benefits of a fever (including role of hypothalamus) depend on the effects of temperature on viruses

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Specific resistance to infection Antibody mediated immunity – B cells

Site of production and maturation

Plasma cells and memory cells

Plasma cells secrete antibodies

Antigen-antibody complex

Cell mediated immunity – T cells

Site of production and maturation

Killer-T cells, helper-T cells, suppressor-T cells, memory cells

ELABORATIONS

Differentiate between antigen and antibody; lymphocyte and macrophage - and the specificity of their actions

The site of production and roles of B and T lymphocytes are specific in the active immune response

Antibody mediated (humoral) response requires B cells/plasma cells to recognise the antigens and produce antibodies which inactivate or destroy antigens

Cell mediated response requires the actions of T lymphocytes (killer T cells, helper T cells and suppressor T cells)

Primary and secondary responses to exposure of an antigen (or vaccine) differ due to the presence of memory cells

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Primary vs secondary immune response

Graph showing each response

Explain differences Types of immunity

Natural/artificial

Vaccines Antibiotics & antiviral drugs

Mode of action

Resistance


Ongoing effects of passive and active immunity differ

Vaccines can be made of attenuated or low virulent forms of pathogens

DNA technology is used to produce bacteria that produce vaccines, antibiotics and antiviral drugs are only effective in controlling their specific pathogens

The mode of action of antibiotics and antiviral drugs differ due to the nature of the pathogen

Antibiotic resistance has a range of causes and has implications for future effectiveness of that antibiotic

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TERM 2: SEMESTER 1: RESPONSE TO INFECTION Cont’d

SHE Immunisation

The decision to participate in immunisation programs can be influenced by the social, economic and cultural context in which it is considered

There are benefits, risks and ethical issues associated with immunisation programs

5 REVISION to do: Task 7 (test)

6 Task 8: EXAMINATIONS

TERM 2: SEMESTER 2: MECHANISMS FOR EVOLUTION

Text book Dot Point Unit 4 Assessments Chapters 12 & 14 1. Mutations Task 9: Natural selection 2. Gene pools Task 11: Topic test

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Mutations

Mistakes in DNA replication or cellular division

Cause changes in cellular chemicals, processes and structures

Chromosome mutations Occurs during meiosis

Gene mutations Occurs during DNA

replication

ELABORATIONS

Mutations as a permanent change to the sequence of DNA (genetic code) influence protein synthesis and cause changes in cellular chemicals (enzymes, hormones) or structures

Mutagens of different types damage the DNA or affect DNA replication or meiosis

Differentiate between gene and chromosome mutations

Chromosome mutations: deletion, inversion, translocation, non-disjunction can result during the processes of meiosis

Gene mutations: deletion, substitution, insertion can arise during DNA replication

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Variation: alleles

Genotypes and phenotypes

Survival advantage (heterozygous advantage)

Sickle cell anaemia, Thalassemia, Tay-Sachs

Gene pools

Random genetic drift

Founder effect

Migration Barriers to gene flow Geographical and

sociocultural Activity 13b: Genetic mutations

ELABORATIONS to do: Task 9 Variation

Combinations of alleles from dominance, co-dominance, sex-linkage, multiple alleles and polygenic inheritance produce a variety of phenotypes

Variation in genotype may result in phenotypes which provide a survival advantage e.g. Sickle cell anaemia trait

Mutations may produce new alleles which may be advantageous or disadvantageous e.g. Variation in human skin pigmentation

Light pigmentation an advantage in populations living far from equator (Vit D) but a disadvantage to those living close to equator (melanoma)

Gene pool

Gene pool as the sum of all alleles carried by members of a population

Gene pools may vary in their composition at different times and or at different locations e.g. ABO blood groups in indigenous populations

Impact of mutations on gene pools is affected by whether it is a germ line or somatic mutation

Founder Effect - influence of a small, non-representative gene pool on the frequency of alleles in subsequent generations compared to the original population e.g. Ashkenazi Jews, Bounty mutineers

Random Genetic Drift - influence of random events such mating choices, survival of offspring and effects of environment on the population gene pool; will affect small populations more than large populations

Effects of migration on gene flow between populations influencing the proportions of alleles in each population

Effects of geographical, social, cultural barriers to gene flow within and between gene pools

Heterozygous advantage

Factors leading to certain undesirable genetic conditions remaining in particular human populations (gene pools): Thalassemia, Sickle cell anaemia and Tay-Sachs disease

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TERM 2: SEMESTER 2: MECHANISMS FOR EVOLUTION Cont’d

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Natural selection

Natural selection occurs when factors in the environment confer a selective advantage on specific phenotypes to enhance survival and reproduction

Speciation

The mechanisms underpinning the theory of evolution by natural selection include inherited variation, struggle for existence, isolation and differential selection producing changes to gene pools to such an extent that speciation occurs

ELABORATIONS Natural selection

Natural selection as a result of the struggle for survival under particular conditions

The concept of natural is supported by evidence from artificial selection eg. breeding of particular strains or breeds in agriculture: cattle, sheep, horses

Selection works on phenotypes - explains why some disadvantageous recessive alleles still exist in the population Variation - from processes of meiosis, mutations and

epigenetics Struggle for existence - being able to survive long enough to

reproduce passing the alleles onto the next generation Isolation - no gene flow between similar gene pools

(populations), due to geographic, cultural, behavioural barriers

Differential selection - when the probability of survival for a particular phenotype is greater than others in the population allowing more of this phenotype to survive and reproduce, therefore leaving more offspring with the advantageous allele in the next generation

Speciation

When the gene flow between similar populations is restored, interbreeding does not occur thus there are two species rather than populations

TERM 2: SEMESTER 2: BIOTECHNOLOGY & EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION

Text book Dot Point Assessments Chapters 13 3.1 Biotechnological techniques Task 10: PCR 5.1 Developments in biotechnology

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PCR & recombinant DNA

Gel electrophoresis revision

Gene sequencing

Recombinant DNA involves: Polymerase chain reaction Used to increase DNA

sample size Used in gene cloning Vectors – plasmid or viral Restriction enzymes Ligase enzymes

Activity 11: Human genome project (DNA sequencing)


Gel electrophoresis for the purpose of DNA sequencing and separation of DNA fragments is due to electrical charge and the size of the DNA fragments DNA fragments are tagged with fluorescent nucleotides for

easy identification

DNA is cut into fragments using restriction enzymes

Processes involved in polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

denaturing, hybridization/annealing and synthesis of DNA

involving the change in temperature and use of primers and

Taq DNA polymerase

DNA sequencing by Sanger method and be aware of new technologies to sequence faster and more accurately

SHE Biotechnology

Restriction enzymes, ligase enzymes and plasmids are used in producing recombinant DNA

Hormones and vaccines are developed using recombinant DNA and associated biotechnological techniques

SIS (Science inquiry skills)

Conduct investigations, including the use of virtual or real biotechnological techniques of polymerase chain reaction (PCR), gel electrophoresis for deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)sequencing, safely, competently and methodically for valid and reliable collection of data.

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TERM 3: SEMESTER 2: BIOTECHNOLOGY & EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION Cont’d

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Transgenic organisms & gene therapy

Transgenic organisms are produced by removing DNA from one organism and transferring into the DNA of another organism

Applications Production of vaccines,

medicines eg. insulin Activity 9: Transgenesis and gene therapy


Biotechnological techniques provide evidence for evolution by using Polymerase Chain Reaction to amplify minute samples of

DNA to testable amounts bacterial enzymes gel electrophoresis

to facilitate DNA sequencing of genomes

TERM 3: SEMESTER 2: EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION

Text book Dot Point Assessments Chapters 15 & 16 3. Evidence for evolution Task 12: Evidence for evolution

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Defining evolution

The evolution and creation paradigms

Common ancestry or common design?

Mechanisms underpinning evolution by natural selection

Evidence for evolution

Comparative studies Genomics & mitochondrial

DNA Biochemistry Anatomy: homologous

structures, vestigial organs & embryology

ELABORATIONS

Evidence for evolution gained from comparative studies of DNA, retroviruses and proteins (including ubiquitous proteins)

Comparative anatomy such as embryonic development, homologous structures and vestigial organs

Similarities and differences in such evidence suggests evolutionary relatedness

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Phylogenetic trees

Determining evolutionary relatedness: Use of biotechnology:

polymerase chain reaction, gel electrophoresis & gene sequencing

Use of bioinformatics to show evolutionary relationships

Activity 21: Evidence for evolution – molecular biology


Phylogenetic trees use bioinformatics to show the relationships between groups of organisms based on genetic information

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TERM 3: SEMESTER 2: EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION Cont’d

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Fossil formation

Flood conditions or slowly over millions of years?

Factors affecting fossil formation

Dating methods

Absolute dating

Relative dating Index fossils Statigraphy

Assumptions Interpretation of the fossil record

problems and limitations

M&Ms radiometric dating activity Act 19b: Fossil dating


Fossilisation requires the remains of organisms or their imprints to be covered and remain undisturbed during rock formation around them

Factors affecting fossil formation including Type or organism - hard parts fossilise between than soft

body parts Soil pH, mineral content of soil Weathering and erosion

Limitations in the current fossil record Incomplete fossils Not all organisms had representatives in the fossil record Not all conditions produce fossils of organisms remains Those not discovered or recognised

Relative dating techniques including Stratigraphy: law of superposition; rock strata correlation Index fossils: fossils with a wide distribution and with a

limited time span

Absolute dating techniques: Radiocarbon relies on the known and constant radioactive

decay rate of carbon-14, that the exchange of carbon between organisms and their environment stops at death, and the carbon-14 of the atmosphere is known

Potassium-argon dating relies on the known and constant breakdown of radioactive potassium to produce inert argon gas which is trapped in the fossil

Limitations of these particular dating methods delineate the fossil materials on which they can be used and the age of the fossil being dated

The geological timeline: chronological order of geological formations - can be sectioned into different time sections related to fossil type present

SIS

Conduct investigations, including the use of techniques for relative and absolute dating, safely, competently and methodically for valid and reliable collection of data

Select, use and/or construct appropriate representations, including phylogenetic trees, to communicate conceptual understanding, solve problems and make predictions

TERM 3: SEMESTER 2: TRENDS IN HOMINID EVOLUTION

Text book Dot Point Assessments Chapters 17-20 4. Hominid evolutionary trends Task 13: Topic test

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Linnaean classification system

Family Ponginae (orangutans)

Family Hominidae (gorillas, chimps & humans)

Binomial naming Design features and comparative studies

Bipedalism vs quadrupedalism Carrying angle, pelvis,

curvature of the spine, position of the foramen magnum, arches of feet

Mobility of digits: opposable thumb

Dentition

Prognathism

Relative size of cerebral cortex


Classification groups of hominids Family level Hominidae - of classification including great

apes and humans and hominins Tribe level Hominini - of classification includes only modern

and ancestral humans

Features of Primates Trends in features in the primate groups in the differences

listed Adaptations to bipedalism and quadrupedalism: differences

in the skull, spine, pelvis, legs and feet

6 PERFORMANCE

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TERM 3: SEMESTER 2: TRENDS IN HOMINID EVOLUTION Cont’d

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Hominids: great apes & humans

Anatomical comparison of Skull Jaw Cranial capacity

Extinct ape species Australopethicus afarensis Australopethicus africanus Parenthropus robustus

Modern great ape species Pongo borneo (orangutan) Pan troglodytes (chimpanzee) Gorilla gorilla (gorilla)

Ancient people groups Homo habilis* Homo erectus Homo neanderthalensis

Modern people group Homo sapiens Activity 31: Hominin adaptations


Features (temporal and geographical distribution, cranial capacity, jaw/skull features, post cranial skeleton,) of the following species and compare with modern humans and great apes

Possible evolutionary pathways showing the location and time

span in the sequence of different fossil hominin groups

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Humans: tools & culture

Use of tools

Human culture Homo habilis* Homo erectus Homo neanderthalensis Homo sapiens Created human beings – variations and adaptations How a paradigm influences interpretation of the evidence

ELABORATIONS

Tools culture are identified by materials used in manufacture, the specificity of tools and complexity of tool making techniques for each of these Homo species

Cultural advances included the use of fire, art and spirituality, burial practices, hunter-gatherer lifestyle, agricultural lifestyle and domestication of animals

Each Homo group is associated with a culture: Oldowan - Homo habilis Acheulean – Homo erectus Mousterian – Homo neanderthalensis Aurignacian, Solutrean, Magdalenian – Homo sapiens

9 REVISION to do: Task 13 (test)

10 REVISION

SHE

Developments in the fields of comparative genomics, comparative biochemistry and bioinformatics have enabled identification of further evidence for evolutionary relationships which help refine existing models and theories

OCTOBER HOLIDAYS: Task 14: MOCK EXAMS TERM 4: REVISION

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Foundation Christian College

Year 12 ATAR Human Biology 2017

Assessment Outline

Assessment Type

Type Weighting

Task Weighting

Task Assessment Task Due date

Investigation & Practical

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2.5 2 Practical Reflexes & reactions (STAWA Activity 23)

T1 w6

2.5 4 Investigation Nephron structure & function (STAWA Activity 3 & 4)

T1 w10

2.5 9 Investigation Modelling natural selection (STAWA Activity 17)

T2 w10

2.5 10 Practical Polymerase chain reaction (STAWA Activity 12)

T3 w3

Extended response

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5 1 Endocrine dysfunction T1 w3

5 6 Participation in immunisation programs T2 w4

5 12 Evidence for evolution T3 w7

Tests 25

5 3 TEST 1: Endocrine and nervous systems T1 w8

5 5 TEST 2: Homeostasis T2 w1

5 7 TEST 3: Response to infection T2 w5

5 11 TEST 4: Mutations and gene pools T3 w4

5 13 TEST 5: Hominid evolutionary trends T3 w9

Exams 50

20 8 Semester 1 Exam T2 w6

30 14 Semester 2 Exam T3

school holidays

TOTAL 100 100

* All dates are subject to negotiation and variation in accordance with the classroom teacher

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Unit 3 – Homeostasis and disease Unit description This unit explores the nervous and endocrine systems and the mechanisms that help maintain

the systems of the body to function within normal range, and the body’s immune responses to

invading pathogens. The complex interactions between body systems in response to changes in

the internal and external environments facilitate the maintenance of optimal conditions for the

functioning of cells. Feedback systems involving the autonomic nervous system, the endocrine

system and behavioural mechanisms maintain the internal environment for body temperature,

body fluid composition, blood sugar and gas concentrations within tolerance limits. The

structure and function of the endocrine system, including the glands, hormones, target organs

and modes of action, can demonstrate the many interactions that enable the maintenance of

optimal cellular conditions. The structure and function of the autonomic nervous system, and its

relationship with other parts of the nervous system, can be linked to the roles each play in

maintaining homeostasis of internal environmental conditions. Comparing and contrasting the

endocrine and nervous systems can highlight the roles of each in homeostasis. Humans can

intervene to treat homeostatic dysfunction and influence the quality of life for individuals and

families. Different body systems have mechanisms, including physical and chemical barriers,

that protect the body against invasion by pathogens. The non‐specific actions of the body can

be aided by the use of antibiotics and antiviral drugs to counter the invasion or reduce the effect

of the pathogen. Specific resistance mechanisms involve the recognition of invading pathogens

and produce long‐lasting immunity. Vaccinations can result in immunity to infection by exposure

to attenuated versions of the pathogens.

Unit 4 – Human variation and evolution Unit description This unit explores the variations in humans in their changing environment and evolutionary trends in hominids. Humans can show multiple variations in characteristics due to the effect of polygenes or gene expression. The changing environment can influence the survival of genetic variation through the survival of individuals with favourable traits. Gene pools are affected by evolutionary mechanisms, including natural selection, migration and chance occurrences. Population gene pools vary due to interaction of reproductive and genetic processes and the environment. Over time, this leads to evolutionary changes. Gene flow between populations can be stopped or reduced by barriers. Separated gene pools can undergo changes in allele frequency, due to natural selection and chance occurrences, resulting in speciation and evolution. Evidence for these changes comes from fossils and comparative anatomy and biochemical studies. A number of trends appear in the evolution of hominids and these may be traced using phylogenetic trees. The selection pressures on humans have changed due to the control humans have over the environment and survival.

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How do I achieve to the best of my ability?

This year is designed to prepare you for further study and to equip you with the skills needed

when you leave school. You may find that the material is presented at a faster pace and there is

more responsibility on your part to keep up by regularly studying at home. Many students in the

past have said that they wished they had studied harder from the beginning of the year.

In particular, Human Biology is a technical subject and has a large and complex vocabulary,

which must be mastered bit by bit. So to help you, here are some suggestions:

Get organised. Have a master at home file for filing your notes and worksheets, set up

topic by topic. After each topic put your notes into the master file and keep the topics

separated by dividers.

A definitions book is helpful. An exercise book works well. Where possible try to write

the meanings in your own words. Make sure you understand everything you write in this

book. Use the summary at the end of each chapter and the glossary at the end of the

textbook to help you to compile your book.

Study time. Although you will not have a lot of homework and assignments, you are

expected to spend a minimum of 3 hours a week on Human Biology. This time of study

and revision is essential if you are to keep up with all of the information presented to you.

Suggested things to do during this time:

Read over the work covered in class that day – your notes and text book.

Write new words and definitions into your definitions book.

Write down anything you don’t understand and be sure to ask the following lesson.

Review the work to date on the topic (look back a few lessons), trying to link

concepts and information together.

Test yourself on the work to date. Use your revision book.

Class time. Make the most of class time – it is much harder to catch up if you waste this

time. You can make good use of class time by:

Paying attention.

Getting involved in class: answering and asking questions, listening to other

student’s answers, asking for help.

Working quickly and quietly during practical sessions. Keep accurate records of

your results, regardless of whether it is for assessment or not.

Bringing your textbook to class. You can underline key concepts and write

questions in the margin.

Assignments. Start early and have your work totally ready to hand in on time (i.e. name

on it, stapled, etc) well before coming to school on the due date.

Exams. Go over your notes and textbook. Do not over study the areas you find easy and

ignore the harder areas. Aim for a good working knowledge in all areas. Practice writing

extended answers – they need careful planning and a logical order. Don’t write the topic

out – just begin with a short topic sentence. End with a brief conclusion. Keep your

sentences short – one sentence – one fact. Answer the question in the order it was

asked – it is acceptable to partition your answer if the question was partitioned, to use dot

points, well labelled and informed diagrams, tables (esp. for comparisons), etc. http://writing.colostate.edu/index.cfm AND http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/exkey.html Date Visited: 16 December 2009

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Answering Exam Questions

Comment on To discuss, criticise, or explain the meaning as completely as possible

Compare To show the similarities between two or more objects, theories, events,

concepts, applications or explanations.

Contrast To compare by showing the differences between two or more objects,

theories, events, concepts, applications or explanations.

Define To give the formal meaning by distinguishing it from related terms. Include

elaborations and examples where applicable.

Describe To write a detailed account or verbal picture in a logical sequence or story

form; noting physical and sometimes chronological details (eg. describe the

trends in a graph)

Discuss To present arguments for and against a point of view and reach a conclusion.

The arguments must be supported with appropriate evidence.

Evaluate Requires a judgment about which theory, application, approach etc. is

superior and why. To give an opinion, supported by some expert opinions, of

the truth or importance of a concept. Show the advantages and

disadvantages.

Explain Requires an analysis of cause-and-effect or explanation of the reasoning

process – answers ‘why’. Explore the rest of the question to see if there is an

additional focus or link to other ideas, objects or theories.

Illustrate To explain or make clear by concrete examples, comparisons and/or

analogies.

List To produce a list of words, sentences or comments. Can be in dot point form.

Outline To give a general summary. It should contain a series of main ideas

supported by secondary facts. Show the organisation of the idea.

Name Eg: Name the process – photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration etc.

Relate To show the connection between things, telling how one causes or is like

another.

State To describe the main points in precise terms. Use brief, clear sentences.

Omit details or examples.

Summarise To give a brief, condensed account of the main ideas.

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Chicago Style referencing for reports Murdoch University. Library. 2001. How to Cite References. http://www.murdoch.edu.au/library/find/citation/ (accessed October 27, 2009).

CITATION WITHIN THE TEXT There are two options for in text references. Firstly, the reference can be placed at the end of the sentence wholly in parentheses. Alternatively, the author's name may be integrated into the text, and just the date and additional information placed within the brackets. See examples of both of these options in the next section below. There are four common methods of referring to a source document in the text of an essay, thesis or assignment. These methods are:

1. Quoting Quotations must be identical to the original, including punctuation, using a small section of the source. They must match the source document word for word, be enclosed within quotation marks, and must be attributed to the original author with an in text citation. When directly quoting from another source, ensure that the relevant page number(s) are given.

Short quotes Larsen (1991, 245) stated that "many of the facts in this case are incorrect". Longer quotes In general, avoid using too many long quotes and remember to introduce or integrate quotations smoothly into the rest of your assignment.

2. Paraphrasing Paraphrasing involves putting a passage from the source material into your own words. A paraphrase must also be attributed to the original source with an in text citation. When paraphrasing, keep the meaning the same but do not use the original wording. The purpose of paraphrasing is that it flows better with your own writing. You generally need to change both the sentence structure and the expression, using synonyms or alternative expressions. Paraphrased material may be as long (or even longer) than the original source material. However, it is often shorter than the original passage, taking a larger section of the source and condensing it slightly. When paraphrasing, you must also include the page number(s) which relate to portion of the text that you have used.

Original - "Named for James Brady, the White House press secretary who was shot and wounded by John Hinckley Jr. during the attempted assassination of President Ronald Reagan in March 1981, the Brady Bill establishes a national waiting period and background check for the purchase of a handgun" (Bender 1995, 137).

Paraphrase - Bender (1995) explains that the introduction of a waiting period and a background check for people buying handguns in the US, is due to the Brady Bill. The bill was named after White House aide James Brady, who was wounded during an assassination attempt on President Reagan (137).

3. Summarising

Summarising is condensing longer text to a much briefer version. It involves putting the main idea(s) into your own words, including only the main point(s). Once again, it is necessary to attribute summarised ideas to the original source with an in text citation. Summaries are significantly shorter than the original and take a broad overview of the source material. Page numbers should be given when summarising.

17

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY

PAY ATTENTION TO THE USE OF PUNCTUATION MARKS

All documents cited in your assignment are listed in a single alphabetical list at the end of the assignment. The list is arranged by the author's family name or title if no author is present. The authors' names are given as they appear on the publication you have used. Capitalisation practice also should be consistent. Titles are given maximal capitalisation. All words other than prepositions, conjunctions, and definite and indefinite articles (a, an, the) are capitalised. Journal and book titles are italicised or if handwritten underlined. If any information is missing from the source (make sure you check thoroughly) then just use the information that is available.

PRINT DOCUMENTS

Books

Author, A., and B. Author, eds. Year. Title: Subtitle. Edition. Place of publication: Name of Publisher .

Single author Adam-Smith, Patsy. 1978. The ANZACS. Melbourne: Thomas Nelson. Two authors or editors Butler, J. Douglas, and David F. Walbert, eds. 1986. Abortion, Medicine and the Law. New York: Facts on File Publications. Three or more authors or editors Millon, Theodore, Roger Davis, Carrie Millon, Luis Escovar, and Sarah Meagher. 2000. Personality Disorders in Modern Life. New York: Wiley. Two or more books by the same author published in the same year Gilbert, Sandra M. 1972a. Acts of Attention: The Poems of D. H. Lawrence. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. AND Gilbert, Sandra M. 1972b. Emily's Bread: Poems. New York: Norton. Organisation Ansett Transport Industries Ltd. 1984. Annual Report 1983-84. Melbourne: ATI. Government publication Australian Bureau of Statistics. 1985. Projections of the Population of Australia, States and Territories, 1984 to 2021, Cat. no. 3222.0. Canberra: ABS. Government Departments Australia. Department of Aboriginal Affairs. 1989. Programs in Action for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People: Achievements. Canberra: AGPS. Western Australia. Environmental Protection Authority. 1998. Industrial Infrastructure and Harbour Development, Jervoise Bay. Bulletin 908. Perth: EPA. Multivolume work Russell, Bertrand. 1967. The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell. 3 vols. London: Allen & Unwin. Entry in an encyclopaedia/dictionary When referring to a well-known alphabetically arranged work such as an encyclopaedia or dictionary, the citation should be incorporated into the text. Example: "In his article on multiculturalism in the 2003 edition of The Oxford Companion to Australian History, John Lack ...." These items are not then listed in a bibliography or reference list (Chicago Manual of Style, sec. 17.238).

18

Parts of a book

Journal articles

Article Author, A., and B. Article Author. Year. Title of article. Title of Journal volume number (issue number): inclusive page numbers.

INTERNET DOCUMENTS

Cite documents published on the internet according to the specific guidelines for the type of document. Books, plays, government reports and company annual reports are examples of documents that may be published on the Internet. Please note: If no author or editor is given, the title will precede the year of publication.

Author, A. Year. Title: Subtitle. Edition. Source or supplier information. Web address (accessed date).

Whole Internet site Australia. Commonwealth Bureau of Meteorology. 2001. Climate Information. http://www.bom.gov.au/climate (accessed July 14, 2001). Electronic document, no author How to Cite References. 1996. Murdoch: Murdoch University Library. http://wwwlib.murdoChapteredu.au/libinfo/gdes/refgdes/cite/cite.html (accessed July 14, 1998). Government publication (Australian Bureau of Statistics Bulletin) Australian Bureau of Statistics. 1999. Australian Farming in Brief. Bulletin, Cat. no. 7106.0, AusStats. http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats (accessed July 6, 2001). Government publication (Government Department) Western Australia. Department of Environmental Protection. 1998. Environment Western Australia 1998 : State of the Environment Report 1998. http://www.environ.wa.gov.au/publications/report.asp?id=7&catid=25&pubid=1064 (accessed February 28, 2000).

OTHER FORMATS

Television Programme Masters, Chris. 2006. Big Fish, Little Fish. Four Corners. television program. Sydney: ABC Television, March 27.

DVD Bowling for Columbine. 2003. DVD. Written and directed by Michael Moore. Melbourne: AV Channel.

Video Recording Attenborough, David. 1990. Life on Earth: A Natural History. video recording. Produced by Richard Brock and John Sparks. US: Warner Home Video.

Radio Programme Browning, Daniel. 2006. Black Soccer Heroes. Message Stick. radio program. Guest speaker Dr. John Maynard. Sydney: ABC Radio, June 9.

ABBREVIATIONS Standard abbreviations may be used in your citations. A list of appropriate abbreviations can be found in Chicago Manual of Style (2003), p. 571-577. Some of the more often used examples are listed here. app. appendix et al. and others (Latin et al) pt. part art. article n.d. no date rev. revised chap. chapter no. nos. number(s) sec. section div. division n.p. no place ser. series ed. editor, edited by, edition p. pp. page(s) suppl. supplement eds. editors par. paragraph vol. volume

Author of Part, A. Year. Title of chapter or part. In Title: Subtitle of Book, Edition, ed. A. Editor and B. Editor, inclusive page numbers. Place of publication: Publisher.

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