Genetics & Genetics & HeredityHeredityTraits are controlled by genesTraits are controlled by genes

Gregor Mendel established the basic laws Gregor Mendel established the basic laws of genetic inheritance of genetic inheritance

**Genetic DominanceGenetic Dominance

**Genetic RecessivenessGenetic Recessiveness

Chromosomal theory of genetic Chromosomal theory of genetic transmission became established in the transmission became established in the 2020thth century. century.

DNADNADNA is not the DNA is not the

blueprintblueprintCreates proteins and the proteins eventually create the biochemistry.The biochemistry affects behavior.

DNA is very DNA is very flexibleflexibleAll genetic information is based on the order of the four base pairs along the chromosome.

The Human-Ape Connection

DNA studies show a DNA studies show a 1.6% difference 1.6% difference between the great apes between the great apes and humans.and humans.There are only 8 total mutations difference between humans and chimpanzees.

Genetics studies show Genetics studies show that humans & mice that humans & mice have 88% of the same have 88% of the same genetic material.genetic material.

Can apes actually communicate with humans or is it the result of learning and rewards?

Dominant & Recessive Dominant & Recessive GenesGenes

The Human Genome The Human Genome ComplimentCompliment

The human genome contains The human genome contains 30,000 genes.30,000 genes.

The human egg & sperm The human egg & sperm each contain 22 each contain 22

chromosomes plus the sex chromosomes plus the sex chromosomes.chromosomes.

The Human Genome The Human Genome ComplimentCompliment

The Human Genome contains about 3 billion base pairs.Stretched out, it would measure about six feet.

Ninety-Percent of the variation in the human genome is found in a subset of 10 million pairs of nucleotides.At the DNA level, only 3 million pairs of nucleotides distinguish you from anyone else on the planet.

FertilizationThe ZYGOTE is the

fertilized egg.The zygote contains 22 PAIRS of chromosomes plus the sex chromosomes.

The BLASTOCYST is the ball of cells that eventually forms the fetus.Calcium ions trigger the changes which become the different organs, skin, blood, bones, etc.

From Birth OnwardFrom Birth Onward Personality traits Personality traits

develop within the develop within the limits set by limits set by genetics under the genetics under the influence of the influence of the environment.environment.Language ability depends on the structure of the throat and mouth as well as learning experiences.

Body size is significantly influenced by heredity and environment.

What the Neonate What the Neonate KnowsKnows

Babies are capable of making logical inferences and gaining cause/ effect relationships.Two-hour old neonates can learn to predict relationships between events before an event and the event itself.They’re sensitive to certain sounds that caretakers intuitively make (e.g. clicks and sh-h-h-h induce relaxation).

The ReflexesThe Reflexes Reflex Stimulation Response Developmental PatternBlinking Flash of light, Puff Closes both eyes Permanent

of airBabinski Stroke sole of foot Fans out toes, Disappears after 9 months to

1 twists foot yearGrasping Touch palms of hands Grasps tightly Weakens after 3

months,disappears after 1 year

Moro (Startle) Sudden stimulation Startles, arches back, Disappears after 3 – 4 months(e.g. loud noise or throws head back, being dropped) flings out arms & legs

then rapidly closesRooting Cheek stroked or Turns head, opens Disappears after 3 – 4 months

side of mouth mouth, begins touched sucking

Stepping Lower feet onto Moves feet as if to Disappears after 3 – 4 monthsflat surface walk

Sucking Object touches Sucks automatically Disappears after 3 – 4 monthsmouth

Swimming Put face down in Makes swimming Disappears after 6 – 7 monthsin water movements

The Neonate’s VisionThe Neonate’s VisionThe visual acuity of the neonate and infant are limited. The illustration below shows what a face looks like at Birth, at 1-month, and at 3-months.

The Senses in GeneralThe Senses in General

• An Infant sees only An Infant sees only about 1 foot but can about 1 foot but can perceive depth.perceive depth.

• It sees shapes and It sees shapes and prefers novel images.prefers novel images.

• It recognizes faces and It recognizes faces and prefers attractive faces prefers attractive faces over those not over those not attractive.attractive.

• An Infant is able to An Infant is able to hear from at least the hear from at least the 66thth month in utero. month in utero.

• It can identify its It can identify its mother’s voice as well mother’s voice as well as its own voice.as its own voice.

• It recognizes the sound It recognizes the sound of another infant/child of another infant/child who is in distress.who is in distress.

Physical Growth & Physical Growth & DevelopmentDevelopment

The Cephalocaudal The Cephalocaudal PatternPatternThe greatest growth The greatest growth always occurs at the always occurs at the top of the head with top of the head with physical growth in size, physical growth in size, weight, and feature weight, and feature differentiation differentiation gradually working from gradually working from top to bottom.top to bottom.

Sensory and motor Sensory and motor development proceed development proceed according to the according to the

cephalocaudal pattern.cephalocaudal pattern.

The Proximodistal The Proximodistal PatternPatternGrowth starts in the Growth starts in the center of the body and center of the body and moves toward the moves toward the extremities.extremities.An example is the early An example is the early maturation of muscular maturation of muscular control of the trunk and control of the trunk and arms, as compared with arms, as compared with that of the hands and that of the hands and fingers.fingers.

Neurological Neurological DevelopmentDevelopment

The Motor Neurons closest to the head develop first.The Motor Neurons closest to the head develop first.

The Central Nervous System is not fully developed until from 2 to 3 The Central Nervous System is not fully developed until from 2 to 3 years of age.years of age.

Myelination of the neurons is associated with critical periods.Myelination of the neurons is associated with critical periods.

PiagetPiagetImportant Concepts:Important Concepts: Schema -Schema - A mental model of an event, object, or action; a mental A mental model of an event, object, or action; a mental

map.map.

Assimilation -Assimilation - Fitting new information into what is already known.Fitting new information into what is already known.

Accommodation -Accommodation - Refining the data into the current schema.Refining the data into the current schema.

Stage Developmental Patterns

Sensory-Motor Stage Gradual development of the capability to coordinate sensations and perceptions with

physical

0 – 2 years actions. Progression is from reflexive actions to symbolic activities to the ability to separate the self from the objects in the environment. Object permanence develops.

Pre-operational Stage Characterized by the acquisition of language, the growth of the use of symbols, and a limited

2 – 7 years kind of logical thinking. Preconceptual thinking develops (the ability to deal with things individually but not as a group). Egocentricism develops.

Concrete Operations Characterized by the need to stabilize thoughts in concrete events. The ability to perform

7 – 12 years intellectual operations relating to concrete events (e.g. ordering objects by number, size, and class). Conservation develops.

Formal OperationsCharacterized by the ability to think about both concrete and abstract events, and the ability to

12+ years formulate and test hypotheses to solve problems. Can function purely on the symbolic, abstract level. The ability to used abstract symbols develops. Most people never reach this stage.

Other Cognitive TheoriesOther Cognitive Theories

Moral DevelopmentMoral Development

Kohlberg refined Piaget’s stages of Kohlberg refined Piaget’s stages of Moral RealismMoral Realism and and Moral Autonomy.Moral Autonomy.

Level I: Level I: Preconventional LevelPreconventional Level Stage 1 – Fear of PunishmentStage 1 – Fear of Punishment

(Ages 4-10)(Ages 4-10) Stage 2 – Self-interest and RewardStage 2 – Self-interest and Reward

Level II: Level II: Conventional LevelConventional Level Stage 3 – Desire to Please OthersStage 3 – Desire to Please Others

(Ages 10-13)(Ages 10-13) Stage 4 – Respect for Authority & Stage 4 – Respect for Authority & Social Social Order Order

Level III: Level III: Postconventional LevelPostconventional Level Stage 5 – Respect for Individual Stage 5 – Respect for Individual Rights & Rights & (After Age 13 at Young(After Age 13 at Young Laws Laws

Adulthood or Never)Adulthood or Never) Stage 6 – Universal Ethical Stage 6 – Universal Ethical PrinciplesPrinciples

Language Language DevelopmentDevelopmentBehaviorismBehaviorism

B.F. SkinnerB.F. SkinnerLanguage is learned Language is learned through conditioning through conditioning procedures.procedures.

LinguisticsLinguisticsNoam ChomskyNoam ChomskyLanguage is pre-wired in Language is pre-wired in the brain.the brain.There’s aThere’s a Language Language Acquisition DeviceAcquisition Device (LAD) (LAD) already in the brain.already in the brain.

Age Language MilestonesAge Language Milestones

Birth Crying1 – 2 Months Cooing Begins6 Months Babbling Begins8 – 12 Months Use Gestures

(Showing & Pointing) Comprehension of

Words13 Months First Word Spoken18 Months Vocabulary Spurt

Starts18 – 24 Months Uses 2 Word

Utterances; Rapid Expansion

of Understanding of Words

Authoritarian ParentingA restrictive, punitive style in which the child must follow instructions and respect work and effort. Unexplained spankings may be frequent in order to enforce rigid rules. Anger may be frequently shown.Children of authoritarian parenting are unhappy, fearful and anxious when comparing themselves with others. They fail to initiate activities and tend toward social incompetence.

Authoritative ParentingEncouraging, supportive and nurtures the child to be independent but still places limits and controls on actions. Much verbal give-and-take. Expects mature, independent, age-appropriate behavior.Children are often cheerful, self-controlled, self reliant, achievement oriented and socially competent.

Permissive Parenting* Permissive Indulgent Parenting:

Highly involved with children with few demands or controls. View is that warm involvement and few restrictions produces a creative, confident child.Children are socially incompetent, lacking self-control, aggressive, domineering, non-compliant with few peer interactions.* Permissive Indifferent Parenting:Parents are very uninvolved with the child.Children are socially incompetent, lack self-control, don’t handle independence well, have low self-esteem, are immature, and tend to be alienated from the family. As adolescents, they tend to show patterns of delinquency and truancy.

Social DevelopmentSocial DevelopmentEriksonErikson

Understanding Understanding Psychosocial Psychosocial Development is Development is the key to the key to understanding understanding how a person how a person grows throughout grows throughout their life-spantheir life-span..Changes occur throughout life.Changes occur throughout life.Each stage of development has a Each stage of development has a unique developmental task with a unique developmental task with a crisis to be faced.crisis to be faced.The more the individual resolves the The more the individual resolves the crisis, the healthier the developmentcrisis, the healthier the development..

Age StageBirth – 1 Trust vs. Mistrust If basic needs are met, a sense

of trust develops.

1 – 3 Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt

Child learns independence & self-confidence.

3 – 6 Initiative vs. Guilt Preschooler learns to

initiate things & have self-control.

6 – 12 Industry vs. Inferiority Child learns to feel either competent or

inadequate.

AAddoolleesscceennccee The sexual The sexual

maturation maturation period ending period ending childhood and childhood and beginning beginning adulthoodadulthood

Primary and Primary and secondary sexual secondary sexual characteristics characteristics developdevelopMany don’t know what to expect when the changes occur.Psychological reactions differ between those going into puberty early and those going in late.

Changes in Boys & GirlsChanges in Boys & Girls

Variations of Physical Changes at PubertyGirls BoysCharacteristics Age of Occurrence Characteristics Age of Occurrence

Breasts Grow 8 – 13 Years Testes & Scrotal

Sac Grow 10 – 13 Years

Pubic Hair Develops 8 – 14 Years Pubic Hair Develops 10 – 15 Years

The Body Grows 9.5 – 14.5 Years The Body Grows 10.5 – 16 Years

Menarche Occurs 10 – 16.5 Years Penis Growth 11 – 14.5 Years

Underarm Hair Around 2 Years Underarm & Facial Around 2 Years

after Pubic Hair Hair after Pubic Hair

Oil/Sweat Glands Around the time of Oil/Sweat Glands Around the time of

Underarm Hair Underarm Hair

Voice Changes Around the same

(Larynx Grows) as the Penis

Rites of PassageRites of PassageTribal Initiation Rites

In many native cultures In many native cultures when a boy or girl when a boy or girl enters adolescence, enters adolescence, they must undergo an they must undergo an initiation into the tribe. initiation into the tribe. At this time, they At this time, they assume the assume the responsibilities of an responsibilities of an adult.adult.

What remnants of adolescent initiation What remnants of adolescent initiation rites do we have in our modern rites do we have in our modern society?society?

Sexual ActivitySexual ActivityFirst intercourse for most teens is from 16 – 17 years.Sex tends to be a 1-on-1 relationship.First intercourse tends to occur in December.They think they’re They think they’re invulnerable to STDs and invulnerable to STDs and pregnancy (See: Personal pregnancy (See: Personal Fable).Fable).Most sex is learned from Most sex is learned from peers.peers.

Adolescent Cognitive ChangesAdolescent Cognitive Changes

Imaginary Imaginary AudienceAudienceThe adolescent belief that others are as interested in them as they themselves are. The attention-getting behavior is motivated by a desire to be noticed, visible, and “on stage.”

Personal FablePersonal FableThe part of adolescent egocentricism that involves their view of their uniqueness and invincibility. It is often seen in the belief that they’ll never suffer horrendous experiences that happen to other people.

Personality & Social Personality & Social DevelopmentDevelopment

A Period of “Storm & Strife?”A Period of “Storm & Strife?”Identity FormationIdentity FormationIdentity vs. Identity DiffusionIdentity vs. Identity DiffusionIdentity Achievement –Identity Achievement – gone through a crisis & developed relatively firm commitments.

Identity Foreclosure –Identity Foreclosure – never had a crisis but has become committed to certain goals.

Identity Moratorium –Identity Moratorium – currently going through a crisis.

Identity Diffusion –Identity Diffusion – never went through a crisis, isn’t in one, and hasn’t formed any commitments or established any goals.

Problems in AdolescenceProblems in AdolescenceDecline in Self-EsteemDecline in Self-EsteemDepression & SuicideDepression & SuicideViolenceViolence

Early & Middle AdulthoodEarly & Middle Adulthood

Love, Love, Partnerships, & Partnerships, & ParentingParentingCareer & WorkCareer & WorkCognitive Cognitive ChangesChangesPersonality Personality ChangesChangesStages:Stages:Intimacy vs. IsolationGenerativity vs. Self-Absorption

Love, Partnerships, & Love, Partnerships, & ParentingParenting

Forming Forming PartnershipsPartnershipsLoving vs. Falling in LoveLoving vs. Falling in Love

CohabitationCohabitationLiving together before marriage does not Living together before marriage does not bring marital satisfactionbring marital satisfaction

ParenthoodParenthoodPreparation for ParenthoodPreparation for Parenthood

When When Relationships EndRelationships EndSeparation & DivorceSeparation & DivorceDeathDeath

Cognitive & Personality ChangesCognitive & Personality Changes

Brain & Brain & Neurological Neurological ChangesChanges

Trait ChangesTrait Changes

Midlife Midlife Transition vs. Transition vs. Midlife CrisisMidlife Crisis

MenopauseMenopause

Late AdulthoodLate AdulthoodIntegrity vs. Integrity vs. DespairDespair

Physical Physical ChangesChanges

Social ChangesSocial Changes

Cognitive Cognitive ChangesChanges

Death & DyingDeath & Dying

Theories of Theories of AgingAging The Genetic TheoryThe Genetic Theory

Programmed into the cells.Programmed into the cells.

Cellular Clock TheoryCellular Clock TheoryThere is a maximum number of times a There is a maximum number of times a cell can divide.cell can divide.

Free-Radical Theory (Antioxidant Free-Radical Theory (Antioxidant Theory)Theory)Cells normal metabolism produces Cells normal metabolism produces unstable oxygen molecules (free unstable oxygen molecules (free radicals) that bounce around the cell radicals) that bounce around the cell damaging DNA & other cellular damaging DNA & other cellular structures.structures.

Hormonal Stress TheoryHormonal Stress TheoryThe body’s hormonal system lowers The body’s hormonal system lowers resilience to stress increasing the resilience to stress increasing the likelihood 0f disease.likelihood 0f disease.

RetirementRetirementFamily ChangesFamily ChangesDefining Defining RetirementRetirementDifficult to define Difficult to define retirement because of retirement because of the reasons there are for the reasons there are for retiring, the influences retiring, the influences on retiring, and what one on retiring, and what one does after retiring. The does after retiring. The withdrawal process is withdrawal process is “blurred” so, stages of “blurred” so, stages of retirement aren’t very retirement aren’t very descriptive of what descriptive of what actually goes on.actually goes on.

Cognitive Changes & the Cognitive Changes & the Final StagesFinal Stages

Alzheimer’s & Alzheimer’s & Parkinson’s DiseaseParkinson’s Disease

The Stages of Death The Stages of Death and Dyingand Dying

DDenialenial

AAngernger

BBargainingargaining

DDepressionepression

AAcceptancecceptance