human physiology principles of 1libvolume7.xyz/nursing/bsc/1styear/physiology/...human physiology...
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PRINCIPLES OF
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGYTHIRD EDITION
Cindy L. Stanfield | William J. Germann
PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by W.H. Preston, College of the Sequoias
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings.
1Introduction to
Physiology
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Chapter Outline
I. What Is Physiology?
II. Organization of the Body
III. Challenging Homeostasis: Thermoregulation
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Organization of the Body
• Levels of organization
• Cell
• Tissue
• Organ
• System
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Organization of the Body
• Simplify by classifying
• Body has over 200 different cell types
• Cells can be put into four groups
• Neurons
• Muscle cells
• Epithelial cells
• Connective tissue cells
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Major Tissue Types
• Based primarily on cell function
• Correspond to four major cell types
• Nerve tissue
• Muscle tissue
• Epithelium (epithelial tissue)
• Connective tissue
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Neurons and Nerve Tissue
• Transmit signals for communication
• Have branches to receive or transmit
• Receive information from receptors
• Transmit information to muscles or glands
• Some neurons process information
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Neurons and Nerve Tissue
Figure 1.2a
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Muscle Cells
• Specialized to contract
• Can be voluntary or involuntary
• Examples of contraction
• Flexing of forearm
• Pumping of blood
• Mixing of food in the stomach
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Muscle Cells
Figure 1.2b
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Epithelial Cells and Epithelium
• Epithelium = sheet-like layer of cells
• Line external body surfaces
• Line hollow body tubes and organs
• Function as a barrier
• Function as a transport membrane
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Epithelial Cells and Epithelium
Figure 1.2c
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Epithelium: Glands
• Glands
• Formed from epithelium
• Manufacture a product
• Major classes of glands
• Exocrine glands
• Have ducts
• Endocrine glands
• No ducts, product into blood
• Product = hormone
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Epithelium: Glands
Figure 1.3a
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Epithelium: Glands
Figure 1.3b
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Connective Tissue
• Most diverse of the four tissues
• Characterized by extracellular matrix
• Anchors and links structures of body
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Connective Tissue
• Examples of connective tissue
• Bone
• Tendons
• Fat
• Blood
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Connective Tissue
Figure 1.2d
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Organ System
• Tissues contain similar cells
• Organs
• Composed of at least two tissue types
• Perform specific functions
• Organ System
• Collection of organs
• Perform particular task
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Organ Systems
Table 1.1
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A Simplified Body Plan
Figure 1.4
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Body Fluids and Compartments
Figure 1.5a–c
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Body Fluids and Compartments
Figure 1.5c–e
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Body Fluid Compartments
• Internal environment = fluid surrounding cells =
extracellular fluid (ECF)
• 70 kg man
- Total body water = 42 liters
• 28 liters intracellular fluid (ICF)
• 14 liters extracellular fluid (ECF)
- Three liters plasma
- 11 liters interstitial fluid (ISF)
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Homeostasis
• Ability to maintain a relatively constant internal
environment
• Conditions of the internal environment which are
regulated include
• Temperature
• Volume
• Composition
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Homeostasis: Terms
• Negative feedback
• If a regulated variable decreases,
• System responds to make it increase, and vice versa
• Tends to be self correcting
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Homeostasis: Terms
• Set point
• Expected value of regulated variable
• Examples
• Core body temperature = 37º C
• Blood glucose (sugar) = 100 mg/dL
• Blood pH = 7.4
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Homeostasis: Terms
• Error signal
• Difference between value of set point and regulated
variable
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Homeostasis: Terms
Figure 1.6c–d
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Homeostasis: Components
• Structures enabling homeostasis
• Components include
• Receptors
• Integrating Centers
• Effectors
• Signals
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Homeostasis: Components
• Receptors
• Sensors which detect stimuli
• Receptors include
• Thermoreceptors
• Chemoreceptors
• Baroreceptors
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Homeostasis: Components
• Integrating center
• Orchestrates an appropriate response
• Often particular sets of neural circuits in brain
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Homeostasis: Components
• Effectors
• Responsible for body responses
• Effectors include
• Muscles (smooth, striated, and cardiac)
• Glands
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Homeostasis: Components
• Signals
• Allow components to communicate
• Input signal is from a receptor to an integrating
center
• Output signal is from an integrating center to an
effector
• Signals are chemical or via neurons
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Negative Feedback Loop
Figure 1.7
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Positive Feedback Loop
Positive feedback loops cause a rapid change in a
variable.
Figure 1.8
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Homeostasis: Thermoregulation
• Core body temperature
• Humans: 37º C (98.6º F)
• Hypothermia = decrease in body temperature
• Hyperthermia = increase in body temperature
• Above 41º C is dangerous
• Above 43º C is deadly
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Homeostasis: Thermoregulation
• Mechanisms of heat transfer between body and external
environment
• Radiation—thermal energy as electromagnetic waves
• Conduction—thermal energy through contact
• Evaporation—heat loss through evaporation of water
• Insensible water loss
• Sweating
• Convection—heat transfer by movement of fluid or air
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Thermoregulation: Components
• Receptors = thermoreceptors
• Central: found in CNS (hypothalamus)
• Peripheral: found in PNS (mainly skin)
• Effectors
• Glands: sweat glands
• Muscles: skeletal muscles, and smooth muscle of
cutaneous blood vessels
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Thermoregulation: Components
• Integrating center
• Thermoregulatory center in hypothalamus
• Signals
• Nerve impulses via neurons
• Chemicals via hormones
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Thermoneutral Zone
• Range of outside temperature where
alterations in blood flow alone regulates
body temperature—25-30ºC
• Body temperature increase
• Blood flow to skin increases
• Body temperature decrease
• Blood flow to skin decreases
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Thermoregulation
• Negative feedback control of body temperature
Figure 1.9a, b
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Thermoregulation
Figure 1.9c
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Fever
• Rise in core body temperature
• Accompanies infection
• White blood cells secrete pyrogens
• Body temperature set point increases
• Fever enhances immune response