ic and manufacturing

8/8/2019 Ic and Manufacturing

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TERM PAPER

BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ECE 131

Topic: Integrated circuits and their manufacturing.

DOA: 16/09/2010

DOS: 15/11/2010

Submitted to: Submitted by:

Mr Greesh Kumar Singh Kumari Saumya Suman

Roll No -RE6001B51

Reg.No-11006580

Class-B.Tech-MBA(Dual

Degree)-ECE.


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is my foremost duty to express my deep regards & gratitude to my teacher MrGreesh

kumar singh under whose guidance & supervision I am able to undertake this project. It is

her who has been my primary source of inspiration and who motivated, guided and

encouraged me at different stages to make this project.

I would also like to thanks the almighty god who has given me courage and patience to do

this creative work.

SINCERE THANKS TO OUR UNIVERISTY LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERISTY

FOR ENCOURAGING US TO TAKE SUCH PROJECTS.


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CONTENTS

1.Formation Of Integrated Circuit Formation

2.Manufacturing

3.Packaging

4.Design

5.Raw Materials

6.Process

7.Generations

8.Classification

9.Advances in integrated circuits

10.Quality Control

11.Hazardous Materials andRecycling

12.The Future

13.Advantages Of Integrated Circuits

14.Uses


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INTRODUCTION

In electronics, an integrated circuit (also known as IC, chip, or microchip) is a miniaturized

electronic circuit (consisting mainly ofsemiconductor devices, as well aspassivecomponents) that has been manufactured in the surface of a thin substrate ofsemiconductormaterial. Integrated circuits are used in almost all electronic equipment in use today and haverevolutionized the world of electronics. Computers, cellular phones, and otherdigitalappliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies, made possible bythe low cost of production of integrated circuits.

A hybrid integrated circuit is a miniaturized electronic circuit constructed of individualsemiconductor devices, as well as passive components, bonded to a substrate or circuit board.A monolithic integrated circuit is made of devices manufactured by diffusion of traceelements into a single piece of semiconductor substrate, a chip.

An integrated circuit is amicroscopicarray of electronic circuits and components that hasbeen diffused orimplanted onto the surface of a single crystal, or chip, of semiconductingmaterial such as silicon. It is called an integrated circuit because the components, circuits,and base material are all made together, or integrated, out of a single piece of silicon, asopposed to a discrete circuit in which the components are made separately from different

materials and assembled later. ICs range in complexity from simple logic modules andamplifiers to complete microcomputers containing millions of elements.
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Integrated circuits were made possible by experimental discoveries which showed thatsemiconductor devices could perform the functions ofvacuum tubes and by mid-20th-centurytechnology advancements in semiconductor device fabrication. The integration of largenumbers of tiny transistors into a small chip was an enormous improvement over the manualassembly of circuits using electronic components. The integrated circuit's mass production

capability, reliability, and building-block approach to circuit design ensured the rapidadoption of standardized ICs in place of designs using discrete transistors.

There are two main advantages of ICs overdiscrete circuits: cost and performance. Cost islow because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit byphotolithographyand not constructed as one transistor at a time. Furthermore, much less material is used toconstruct a circuit as a packaged IC die than as a discrete circuit. Performance is high sincethe components switch quickly and consume little power (compared to their discretecounterparts) because the components are small and close together. As of 2006, chip areasrange from a few square millimeters to around 350 mm2, with up to 1 million transistors permm.

BACKGROUND

The first integrated circuits were created in the late 1950s in response to a demand from themilitary for miniaturized electronics to be used in missile control systems. At the time,transistors and printed circuit boards were the state-of-the-art electronic technology.Although transistors made many new electronic applications possible, engineers were stillunable to make a small enough package for the large number of components and circuitsrequired in complex devices like sophisticated control systems and handheld programmablecalculators. Several companies were in competition to produce a breakthrough in

miniaturized electronics, and their development efforts were so close that there is somequestion as to which company actually produced the first IC. In fact, when the integratedcircuit was finally patented in 1959, the patent was awarded jointly to two individualsworking separately at two different companies.

After the invention of the IC in 1959, the number of components and circuits that could beincorporated into a single chip doubled every year for several years. The first integratedcircuits contained only up to a dozen components. The process that produced these early ICswas known as small scale integration, or SSI. By the mid-1960s, medium scale integration,MSI, produced ICs with hundreds of components. This was followed by large scaleintegration techniques, or LSI, which produced ICs with thousands of components and madethe first microcomputers possible.

The first microcomputerchip, often called amicroprocessor, was developed by IntelCorporation in 1969. It went into commercial production in 1971 as the Intel 4004. Intelintroduced their 8088 chip in 1979, followed by the Intel 80286, 80386, and 80486. In thelate 1980s and early 1990s, the designations 286, 386, and 486 were well known to computerusers as reflecting increasing levels of computing power and speed. Intel's Pentium chip is thelatest in this series and reflects an even higher

In designing a complex electronic machine like a computer it was always necessary toincrease the number of components involved in order to make technical advances. Themonolithic (formed from a single crystal) integrated circuit placed the previously separatedtransistors, resistors, capacitors and all the connecting wiring onto a single crystal (or 'chip')
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made of semiconductor material. Kilby used germanium and Noyce used silicon for thesemiconductor material.

FORMATION OF INTEGRATED CIRCUIT FORMATION

In an integrated circuit, electronic components such as resistors, capacitors, diodes, andtransistors are formed directly onto the surface of a silicon crystal. The process ofmanufacturing an integrated circuit will make more sense if one first understands some of the

basics of how these components are formed.

Even before the first IC was developed, it was known that common electronic componentscould be made from silicon. The question was how to make them, and the connecting circuits,from the same piece of silicon? The solution was to alter, ordope, the chemical compositionof tiny areas on the silicon crystal surface by adding other chemicals, called dopants. Some

dopants bond with the silicon to produce regions where the dopant atoms have one electronthey can give up. These are called N regions. Other dopants bond with the silicon to produceregions where the dopant atoms have room to take one electron. These are called P regions.When a P region touches an N region, the boundary between them is referred to as a PN

junction. This boundary is only 0.000004 inches (0.0001 cm) wide, but is crucial to theoperation of integrated circuit components.

Within a PN junction, the atoms of the two regions bond in such a manner as to create a thirdregion, called a depletion region, in which the P dopant atoms capture all the N dopant extraelectrons, thus depleting them. One of the phenomena that results is that a positive voltageapplied to the P region can cause an electrical current to flow through the junction into the Nregion, but a similar positive voltage applied to the N region will result in little or no currentflowing through the junction back into the P region. This ability of a PN junction to eitherconduct orinsulatedepending on which side the voltage is applied can be used to formintegrated circuit components that direct and control current flows in the same manner asdiodes and transistors. A diode, for example, is simply a single PN junction. By altering theamount and types of dopants and changing the shapes and relative placements of P and Nregions, integrated circuit components that emulate the functions of resistors and capacitorscan be also be formed.

Manufacturing

Integrated circuits are made using a process called photolithography. A pure crystal ofsilicone, called the substrate, is placed in a chamber. A thin layer of silicone dioxide isdeposited on the substrate, followed by another chemical layer, called a resist. The wafer isthen exposed to ultraviolet light shone through a mask of the circuit. Depending on the typeof resist, the light either makes it harder or easier to dissolve with the developer solution. This

process is repeated many times, resulting in layers of semiconductor devices and conductingtracks. Hundreds of chips are made on each silicone wafer, which are cutout by a laser before

being mounted in packages.
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Packaging

Integrated circuits are very fragile, and need to be enclosed in a solid package before they canbe put on a circuit board. The most common is the dual in-line package, also called DIP or

DIL. It is a small plastic block with two rows of pins on the sides. Another form is the pingrid array (PGA), a square block with many pins on the base, used for large computer chipslike CPUs.

Design

Some integrated circuits can be considered standard, off-the-shelf items. Once designed, thereis no further design work required. Examples of standard ICs would include voltageregulators, amplifiers, analog switches, and analog-to-digital or digital-to-analog converters.These ICs are usually sold to other companies who incorporate them into printed circuit

boards for various electronic products.

Other integrated circuits are unique and require extensive design work. An example would bea new microprocessor for computers. This design work may require research anddevelopment of new materials and new manufacturing techniques to achieve the final design.

Raw MaterialsPure silicon is the basis for most integrated circuits. It provides the base, orsubstrate for theentire chip and is chemically doped to provide the N and P regions that make up theintegrated circuit components. The silicon must be so pure that only one out of every ten

billion atoms can be an impurity. This would be the equivalent of one grain of sugar in tenbuckets of sand. Silicon dioxide is used as an insulatorand as adielectric material in ICcapacitors.

Typical N-type dopants includephosphorus and arsenic. Boron andgalliumare typical P-typedopants. Aluminum is commonly used as a connector between the various IC components.The thin wire leads from the integrated circuit chip to its mounting package may be

aluminum or gold. The mounting package itself may be made from ceramicor plasticmaterials.

Process

Hundreds of integrated circuits are made at the same time on a single, thinslice of silicon andare then cut apart into individual IC chips. The manufacturing process takes place in a tightlycontrolled environment known as a clean room where the air is filtered to remove foreign

particles. The few equipment operators in the room wear lint-free garments, gloves, andcoverings for their heads and feet. Since some IC components are sensitive to certainfrequencies of light, even the light sources are filtered. Although manufacturing processesmay vary depending on the integrated circuit being made, the following process is typical.
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GENERATIONS

SSI, MSI and LSI

The first integrated circuits contained only a few transistors. Called "Small-Scale Integration"

(SSI), digital circuits containing transistors numbering in the tens provided a few logic gatesfor example, while early linear ICs such as the Plessey SL201 or thePhilips TAA320 had asfew as two transistors. The term Large Scale Integration was first used byIBMscientistRolfLandauerwhen describing the theoretical concept, from there came the terms for SSI, MSI,VLSI, and ULSI.

SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace projects, and vice-versa. Both the Minutemanmissile andApollo program needed lightweight digital computers for their inertial guidancesystems; the Apollo guidance computerled and motivated the integrated-circuit technology,while the Minuteman missile forced it into mass-production. The Minuteman missile program

and various other Navy programs accounted for the total $4 million integrated circuit marketin 1962, and by 1968, U.S. Government space and defense spending still accounted for 37%of the $312 million total production. The demand by the U.S. Government supported thenascent integrated circuit market until costs fell enough to allow firms to penetrate theindustrial and eventually the consumer markets. The average price per integrated circuitdropped from $50.00 in 1962 to $2.33 in 1968. Integrated Circuits began to appear inconsumer products by the turn of the decade, a typical application being FMinter-carriersound processing in television receivers.

The next step in the development of integrated circuits, taken in the late 1960s, introduceddevices which contained hundreds of transistors on each chip, called "Medium-Scale

Integration" (MSI).

They were attractive economically because while they cost little more to produce than SSIdevices, they allowed more complex systems to be produced using smaller circuit boards, lessassembly work (because of fewer separate components), and a number of other advantages.

Further development, driven by the same economic factors, led to "Large-Scale Integration"(LSI) in the mid 1970s, with tens of thousands of transistors per chip.

Integrated circuits such as 1K-bit RAMs, calculator chips, and the first microprocessors, thatbegan to be manufactured in moderate quantities in the early 1970s, had under 4000

transistors. True LSI circuits, approaching 10000 transistors, began to be produced around1974, for computer main memories and second-generation microprocessors.

The final step in the development process, starting in the 1980s and continuing through thepresent, was "very large-scale integration" (VLSI). The development started with hundreds ofthousands of transistors in the early 1980s, and continues beyond several billion transistors asof 2009.

Multiple developments were required to achieve this increased density. Manufacturers movedto smaller rules and cleaner fabs, so that they could make chips with more transistors andmaintain adequate yield. The path of process improvements was summarized by theInternational Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS). Design toolsimprovedenough to make it practical to finish these designs in a reasonable time. The more energy
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efficient CMOS replacedNMOS and PMOS, avoiding a prohibitive increase in powerconsumption. Better texts such as the landmark textbook by MeadandConway helpedschools educate more designers, among other factors.

In 1986 the first one megabit RAMchips were introduced, which contained more than one

million transistors. Microprocessor chips passed the million transistor mark in 1989 and thebillion transistor mark in 2005.[10] The trend continues largely unabated, with chipsintroduced in 2007 containing tens of billions of memory transistors.[11]

ULSI, WSI, SOC and 3D-IC

To reflect further growth of the complexity, the term ULSI that stands for "ultra-large-scaleintegration" was proposed for chips of complexity of more than 1 million transistors.

Wafer-scale integration (WSI) is a system of building very-large integrated circuits that usesan entire silicon wafer to produce a single "super-chip". Through a combination of large sizeand reduced packaging, WSI could lead to dramatically reduced costs for some systems,notably massively parallel supercomputers. The name is taken from the term Very-Large-Scale Integration, the current state of the art when WSI was being developed.

A system-on-a-chip (SoC or SOC) is an integrated circuit in which all the components neededfor a computer or other system are included on a single chip. The design of such a device can

be complex and costly, and building disparate components on a single piece of silicon maycompromise the efficiency of some elements. However, these drawbacks are offset by lowermanufacturing and assembly costs and by a greatly reduced power budget: because signalsamong the components are kept on-die, much less power is required.

A three-dimensional integrated circuit (3D-IC) has two or more layers of active electroniccomponents that are integrated both vertically and horizontally into a single circuit.Communication between layers uses on-die signaling, so power consumption is much lowerthan in equivalent separate circuits. Judicious use of short vertical wires can substantiallyreduce overall wire length for faster operation.

Classification

Integrated circuits can be classified into analog, digital and mixed signal (both analog anddigital on the same chip).

Digital integrated circuits can contain anything from one to millions oflogic gates, flip-flops,multiplexers, and other circuits in a few square millimeters. The small size of these circuitsallows high speed, low power dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost compared with

board-level integration. These digital ICs, typically microprocessors,DSPs, and microcontrollers work using binary mathematics to process "one" and "zero" signals.
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Analog ICs, such as sensors,power management circuits, and operational amplifiers, work byprocessing continuous signals. They perform functions like amplification,active filtering,demodulation, mixing, etc. Analog ICs ease the burden on circuit designers by havingexpertly designed analog circuits available instead of designing a difficult analog circuit fromscratch.

ICs can also combine analog and digital circuits on a single chip to create functions such asA/D converters and D/A converters. Such circuits offer smaller size and lower cost, but mustcarefully account for signal interference.

Advances in integrated circuits

The die from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit microcontrollerthat includes a CPU running at 12 MHz,128 bytes ofRAM, 2048 bytes ofEPROM, and I/O in the same chip.

Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the microprocessors or "cores", whichcontrol everything from computers and cellular phones to digital microwave ovens. Digitalmemory chipsand ASICs are examples of other families of integrated circuits that areimportant to the modern information society. While the cost ofdesigning and developing acomplex integrated circuit is quite high, when spread across typically millions of productionunits the individual IC cost is minimized. The performance of ICs is high because the smallsize allows short traces which in turn allows lowpowerlogic (such as CMOS) to be used atfast switching speeds.

ICs have consistently migrated to smaller feature sizes over the years, allowing more circuitryto be packed on each chip. This increased capacity per unit area can be used to decrease costand/or increase functionalitysee Moore's law which, in its modern interpretation, states thatthe number of transistors in an integrated circuit doubles every two years. In general, as thefeature size shrinks, almost everything improvesthe cost per unit and the switching powerconsumption go down, and the speed goes up. However, ICs with nanometer-scale devicesare not without their problems, principal among which is leakage current (see subthresholdleakage for a discussion of this), although these problems are not insurmountable and willlikely be solved or at least ameliorated by the introduction ofhigh-k dielectrics. Since these

speed and power consumption gains are apparent to the end user, there is fierce competitionamong the manufacturers to use finer geometries. This process, and the expected progress
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over the next few years, is well described by the International Technology Roadmap forSemiconductors (ITRS).

In current research projects, integrated circuits are also developed forsensoric applications inmedical implants or otherbioelectronic devices. Particular sealing strategies have to be taken

in such biogenic environments to avoid corrosion orbiodegradation of the exposedsemiconductor materials. As one of the few materials well established in CMOS technology,titanium nitride TiN turned out as exceptionally stable and well suited for electrodeapplications in medical implants.

Quality Control

Despite the controlled environment and use of precision tools, a high number of integratedcircuit chips are rejected. Although the percentage of reject chips has steadily dropped overthe years, the task of making an interwoven lattice of microscopic circuits and components is

still difficult, and a certain amount of rejects are inevitable.

Hazardous Materials and

Recycling

The dopants gallium and arsenic, among others, are toxic substances and their storage, use,and disposal must be tightly controlled.

Because integrated circuit chips are so versatile, a significant recycling industry has sprung

up. Many ICs and other electronic components are removed from otherwise obsoleteequipment, tested, and resold for use in other devices.

The Future

It is difficult to tell with any certaintywhat the future holds for the integrated circuit.Changes in technology since the device's invention have been rapid, but evolutionary. Manychanges have been made in the architecture, or circuit layout, on a chip, but the integratedcircuit still remains a silicon-based design.

The next major leap in the advancement of electronic devices, if such a leap is to come, mayinvolve an entirely new circuit technology. Better devices than the very best microprocessorhave always been known to be possible. The human brain, for example, processesinformation much more efficiently than any computer, and some futurists have speculatedthat the next generation of processor circuits will be biological, rather than mineral. At this

point, such matters are the stuff of fiction. There are no immediate signs that the integratedcircuit is in any danger of extinction.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Technology_Roadmap_for_Semiconductorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Technology_Roadmap_for_Semiconductorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implant_(medicine)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioelectronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodegradationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMOShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanium_nitridehttp://www.answers.com/topic/latticehttp://www.answers.com/topic/recyclinghttp://www.answers.com/topic/certaintyhttp://www.answers.com/topic/certaintyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Technology_Roadmap_for_Semiconductorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Technology_Roadmap_for_Semiconductorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implant_(medicine)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioelectronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodegradationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMOShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanium_nitridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanium_nitridehttp://www.answers.com/topic/latticehttp://www.answers.com/topic/recyclinghttp://www.answers.com/topic/certainty


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ADVANTAGES OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

The advantages of Integrated Circuits are:

1. Very small size: Hundred times smaller than the discrete circuits.

2. Lesser weight: As large number of components can be packed into a single chip,weight is reduced

3. Reduced cost: The mass production technique has helped to reduce the price,4. High reliability: Due to absence of soldered connection, few interconnections and

small temperature rise failure rate is low.5. Low power requirement: As the size is small power consumption is less.6. Easy replacement: In case of failure chip can easily be replaced.

Uses

IC's found numerous applications from cars (automotive controls), televisions, computers,microwaves, portable devices like laptops, MP3, play stations, cameras, cellular phones toship equipments, aero planes, space crafts. These are also used in switching telephonecircuits and data processing. They also found applications in military equipments. The mostcommon application of IC is digital watch which tells hour, second, minute, day and month.Another common but important application is scientific calculator which can perform basicfunctions like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division as well as complex functionslike square root, cube, permutations, combinations , trigonometric functions, etcIC's are are of Linear ,digital and mixed types. Linear IC's also known as analog Integrated

circuits are used in :

1. Power amplifiers2. Small-signal amplifiers3. Operational amplifiers4. Microwave amplifiers5. RF and IF amplifiers6. Voltage comparators7. Multipliers8. Radio receivers9. Voltage regulators

Digital IC's are mostly used in computers. They are also referred as switching circuitsbecause their input and output voltages are limited to two levels - high and low i.e. binary.They include:

1. Flip-flops2. Logic gates3. Timers4. Counters5. Multiplexers6. Calculator chips7. Memory chips8. Clock chips


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9. Microprocessors10. Microcontrollers11.Temperature sensors.


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REFERENCES

1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit

2. http://nobelprize.org/educational/physics/integrated_circuit/

3. http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/I/integrated_circuit_IC.html

4. http://www.answers.com/topic/integrated-circuit

5. http://inventors.about.com/od/istartinventions/a/intergrated_circuit.h

tm

6. Pradeep physics class 12th

7. Modern Physics ABC -Dr H.P.Jahaur
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://nobelprize.org/educational/physics/integrated_circuit/http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/I/integrated_circuit_IC.htmlhttp://www.answers.com/topic/integrated-circuithttp://inventors.about.com/od/istartinventions/a/intergrated_circuit.htmhttp://inventors.about.com/od/istartinventions/a/intergrated_circuit.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://nobelprize.org/educational/physics/integrated_circuit/http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/I/integrated_circuit_IC.htmlhttp://www.answers.com/topic/integrated-circuithttp://inventors.about.com/od/istartinventions/a/intergrated_circuit.htmhttp://inventors.about.com/od/istartinventions/a/intergrated_circuit.htm

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