Cognitive Development 1Connecting Cognitive Development and Constructivism: Implications fromTheory for Instruction and AssessmentStacey T. LutzWilliam G. HuittCitation: Lutz, S., & Huitt, W. (2004). Connecting cognitive development and constructivism: Implications fromtheory for instruction and assessment.Constructivism in the Human Sciences,9(1), 67-90.This paper provides an overview of the developmental theories of Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky, andBruner that provide the basis for the educational application of constructivism.Activities fordeveloping instruction and assessment built on constructivistic theories are also discussed.A reviewofthelast fifteenyearsofliteraturerevealstheattempt toconsolidatethefindings of a numer of cognitive psychologists and philosophers who contend that several ma!orassumptions of the information processing approach to cognition are incomplete. "or e#ample$oneoftheassumptionsofthisapproachisthat %nowledgeandcompetenciesofthin%ingaresituated within the individual and can e studied independently of the situation within which theyare used &'runer$ 1(()*. Alternatively$ Greeno &1(+(*$ a leading proponent of situated learning$proposesthat thin%ingisaresult ofinteractionetweentheindividual andtheenvironment.Greeno argues that person,environment interactions are of such a comple#ity as to ma%e attemptsto discover generalized cognitive processes -uite irrelevant. .ather he suggests a need to studyhowastudent/sinnateailities areusedtodevelop%nowledgeandthin%ingcompetenciesthroughinteractionwithspecific environments. This positionsuggests that the informationprocessing model may e ade-uate to e#plain current understandings of how memory operates$ut it does not fully descrie or predict differences in cognitive development. Situated models$li%e Greeno/s serve to highlight an ecological model for cognitive development &Huitt$ 0))1* thatfocuses on how individuals construct meaning from interactions with their environments.Asineverydomainofhumandevelopment$ therearethreema!or -uestionsthat areaddressed2 what is the role of iology$ what is the role of e#perience$ andhowcantheenvironment e arranged so as to est address the interaction etween these two factors3 4ohnCognitive Development 05ewey$ 4ean 6iaget$ Lev 7ygots%y$ and 4erome 'runer$ researchers who provide the theoreticalunderpinnings for theincreasinglypopular constructivisticapproachtotheteaching,learningprocess$ have different responses to these -uestions. However$ the group of theorists discussed inthis paper would suscrie to this -uestioning of assumptions. While they may disagree as to theemphasis on the individual or environment$ they would all recognize the importance of studyingperson,environment interactions. This ac%nowledgment increases the comple#ity of theirfindings$ ma%ing them that much more difficult to understand and use in guiding and assessingstudents/ cognitive development. 8onse-uently$ there are many -uestions that remainunanswered. This paper will provide an overviewto theories that provide a theoreticalunderpinningtotheconstructivisticapproach$ aswell aspractical suggestionsforclassroompractice and methods of assessment and evaluation germane to the constructivistic approach.ohn Dewey4ohn 5ewey &1((+* was an American psychologist and philosopher who promoted thevalue of personal e#perience in learning.He placed relatively little emphasis on maturationalfactors andtaught that human eings understandthe worldthroughinteraction withtheirenvironment and$ thus$ %nowledge is constructed y the individual. 5ewey &1(99* proposed thata primary function of schooling was to prepare young people to live in a democratic society andthat one/s reflection on personal e#periences would provide the foundation for the developmentof the necessary attriutes for successful living. He elieved the dualistic conceptualization ofthin%ing and doing to e false. .ather he proposed a reciprocal$ continuous relationship etweenthin%ing and doing that is reflected in the wor% of the other researchers discussed in this paper&7anderstraeten : 'iesta$ 1((+*. As a leader in the progressive education movement in the early0)th century$ his wor% set the stage for an acceptance of the wor% of later researchers. ean Piaget4ean6iaget &0))1* was aSwiss iologist$ philosopher$ andehavioral scientist whodeveloped one of the most significant theories in cognitive psychology. His stage theory gainedwide acceptance in the 1(;)s and 1(e#t$ precedingstagesmust eintegratedintolaterstagesofdevelopment.Asgrowth occurs in a stage theory model$ the ailities and structures from all previous stages shoulde present and operational at all higher stages. "inally$ at any point in development$ a child/smental structures or schemes and his or her physical operations !oin to form a whole unit$ and asdevelopment occurs$ this unit ecomes more comple#. These four criteria form the ac%drop for6iaget/s four@staged theory of cognitive development. 'ecause his theory asserts that the stagesare age dependent and ased on cognitive readiness$the appro#imate ages for each stage areincluded in the discussion of each.6iaget differentiatedthreetypes of %nowledgethat must epresent at all stages ofcognitive development2 physical$ logical@mathematical$ andsocial &5riscoll 0)))*. 6hysical%nowledge is gained through hands@on interaction with the environment. At deals directly withe#perience and perception of o!ects and is very concrete in nature. This type of %nowledge canonly e gained from personal$ direct contact with environmental elements. Logical@mathematical%nowledge is an astract reasoning that is applicale eyond physical interaction with a concretestimulus. While physical %nowledge is discovered$ logical@mathematical %nowledge is createdthrough actions. At can only e gained y repeated e#posure and interaction with multiple o!ectsinmultiplesettingsinorderformental structurestoemodifiedandcreated. Here$itisthemanipulationofo!ectsindifferent patternsandconte#tsthat allowsforgeneralizationsandastractions to e created. Li%ewise$ social %nowledge can only e gained through interactionwith others. This type of %nowledge is culture specific and its ac-uisition is ased on actionsrather than physical perception of o!ects. These types of %nowledge are at wor% at all stages ofcognitive development and are not necessarily hierarchical in natureCas are 6iaget/s proposedstages of development.Cognitive Development DThe first stage suggested y 6iaget is the sensorimotor stage. An general$ this stage lastsfrom irth to aout two years of age. At this point intelligence is ased on physical and motoractivity$ ut e#cludes the use of symols. Eoility$ crawling$ and wal%ing facilitate %nowledgeac-uisition$ andprogress is shownthroughthemodificationof refle#es inresponsetotheenvironment. Bne important milestone of this stage is the development of o!ect permanence.'eginning at aout < months infants start to understand the concept that o!ects continue to e#isteventhoughtheycannot eseen. Theendofthisstageismar%edytheimmatureuseofsymols and language development that signals the progression to the second stage. The secondstage$ laeled pre@operational$ lasts fromaout twoyears of age untilappro#imatelyseven. At is mar%edythedemonstrationof intelligencethroughtheuseofsymols$ especially the maturation of language. 8hildren in the pre@operational stage are ale tomentally represent o!ects and events$ and at this point in development$ memory and imaginationare developed. An important signifier of this stage is the aility of a child to do monological$nonreversile thin%ing? children in this stage can deal with or determine only one aspect of aprolem at a time$ and they cannot thin% or process information in a multidimensional fashion. Achild/s thin%ing at this stage is also highly egocentric$ and even in conversation$ he or she willfail to recognize any duality in the e#change of information and certainly will fail to comprehendany perspective other than their own. The end of this stage is mar%ed y the child/s aility toconserve numer &i.e.$ the child %nows that spacing of o!ects does not impact their -uantity*.The reaching of 6iaget/s third stage$ the concrete operational$ is evidenced y a child/saility to demonstrate logically integrated thought$ and the typical age span for this stage is fromseventoeleven. At this point indevelopment$ thechild/se#posureto$ andintegrationof$%nowledge has matured such that all three types of %nowledge &physical$ logical@mathematical$and social* can e used y the child to interact with the environment to a relatively high degree.At this point$ intelligence is ased on logical and systematic manipulation of concrete o!ectsand related symols.The child can engage in reversile mental operations &i.e.$ the child caninteract with the environment frommore than one perspective*. Suse-uently$ egocentricthin%ingdeclines. Thema!or milestoneyet toereachedytheconcreteoperational child$however$ is the aility to ma%e astractions and hypothesize. At the concrete operational stage$his or her development is still limited to the application of %nowledge to concrete o!ects andstimuli. Cognitive Development ;"rom eleven years onward$ 6iaget presumes that the preadolescent egins the process ofattainingtheformal operational stageof development. At this stage$ intelligence is shownthrough the logicaluse of symols related to astract concepts.There is typically a return toegocentricthin%ingearlyintheperiod$ ut theastractionsthat thistypeofthought allowseventually move the individual to a much roader perspective and thin%ing eyond himself orherself. Siegler &1((1* suggests that an important aility of people who reach this stage is thatthey are ale to thin% astractly aout such issues as truth$ morality$ !ustice$ and the nature ofe#istence and to provide alternative$ competing eliefs aout these. Thus$ cognitive developmentecomes a pre@re-uisite for the ac-uisition of morality ased upon astract principles.At is important to note that empirical evidence suggests the formal operations stage is notnecessarilyreachedecauseof physical maturity&=ylon:Lynn$ 1(++? .enner andothers$1(