impression formation
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Social Perception 1
SOCIAL PERCEPTION: Written Report
Shierly A. Protacio
Prof. Jose Abat
PSY 647 Advanced Social Psychology
December 1, 2012
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INTRODUCTION
On Sunday, October 6, 1991, National Public Radio broadcast an interview with University
of Oklahoma law professor Anita Hill in which she claimed that the current nominee to the
United States Supreme Court, Federal Judge Clarence Thomas, has sexually harassed her
over a 3-year period while he was the head of the Department of Education’s Office for Civil
Rights, and again when he was the director of the Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission. Later that week, seated before the Senate Judiciary Committee and under the
sharp focus of the national media, she painted a vivid portrait for the American public of
what it is like being victimized by sexual harassment – from the feelings of discomfort and
embarrassment when the alleged incidents first began, to the emotional and physical
degradation she experienced as the unwelcomed sexual advances and innuendo resurfaced.
When asked to recall her most embarrassing encounter with Judge Thomas, Professor Hill
responded, “His discussion of pornography involving these women with large breasts and
engaged in a variety of sex with different people or animals.” She spoke of the vulnerability,
humiliation, and frustration she experienced while working under such stressful conditions.
“It wasn’t as though it happened every day,” Professor Hill explained. “But I went to work
during certain periods knowing that it might happen.” She also talked of her fear of being
denied good assignments, losing her job, and perhaps being unable to obtain any job at all
with the Reagan administration (Thomas was a Reagan appointee) if she continued to resist
Thomas’ alleged advances. Under cross-examination by the senators on the committee she
stated, “I am not given to fantasy. This is not something I would have come forward with if I
was not absolutely sure of what I was saying.”
Following Professor Hill’s testimony, Judge Thomas returned to the committee and denied
that any of his behavior could be construed by anyone as being sexual harassment: “I would
like to start by saying unequivocally, uncategorically, that I deny each and every single
allegation against me today.” Professor Hill stated that Judge Thomas had asked her out for a
date five to ten times during the time period in question, but Thomas denied ever asking her
out even for a single date. He also denied ever discussing pornographic films with her.
Instead he proclaimed that he had helped to advance Anita Hill’s career whenever possible
and, until the accusations surfaced the previous week, had considered her a friend. Defiant,
outraged, and clearly disgusted with the events of the past week and the nature of the
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committee’s present inquiry, he asserted, “Some interest groups came up with this story, and
this story was developed specifically to destroy me.”
As people sat in front of their television and watched the drama unfold, they searched they
search for clues to properly define this murky social reality. Prior to these hearings, both
Professor Hill and Judge Thomas were known for their truthfulness and integrity, and during
the hearings witnesses were repeatedly brought forward to reinforce their impressions. Both
has overcome poverty and racial prejudices to achieve great stature in their careers. The
question everybody asked was, “Whom do you believe, the professor or the judge?”
No one except the professor and the judge know for certain who was telling the truth. Within
one week of these hearings, Judge Thomas was confirmed by majority vote of the full Senate,
and he now sits on the Supreme Court. Professor Hill remains a faculty member at the
University of Oklahoma Law School.
This event, although unusual because of the people involved (two highly respected
professionals) and the gravity of the situation (a Supreme Court judge will undoubtedly be
faced with important cases of sexual harassment and discrimination), is actually similar to
events we face on a daily basis. That is, we often attempt to understand other people, to
explain their actions and gain insight into their motives and beliefs.
The way we seek to know and understand other persons and events is known as Social
Perception. This type of perception is not a single, instantaneous event, but rather comprises
a number of ongoing processes. In these judgmental processes, we pay attention not only to
what people say, but also to how they say it. Social perception not only deals with
explanations of people’s past behavior, but also how this information about past behavior can
predict future actions.
As stated earlier, to understand others, people make use of many cognitive processes. Most of
these processes can be roughly classified into two general areas: impression formation and
attribution. Impression formation is often based on rapid assessments of salient and
observable qualities and behaviors in others. These judgments are obtained by attending to
nonverbal cues, such as facial expressions and body posture, as well as incorporating more
detailed and descriptive characteristics, such as traits, into an overall impression. Impression
formation is often the first step of social perception. Often, we also want to understand what
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causes people to act in a particular manner. The attribution process goes beyond discerning
current moods and feelings and attempts instead to infer causal relationships underlying
behavior by attending to various social clues. This search for causal explanations often
requires that we observe people’s actions over time and across situations to have greater
confidence in our social judgments.
I. IMPRESSION FORMATION
Example:
Suppose you are visiting a city for the first time and have car trouble downtown in the dead
of night. You begin to scan the faces of passing motorists, looking for someone who will help
you get out of this jam. How can you tell who will be your Good Samaritan? Can you seek
help from the carload of teenagers who have passed by twice in the past five minutes? Or
should you take a chance and try to flag down the neatly dressed and pleasant-looking young
man driving the 1965 Chevy … who, on second thought, bears an uncanny resemblance to
the character of Norman Bates in the movie Psycho? Just as you are bemoaning the fact that
you don’t know anything about the people whom you are about to ask for help, something in
the distance catches your eye. It is a white car with lettering and an emblem on the door, and
a panel of light flashers on the roof. Inside are two people wearing blue uniforms and badges.
Despite the fact that you are certain they are carrying loaded guns and wooden clubs, you
immediately step out in the street and signal them to stop. Are you crazy? You have never
seen these two people before in your life, yet you believe that they will help you. Why?
Impression Formation, [How do we “size up” other people during initial encounters? How do
we arrive at conclusions about their character, needs, and abilities?] is the process by which
one integrates various source of information about another into an overall judgment. The
process of forming impression is viewed by social psychologists as dynamic one, with
judgments being continually updated in response to new information. It is also integrative,
with each bit of information about a person is interpreted within the context of all the other
information we have about him or her. Each “bit” takes its character from the other “bits” as a
whole.
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A. Forming Impression Through Stereotyping
1. The Social Categorization Process
In the hypothetical nighttime dilemmas posed earlier, the reason you might respond in the
manner described is that human beings are categorizing creatures. That is, we identify objects
in our environment according to features and attributes that distinguish them from other
objects. For example, because certain objects such as roses, daffodils, and lilies share the
same features and attributes (for example, petals, pistils, and anthers), we place them into the
same cognitive category, namely that of “flower.” This natural tendency to categorize is
applied to people as well as things, a process called social categorization (Hampson, 1988;
Taylor, 1981).
Research indicates that readily apparent physical features are the most common way to
classify people, especially in the initial stages of impression formation.
Because categorizing others by means of physical features is done so frequently, it becomes
habitual and automatic, often occurring without conscious thought or effort (Brewer, 1988;
Fiske & Neuberg, 1990).
2. From Social Categories to Stereotypes
Social categorization does not typically end with merely grouping people into different
categories. Within these social categories, there often already are certain beliefs about the
individuals’ personalities, abilities, and motives. Like other cognitive frameworks,
stereotypes significantly influence how we process social information. That is, once
stereotype is activated from memory, we habe a tendency to see people within that social
category as possessing the traits or characteristics associated with the stereotyped group
(Higgins & Bargh, 1987; Vonk & Knippenberg, 1995; Wyer, 1988).
A more sensible way to think of stereotypes is that people conceive of them as probability
judgment; that is, they estimate the likelihood that individuals in specific social groups
possess certain attributes (Karlins, Coffman, & Walters, 1969; Linville, Salovey, & Fisher,
1986).
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Stereotypes are “shortcut to thinking” that provide us with rich and distinctive information
about individuals we do not personally know (Anderson & Klatzky, 1987; Gilbert & Hixon,
1991).
B. Nonverbal Behavioral Cues
Nonverbal behavior – communicating feelings and intentions without words.
1. Facial Expressions
The belief that facial expressions reveal a person’s true feelings is not a recently developed
scientific belief. More than 2000 years ago, the Roman Orator Marcus Cicero wrote that the
“face is the image of the soul.”
Charles Darwin (1872) proposed that facial expressions not only play an important role in
communication, but that certain emotional expressions are innate and thus are understood
throughout the world. He believed that this ability to recognize emotion from the observation
of facial expressions was genetically programmed into our species and had survival value for
us.
Six primary emotions: happiness, surprise, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust (Buck, 1984;
Matsumoto, 1992).
2. Eye Contact
Another nonverbal cue figuring into our impressions of others is eye contact. We can learn
how others feel by attending to the direction and intensity of their gaze. For example, the
more in love two people are, the more often they gaze into one another’s eyes (Rubin, 1970).
Yet it is also true that the more competitive people are, the more often they will attempt to
engage in prolonged eye contact with other opponents in competitive situations (Exline,
1972).
This latter form of eye contact, known as staring, does not indicate amorous intentions.
Rather, it is recognized as a sign of dominance seeking and aggression (Tomkins, 1963).
Most people become tense and nervous if others stare at them (Strom & Buck, 1979) and they
will withdraw from the situation in order to escape the attention (Ellsworth, Carlsmith, &
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Henson, 1972; Greenbaum & Rosenfield, 1978). If withdrawal is not possible, people will
often avoid eye contact in an apparent attempt to reduce potential conflict. This gaze aversion
is often interpreted by others as a submissive gesture.
3. Body Movements
Besides facial cues, the body as a whole can convey a wealth of information. For example,
research indicates that people who walk with a good deal of hip sway, knee bending, loose
jointedness, and body bounce are perceived to be younger and more powerful than those who
walk with less pronounced gaits (Montepare & Zebrowitz-McArthur, 1988).
If the body can convey rich information of this sort, think back to the hypothetical vignette of
the midnight walk down a dark city sidewalk. Let’s expand this scenario by imagining that
the man walking toward you is a seasoned criminal who is deciding whether he should mug
you. It’s likely he will be paying close attention to your body movements as he draws near to
determine how difficult a target you will be for him. What type of body movements will he
be scrutinizing?
In an innovative attempt to answer this question, Betty Grayson and Morris Stein (1981)
showed a group of prison inmates convicted of assault a series of videotapes of people
walking on a city sidewalk, and asked them to individually rate the “walkers” as potential
victims in terms of how difficult they would be to assault. The videotapes of the walkers who
were perceived by a majority of the inmates as either easy victims or clearly nonvictims were
then evaluated by trained dance analysts in a number of movement categories. The prime
difference between the perceived victims and nonvictims was that the nonvictims had an
organized quality to their body movements, and they functioned gracefully within the context
of their own bodies. In contrast, the body movements of perceived victims seemed to
communicate inconsistency, as if the body was working against itself or not functioning
smoothly.
What this findings suggest is that potential victims of crime may unwittingly and nonverbally
be communicating a sense of vulnerability to criminals, similar to the way that wounded
animals invite attack from predators in the wild (Tinbergen, 1969).
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4. Do people differ in using nonverbal cues?
Taken as a whole, nonverbal cues expressed by the face and other body parts do seem to
provide an important source of information to those who attend to such social stimuli. The
question is, to what extent do people really note this alternative avenue of communication?
Research indicates that people recognize the important role that such nonverbal behavior
plays in impression formation and often consciously employ nonverbal cues in their self-
presentation strategies (DePaulo, 1992; Tucker & Riggio, 1988). For example, have you ever
forced yourself to smile at someone you really didn’t like? Or have you ever deliberately
fixed someone with a cold stare to convey your displeasure or your feeling of social
dominance over them? In such instances, we attempt to manipulate the impression others
have of us through the use of nonverbal signals.
One personality trait that appears to identify individuals who are more motivated to
consciously use nonverbal cues in managing their social relationships is self-monitoring. It is
the tendency to modify one’s own self-representations so they are consistent with the
demands of the current situation.
In one study conducted by Howard Friedman and Terry Miller-Herringer (19910), result
suggests that people high in self-monitoring are not only more attentive to their nonverbal
behavior in social settings, but they are also better able to modify or suppress nonverbal
gestures that might be considered socially inappropriate. In this respect, then, high self-
monitors appear to be better at using their nonverbal behavior to convey a desired self-
presentation to others.
C. Detecting Deception in the Self-Presentations of Others
“Grace is always natural, though that does not prevent its being often used to hide a lie. The rude
shocks and uncomfortably constraining influences of life disappear among graceful women and
poetical men; they are the most deceptive beings in creation; distrust and doubt cannot stand before
them; they create what they imagine.” – Marquis de Custine (1790-1857)
Given the fact that people sometimes try to conceal their true feelings and intentions from
others, how do we, as social perceivers, respond to the possibility of such subterfuge?
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Sociologist Erving Goffman (1959) contended that when we judge other people’s self-
presentations, we pay attention to two different types of social stimuli, which he called
expressions. First, there are expressions that people freely “give” to others in what is typically
thought of as their traditional communication patterns. These expressions given consist of
verbal and nonverbal symbols that people are consciously aware of transmitting. Besides
these strategic gestures, there are also expressions that people “given off,” which are mostly
nonverbal in nature. Expressions given off, also known as “nonverbal leakage,” cover a wide
range of behavior unintentionally transmitted and of which people are much less aware.
For instance, imagine that you are invited over to the home of a new acquaintance for dinner,
and your host serves lentil burgers as the main course. Being a proud meat and potatoes
person, you are not eager to send this Mc-mutant “bean food” patty down your intestinal
tract. At the same time, you don’t want to offend your host by demanding “real food for real
people,” so you decide to lie, lie, lie. Looking your host straight in the eye, you smack your
lips and exclaim, “Oh boy! Lentil burgers! I love ‘em!” You then proceed to swallow your
pride, hoping that it and the main course will stay down through the duration of the evening.
During the meal your host, perhaps realizing that a lentil burger is a fairly exotic and unusual
food for the average American, is likely to attend to your expressions given off more than
your expressions given. Therefore, while you may expound at length about how tasty the
burger is and how much you enjoy its texture, your host will be particularly attentive to your
facial expressions as you chew and swallow the burger, and the amount of beverage used to
wash it down. No matter what praise you lavish upon your host, if you look as if you’re being
tortured as you eat, your words are likely to be disregarded.
This tendency to tune into the silent language of nonverbal behavior when we believe others
are attempting to deceive us is a common strategy employed in judging social reality. Under
such circumstances, people pay more attention to others’ facial expressions, then body
posture, and least of all words (Mehrabian, 1972).
Despite the attempts at self-control, the face can reveal the lie for the acutely attentive
perceiver. How so? Before people can monitor and mask their facial expressions following an
emotion-provoking event, they emit microexpressions. These expressions are fleeting facial
signals lasting only a few tenths of a second, and are difficult to suppress. Due to the
difficulty in masking this observable expression of emotion, microexpressions can be quite
revealing about one’s actual state of mind (Ekman, 1985; Ekman & Friesen, 1975). The eyes
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can also reveal the lie. When individuals avoid the gaze of others, or blink frequently, this
may be a signal of deception (Kleinke, 1986).
Besides the face, we also rely on the sound of another’s voice and the not-so-subtle
movements of the body. When people deceive, the pitch in their voice often rises slightly, and
their speech is filled with many pauses (“ahs” and “uhms”) and other sentence hesitations
(DePaulo, Lanier, & Davis, 1983; Zuckerman, DePaulo, & Rosenthal, 1981). Deception is
also signaled by fidgety movements of the hands and feet, and restless shifts in body posture
(Ekman & Friesen, 1974).
D. Forming Personality Impressions
1. Additive or Averaging Model? – based on a number of studies, averaging model is more
accurate than additive model.
2. Central Traits – traits that exert a disproportionate influence on people’s overall
impressions, causing them to assume the presence of other traits.
E. Biases in Personality Judgment
1. Implicit Personality Theory
Where do these judgments come from? As suggested by Asch’s research on central traits, our
knowledge about people is structured by our prior set of beliefs about which personality traits
go together. These assumptions or naïve beliefs systems that we have about the associations
among personality traits have been called an implicit personality theory. In this scientific
theory of personality, there is a strong tendency for people to assume that all good things
occur together in persons and that all bad things do so as well, with little overlap between the
two.
In an implicit personality theory, as in impression formation generally, there appears to be
operating a principle of evaluative consistency – a tendency to view others in a way that is
internally consistent. Even when contradictory information is made available, we still
generally persist in viewing people as either consistently good or bad. In this effort toward
consistency, we will often distort or explain away contradictory information.
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2. Self-Concept and False Consensus Bias
Accompanying this tendency to associate certain traits with one another is the fact that our
self-concept can also serve as the lens through which we view others (Higgins, King, &
Mavin, 1982; Krueger & Clement, 1994). False consensus bias – the tendency to exaggerate
how common one’s own characteristics and opinions are in the general population.
3. Positivity Bias
Another general evaluative bias operating in impression formation is to view people in a
favorable light. Known as the positivity bias, it is the tendency for people to evaluate
individual human beings more positively than groups or impersonal objects.
4. Negativity Bias
It may seem contradictory, but because people are biased toward perceiving others in a
positive light, when they learn that someone has negative traits they place more weight on
these unfavorable attributes in forming an impression of the person. Known as the negativity
bias, it is the tendency of people to give more weight to negative traits than positive traits in
impression formation ( Coovert &Reeder, 1990; Skowronski & Carlson, 1989). This
tendency to direct attention to negatively evaluated stimuli, like the tendency to notice fearful
and angry faces in a crowd, is believed to have survival value for human beings (Pratto &
John, 1991). Unfortunately, although this automatic vigilance may protect people from
immediate harm, it may also contribute to harsher than warranted social judgments. The
increasing use of “negative campaign ads” in politics is testimony to the power of the
negativity bias.
5. Primacy and Recency Effects
There is on other simple and basic factor influencing impression formation, and it is related to
the order in which we learn bits of information about someone. Known as the primacy
effect, it is the tendency for the first information received to carry more weight in one’s
overall impression than later information.
Why does early information figure more prominently than later information in our impression
of others? One possible explanation is that the early bits of information we learn about
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another provide a cognitive schema or mental “outline,” which we then use to process later
information. If the later information contradicts this schema, we are likely to ignore it.
Research suggests that the primacy effect is particularly strong when people are given little
time to make judgments and are not under a great deal of pressure to be correct (Kruglanski
& Freund, 1983).
Although the primacy effect regularly occurs in social perception, it can sometimes be
reversed if people are warned against making hasty judgments or told that they will be asked
to justify their impressions of a target person (Jones & Goethals, 1972; Tetlock & Kim,
1987). In such circumstances, the last bits of information learned may be given grater weight
than earlier information. This is known as the recency effect.
II. MAKING ATTRIBUTIONS
In forming impressions of others, we attempt to determine what characteristics in each person
explain their behavior and cause them to act the way they do. Yet in attempting to understand
others, we do not solely focus on personality traits. In seeking explanations for their behavior
we also take into account the situation context, as well as the influence that others may have
on them. Beyond trying to understand people as individuals, when we perceive events in
general, we often are irresistibly drawn to understand why they unfold in the observed
manner. This tendency is strongest when the events are the actions of other people (Zajonc,
1980), and are unexpected, unusual, or distressing (Hastie, 1984; Taylor, Lichtman, & Wood,
1984; Wong & Weiner, 1981). The process by which we use such information to make
inferences about the causes of behavior or events is called attribution.
A. Heider’s Naïve Psychology
Fritz Heider (1958) was the first social psychologist to formally analyze how people attempt
to understand the causes behind behavior. He believed that everybody has a general theory of
human behavior – what he called a naïve psychology – and that they use it to search for
explanations of social events.
In seeking attributions, Heider believed people are motivated by two primary needs: the need
to form a coherent view of the world, and the need to gain control of the environment. Being
able to predict how people are going to behave goes a long way in satisfying both of these
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needs. If we can adequately explain and predict the actions of others, we will be much more
likely to view the world as coherent and controllable than if we have no clue to their
intentions and dispositions.
B. Primary Dimensions of Causal Experience
In making causal attributions, by far the most important social concerns the locus of
causality. According to Heider, people broadly attribute a given action either to internal states
or external factors. An internal attribution consists of any explanation that locates the cause
as being internal to the person, such as personality traits, moods, attitudes, abilities, or effort.
An external attribution consists of any explanation that locates the cause as being external
to the person under scrutiny, such as the actions of others, the nature of the situation, or luck.
Although judgments of the locus and stability of causes are the most important in making
attributions, a third dimension we often consider is the controllability of these causes.
According to Weiner (1982), we think of some causes as being within people’s control and
others as being outside their control. The controllable/uncontrollable dimension is
independent of either locus of stability. Weather is a good example of an uncontrollable
factor.
C. Correspondent Inference Theory
When people watch the actions of others, they not only attend to the behavior itself but are
also aware of the consequences of the behavior. In developing correspondent inference
theory, Edward Jones and Keith Davis (1965) were particularly interested in how people infer
the cause of a single instance of behavior. According to them, people try to infer from an
overt action whether it corresponds to a stable personal characteristic of the actor. Thus, a
correspondent inference is an inference that the action of an actor corresponds to, or is
indicative of, a stable personal characteristic.
In explaining social events, Jones and Davis argued that people have a preference for making
dispositional attributions (that is, those that are internal and stable), and that external
attributions are merely default options, made only when internal causes cannot be found. The
reason for this preference is the belief that knowing the dispositional attributes of others will
enable one to better understand and predict their behavior. The problem in confidently
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making these attributions, however, is that social behavior is often ambiguous and the causes
are not always readily apparent to the observer. Therefore, to guide them in their attempts to
infer personal characteristics from behavior, Jones and Davis stated that people use several
logical rules of thumb:
1. Social Desirability – people are much more likely to make dispositional attributions about
behavior that is socially undesirable than about behavior that is desirable. Socially
desirable behavior is thought to tell us more about the cultural norms of the group than
about the personality of the individuals within that group. Yet when people are willing to
break from these norms to act in a certain way, such unexpected behavior demands an
explanation. When such action is taken, people realize that the social costs incurred by the
actor may be great, and they are much more confident that the behavior reflects a stable
and internal disposition (Jones, Davis, & Gergen, 1961).
2. Choice – actions freely chosen are considered to be more indicative of an actor’s true
personal characteristics than those that are coerced. Support for the freedom of choice
factor comes from a study in which college students read a speech, supposedly written by
a fellow student, that either supported or opposed Fidel Castro, the communist leader of
Cuba (Jones & Harris, 1967). Some students were told that the student speech writer had
freely chosen his or her position, while others were told that the student was assigned the
stated position by a professor. When asked to estimate what the student speech writer’s
true attitudes were toward Castro, those who believed that the speechwriter had freely
chosen his or her position were more likely to assume there was a correspondence
between the student’s essay (behavior) and his or her true attitudes.
3. Noncommon Effects – we also analyze the chosen behavior in the context of other
potential behaviors. By comparing the consequences of the chosen behavior with the
consequences of other actions not taken, people can often infer the strength of the
underlying intention by looking for unique or “noncommon” consequences.
Taking these rules into account, according to Jones and Davis’ theory, people are most likely
to conclude that other people’s actions reflect underlying dispositional traits (that is, they are
likely to make correspondent inferences) when the actions are perceived to (1) be low in
social desirability, (2) be freely chosen, and (3) result in unique, noncommon effects.
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D. Kelley’s Covariation Model
One theory that specifically attempts to explain attributions derived from multiple
observational points and details the processes for making external, as well as internal,
attributions is Harold Kelley’s (1967) covariation model.
1. Covariation Principle – states that for something to be the cause of a particular behavior,
it must be present when the behavior occurs and absent when it does not occur – the
presumed cause and observed effect must “covary.”
2. Discounting Principle – whenever there are several possible causal explanations for a
particular event, we tend to be much less likely to attribute the effect to any particular
cause. In describing the locus of causality, Kelley elaborated on the internal/external
dimension by further delineating external attributions into the entity and circumstances,
the entity is the object toward which the actor’s behavior is directed and can be another
person or a thing. Circumstances are simply the conditions in which actions or events
occur.
In assessing covariation, Kelley stated that people rely upon three basic kinds of information.
a. Consensus – information deals with the extent to which others react in the same
way to some stimulus or entity as the person whose actions we are attempting to
explain.
b. Consistency – information concerns the extent to which the person reacts to the
stimulus or entity in the same way on other occasions.
c. Distinctiveness – information refers to the extent to which person reacts in the
same way to other, different stimuli or entities.
Kelley’s Theory predicts that people are most likely to attribute another person’s behavior to
internal causes when consensus and distinctiveness are low but consistency is high. On the
other hand, circumstance attributions are most likely when consensus and consistency are low
and distinctiveness is high. When all three kinds of information are high, people are likely to
make entity attributions.
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III. BIASES IN ATTRIBUTION
Based on the discussion thus far, the attribution process appears to be highly rational.
However, although people seem to follow logical principles in assigning causality to events,
this cognitive process – likened by some to a computer program – has some interesting and
all-too-illogical human “bugs.”
A. The Fundamental Attribution Error
Behavior is generally caused by an interaction of an individual’s internal characteristics and
external factors. However, in explaining other people’s actions, we tend to locate the cause in
terms of their dispositional characteristics rather than to what might be more appropriate
situational factors. Lee Ross (1977) named this tendency to make internal attributions over
external attributions for the behavior of others the fundamental attribution error.
B. The Actor-Observer Effect
When explaining the actions of others, we are especially likely to commit the fundamental
attribution error. But when explaining our own behavior, we tend to give more weight to
external factors. This tendency to attribute our own behavior to external causes but that of
others to internal factors is known as the actor-observer effect (Jones & Nisbett, 1972).
For example, if Cheryl is having a conversation with an attractive male stranger and her
boyfriend, Steve, sees them from a distance, they may well arrive at different explanations for
this social interaction. Although Cheryl may attribute it to an external factor (the stranger was
asking for directions), Steve may assign an internal cause (Cheryl is infatuated with this
guy!).
C. The Self-Serving Bias
Perhaps the best evidence that we are not coldly rational information processors is found in
situation in which our own performance results in either success or failure. When such events
transpire, the nature of the attribution process is decidedly self-protective in failure situations
and self-enhancing in success situations. That is, people tend to take credit for positive
behaviors or outcomes but to blame negative behaviors or outcomes on external causes
(Baumgardner, Heppner, & Arkin, 1986; Olson & Ross, 1988).
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For example, William Berstein, Walter Stephan, and Mark Davis (1979) found that when
students received good grade on an exam, they were likely to attribute it either to their
intelligence (an uncontrollable, yet stable, internal factor), their strong work ethic (a
controllable, stable, internal factor), or a combination of the two. However, if they received a
poor grade on this exam, they were likely to attribute it to an unreasonable professor (a stable,
yet uncontrollable, external factor) or pure bad luck (an unstable, uncontrollable, external
factor). This tendency to assign an internal locus of causality for our positive outcomes and
an external locus for our negative outcomes is known as the self-serving bias. It is arguably
the most robust of the attributional biases and has been documented cross-culturally (Fletcher
& Ward, 1988), although it may be stronger in individualist societies than in those with a
collectivist orientation (Chandler et al., 1981; Kashima & Triandis, 1986).
SOURCES:
Social Psychology. Robert A. Baron, Donn Byrne. -10th ed. Allyn and Bacon. USA.
Social Psychology. Stephen L. Franzoi – Madison, Wisconsin: Brown & Benchmark Pub.,
c1996.
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