T

-

I

- - : I

.,.

1 .

I

4

I

I

-

I 1

Slow

111

Cl)

Wom

n, a, T

e chnology

and

Editors

Padm

a Vasudeven

Satyaw

ati Sharm

a V

. P. S

harma

Monica V

erma

Narosa P

ublishing House

New

Delh

i Chennai M

um

bai K

Olk

ata

Tr1T

Preface

Vii

Ackn

ow

ledg

emen

t xlii

WO

ME

N, F

OO

D A

ND

NU

TR

ITIO

N

1.

Role of E

dible Food P

lants in Wom

en's Nutrition

and Health

Seema M

ishra, Satyawati Sharm

a and Padm

a Vasudevan

2. A

spergillus species, Carcinogenic M

old in Peanuts:

A G

lobal Health T

hreat 18

P N

. Ach

ar a

nd M

Y S

reeniva

sa

WO

ME

N A

ND

HE

AL

TH

CA

RE

3.

Wom

en and Drinking W

ater Quality in India:

An O

verview

33 B

rajesh K. Shrivastava

4.

Malaria P

revalence, Treatm

ent and Control in India

47 V

P S

harm

a

WO

ME

N IN

AG

RIC

UL

TU

RE

5.

Biofertilizer T

echnology for Sustainable A

griculture 58

K V

B. R

. Tilak

6.

Green T

echnologies for Wom

en in Agriculture

76 Satyaw

ati Sharma, M

onica Verm

a, Kalpana A

rora, A

bh

ishek S

ha

rma

, Ad

iti Gu

pta

an

d P

ad

ma

Va

sud

evan

7.

Botanical B

ased Pesticide F

ormulations

115 M

egh

a P

an

t, Sa

ura

bh

Du

bey, D

ipa

k Ha

zra, S

.K. R

aza

and P

.K. P

atanjali

Asp erg

illus sp

ecies,it I 'N

Peanuts- A Global Health Threat

P. N

. Achar' and M

. Y. Sreenivasa2

'Dept. ofB

iology and Physics, K

ennesaw State U

niversity, Kennesaw

, Georgia.

USA

, 2D

OS in M

icrobiology, University of M

ysore, Manasagangotri, M

ysore 570006, K

arnataka, India

Ab

stract Aspergillus species are m

ycotoxigenic fungi which exert carcinogenic, m

utagenic, teratogenic, nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic and im

munodepressive properties. T

he production fungi adversely affect agricultural com

modities, especially peanuts, by

the production of aflatoxins, mainly in the course of storage. A

flatoxins hinder the quality of agricultural products and food m

eant for human consum

ption and is associated w

ith both acute and chronic toxicity in animals and hum

ans including liver dam

age, liver cirrhosis and liver cancers. Inhalation of airborne Aspergillus

spores and ingestion of contaminated peanuts causes A

spergillosis and Aspergillom

a in hum

ans. Hence, a m

ajor concern is on the decontamination of agricultural

comm

odities and food and creating awareness am

ong the comm

unity towards their

safe storage and consumption.

Keyw

ords: A

spergillusJlavus, A. parasiticus, A

llatoxin, Aspergillosis, A

spergilloma, Peanuts

Introd

uction

Fungi are significant destroyers of agricultural products during storage, rendering

them unfit for hum

an consumption by reducing their nutritive value and adding toxic

metabolites referred to as "M

ycotoxins". The risk of contam

ination by mycotoxins is

an important food safety concern for grains and other field crops (B

ryden, 2007). C

onsumers of all ages, are neither aw

are of seed borne fungal pathogens in edible nuts, grains and cereals nor do they know

about its transmission and dissem

ination m

od

e. Man

y o

f the m

yco

tox

ins ex

hib

it carcino

gen

ic, mu

tagen

ic, teratog

enic,

nep

hro

toxic an

d h

epato

toxic p

roperties. A

lso, th

ey are k

now

n to

exert an

im

munodepressive effect (Z

orzete et al., 2011). Am

ong mycotoxins, aflatoxins are of

major econom

ic importance because of their significant influence on the health of

human beings and livestock and as the m

ost important fungi causing both spoilage of

foo

d co

mm

od

ities and

my

coto

xin

pro

du

ction

(Garcia et al., 2

01

1). A

mo

ng

st aflatoxin producing fungi, genus A

spergillus is most ubiquitous and abundant of all

groups of fungi, distributed worldw

ide with over 180 species (C

alvo et al., 2002). T

wo w

ell-known species A

flavu

s and A p

ara

siticus have cosm

opolitan distribution an

d are fo

un

d p

rimarily

in p

lants an

d so

il Bo

th sp

ecies cause d

iseases of

Aspergillus species, C

arcinogenic Mold in P

eanuts- A G

lobal Health T

hreat 19

agro

nom

ically im

portan

t crops, su

ch as p

eanuts, co

rn an

d o

ther g

rains/n

uts an

d

produce aflatoxins as a pre- harvest or post-harvest fungi.

Peanuts A

cross the Globe

rcinogenic M

old

in

Health

Threat

-

Peanuts are dicotyledonous plants of the fam

ily Legum

inosae (Fabaceae), subfam

ily P

apilio

no

idae, g

enu

s Arach

is. Th

e plan

t con

sists of an

aerial part th

at form

s ram

ifications, leaves and flowers. A

fter fert ilization, the flow

ers form gynophores

2 Y

. Sreen

ivasa

that elongate and penetrate the soil. Fructification then starts and lasts about 40—

50 days until harvest (C

amara, 1998). It is d

urin

g th

is perio

d w

herein

man

y d

isease

'late University, K

ennesaw, G

eorgia. causing infectious agents nam

ely, fungi, bacteria, nematodes, viruses, and viroids,

invad

e pean

uts. A

mongst all, p

arasitic fungi are th

e most n

um

erous p

athogen

s e, M

anasagangotri, Mysore 570006,

CE in

fecting

pean

uts b

y p

enetratin

g activ

ely th

rou

gh

op

enin

gs in

the h

ost, o

r are India

airborne. Approxim

ately 50 of the known fungal genera cause diseases in peanuts

(Porter, 1997).

Peanuts are the thirteenth m

ost important food crop in the w

orld. It is the world's

mgi w

hich exert carcinogenic mutagenic

and imm

unodepréssive m

pro

erties

fou

rth m

ost im

po

rt ant so

urce o

f edib

le oil an

d th

ird m

ost im

portan

t source o

f

tural comm

odities especially peanuts b 41

veg

etable p

rotein

. Pean

ut seed

s con

tain h

igh

qu

ality ed

ible o

il (.-. 50 %), easily

te course of storage. Aflatoxins hinder the

I

digestible protein (- 25 %) and carbohydrates (.-

20%). It is a food crop grow

n in

d meant for hum

an consumption and is

I

viiriii tem

perate, su

btro

pical an

d tro

pical reg

ion

s of th

e wo

rld, o

n 2

6.4

millio

n

oxicity in animals and hum

ans including I

hectare worldw

ide with a total production of 36.1 m

illion metric tons, and an average

incers. Inhalation of airborne Aspergillus productivity of 1.4 m

etric tons per hectare (FA

Q, 2003). India is one of the w

orld's uts causes A

spergillosis and Aspergillom

a leading peanut producers (approxim

ately six million m

etric tons annually). The other

on the decontamination of agricultural

leading peanut

producers include

China,

the U

nited S

tates an

d

Africa.

ness among the com

munity tow

ards their A

ppro

xim

ately 2

5 m

illion d

ollars are lo

st per y

ear due to

the co

ntam

inatio

n o

f pean

uts b

y

Aspergillus

species an

d aflato

xin

s (FA

Q, 2

001). C

ontam

inatio

n o

f

rin, A

spergillosis, Aspergillom

a Peanuts J

peanuts with m

ycotoxins, particularly aflatoxins, is a worldw

ide problem that affects

both food safety and agricultural economics (D

orner, 2008). Figure 1(a, b) and (c)

illustrates the contamination of peanuts and corn by A

spergillusfiavus and figure 1

I

(d) shows the subculturing of A

. Jiavus on Potato D

extrose Agar m

edium. In U

nited S

tates the to

p p

eanu

t-pro

du

cing

states are Flo

rida, G

eorg

ia, and

Alab

ama w

here

fungal o

utb

reaks fro

m 1

993 to

1996 cau

sed lo

ss averag

ing $

26 m

illion an

nually

products during storage, rendering

J

Do

rncr, an

d L

amb

, 20

02

). Sev

eral ou

tbreak

s of m

yco

tox

icoses in

hu

man

s and

their nutritive value and adding toxic

animals have been reported after the consum

ption of mycotoxin-contam

inated food k of contam

ination by mycotoxins is

I

and

feed. In

the U

nited

States alo

ne, acco

rdin

g to

the U

SD

A n

early 2

6 m

illion

d other field crops (B

ryden, 2007). 1

dollars are lost per year due to the contamination of peanuts by A

spergillus species d borne fungal pathogens in edible

4

(Abbas '. et al., 2005),

t its transmission and dissem

ination I

cino

gen

ic, mu

tagen

ic, teratog

enic i

In Brazil, S

tate of Sao P

aulo is the greatest peanut producer with a peanut O

utput

D, th

ey a

re k

now

n to

exert a

n

estimated to be 80.9 thousand tons for the 2008/2009 harvest, representing 71%

of

mong m

ycotoxins, aflatoxins are of i

he Brazilian national peanut production (C

ON

AB

, 2010). Also, B

razil nuts are an

1nificant influence on the health of im

portant export comm

odity in Bolivia, and P

eru. Of approxim

ately 30,000 tons of

)rtant fungi causing both spoilage of ril n

uts l?ai0et1ed each year, a substantial am

ount is contaminated by A

spergillus i

a (G

arcia et al., 2011). A

mongst I

nost ubiquitous and abundant of all t

r 180 species (Calvo et al., 2002).

1

cus, have cosmopolitan distribution

Bo

th sp

ecies cause d

iseases of

20 P. N

. Acher and M

.Y. Sreenivasa

Fig.

1: P

ean

uts (a

) con

tam

inated

(b) cra

cked

du

e to co

nta

min

atio

n (c)

contam

inated

corn (d

) A. flavus su

b cu

ltured

in P

otato Dextrose A

gar (PD

A)

Aflatoxins and A

flatoxicosis

Th

e most d

eleterious o

f natu

ral pro

ducts, in

terms o

f health

effects, are the

mycotoxins. A

mongst the m

ycotoxins that are known to cause adverse health effects,

aflatoxin

s hav

e been

studied

the m

ost an

d also

been

iden

tified as a p

oten

tial biological w

eapon for food and water contam

ination (Zeringue and B

hatnagar, 1994). A

flatoxins are well know

n for their hepatotoxic and hepatocarcinogenic effects (E

aton and Groopm

an, 1994) and this has led to global concern over food and feed safety. T

herefore possible chronic toxicity of aflatoxin is of greater concern than its acute toxicity (B

akirdere et al., 2012). Various agricultural com

modities have

been found to be contaminated w

ith either aflatoxin producing fungi or aflatoxins (S

mith, 2004). A

flatoxins are the secondary metabolites produced by specific strains

of Aspergillus nam

ely A. flavus, A

. parasiticus and A. nom

ius (Hedayati et al., 2007).

They are produced by a com

plex biosynthetic pathway w

ith more than 25 genes

located

in a

65 to

70

kb

gen

e cluster (E

hrlich

and

Yu

, 20

10

).Th

ese species

contaminate various agricultural com

modities either before harvest or at post-harvest

stages under favourable conditions of temperature and hum

idity (Garcia et al.,

2011) T

he mold produces aflatoxins B

1, B2 G

1 and

G2 distinguished by their fluorescent

color under ultraviolet light In addition, aflatoxins M1 an

d M

2 are hydroxylated m

etabolites of aflatoxins B1 and B

2. Chem

ical structures of some of these are show

n in F

ig 2 Of all the naturally occurring aflatoxins, aflatoxin B

l (AF

B I) is the m

ost

toxic mycotoxin and exhibits hepatotoxic teratogenic and m

utagenic properties (R

eddy et al.,2002 N

akai et al., 2008) T

he AF

B1 produced byA

spergillus species is classified as a class I hum

an carcinogen by the International Agency for R

esearch on C

ancer (IAR

C, 2002).

crack

ed d

ue to

con

tam

ina

tion

(c) d

in P

otato Dextrose A

gar (PD

A)

AspergillU

S species, Carcinogenic M

old in Peanuts- A G

lobal Health T

hreat FT

in term

s of h

ealth effects, are th

e know

n to cause adverse health effects, also

been

iden

tified as a p

oten

tial tam

ination (Zeringue and B

hatnagar, hepatotoxic and hepatocarcinogenic

ias led to global concern over food and of aflatoxin is of greater concern than

arious agricultural comm

odities have F

latoxin producing fungi or aflatoxins etabolites produced by specific strains and A

. nomius (H

edayati et al., 2007). .c pathw

ay with m

ore than 25 genes arlich and Y

u, 2010).These species

either before harvest or at post-harvest ire and hum

idity (Garcia et al., 2011).

G2 distinguished by their fluorescent

itoxins M1 an

d M

2 are hydroxylated structures of som

e of these are shown

ins, aflatoxin B1 (A

FB

1) is the most

ratogenic and mutagenic properties

B1 produced by A

spergillus species is e International A

gency for Research

Aflxo)n B

Matoxin G

1 Aflatoxin M

1

A iitX

- nB

2

AflatoxinG

2 A

flatoxinM2

Fig. 2: C

hem

ical structu

re of various aflatoxin

s.

These toxins are acutely and chronically toxic to both hum

ans and animals (C

ullen an

d N

ewb

erne, 1

99

4) an

d th

ey are am

on

g th

e mo

st po

tent m

utag

enic an

d

carcinogenic compounds know

n to be produced in nature (Dvorackova, 1990).

Aflatoxins are im

portant public and animal health concern because they cause

undesirable biological reactions when ingested. T

hese reactions may vary from

acute to chronic disease states, and econom

ically important but clinically obscure changes

in growth, production and im

munosuppression (B

akirdere et al., 2012). Aflatoxicosis.

is defined as the poisoning caused by the consumption of substances or foods

contaminated w

ith aflatoxins. Aflatoxicosis w

as first reported during 1960s in E

urope, which resulted in the death of nearly 100,000 poultries/turkeys. T

his was

called "Turkey X

Disease" (S

mith and H

amilton, 1970). A

flatoxins can cause various adverse effects on hum

an health depending on the quantity of ingestion. H

igh doses result in rapid death while hepatocellular carcinom

a (HC

C) develops as a

chronic outcome. Synergic effect of A

FB 1 w

ith hepatitis B or C

viral infections can cause H

CC

(liver cancer). HC

C is the m

ost comm

on cancer in many parts of sub-

Saharan A

frica, Southeast A

sia and China. In these countries, up to 10%

of adult m

ale deaths are related with H

CC

(Gong et al., 2008). M

oreover, the impaired

growth of children is the adverse health effects of aflatoxicosis. S

low grow

th of children w

as observed when foods w

ith high amount of aflatoxin w

ere ingested. Severe aflatoxin-poisoning events are docum

ented from different countries. In India,

106 people died in 1974 due to aflatoxin poisoning that was traced to heavily

contaminated corn w

ith A. flavus and containing up to 15 m

g/kg aflatoxins (FA

O,

1979). Another of the sim

ilar event was follow

ed by 215 deaths in Kenya in 2004

and nearly 100 deaths in Nigeria in 2005 (E

lshafie et al., 2011). In a study, it was

reported that 50 mg per day of A

FB 1 ingestion of contam

inated maize resulted in the

22 P. N

. Acher and M

.Y. Sreenivasa

aflatoxin-induced death in Kenya (Probst et al., 2007). Prakash et al., (20 10) ref

that n

early 5

billio

n p

eople are ex

posed

to aflato

xin

s in d

ifferent d

evel

countries and aflatoxicosis is ranked 6th among the 10 m

ost severe health identified by W

HO

.

Aspergillosis

Aspergillosis is a non-contagious disease, caused by fungus of the genus A

sper that affects hum

ans and other mam

mals and m

ainly wild or dom

estic birds. genus w

as described for the first time in a lesion of a bird in 1842 by R

ayer M

ontagne in the air sacs of a bullfinch, but molds likely belonging to the g

Aspergillus w

ere described in wild birds in the early 1800s. A

spergillus spores found in air, soil, w

ater and food. Inhalation of airborne spores and ingestioi contam

inated peanuts by humans can cause aspergillosis (Fig. 3 a). A

spergil/us i opportunistic fungus, causing the diseases in cancer patients, transplant recipii and other im

munocom

promised individuals, including those w

ith AID

S w

organism

s are exposed to an overwhelm

ing number of spores (C

eline, 2011). m

ost comm

on forms of aspergillosis are allergic bronchopulm

onary, pulmonary

invasive aspergillosis. Fungal infections pose an increasing threat to public hea

Variation in environm

ental conditions is also known to trigger contam

ination airborne or seed borne spores in edible nuts resulting in depletion of nutritive val A

flatoxins, produced during aspergillosis, have also been reported as resistant to h and have an ability to accum

ulate in the organism (G

alvano et al., 2005). Aspergil

species that triggers the illnesses includes more than 150 types of m

old that oc w

idely in the indoor and outdoor environment. A

. fiavus is responsible for about 31 of the cases of aspergillosis (B

ruce et al., 2002).

Allergic B

ronchopulmonaiy A

spergillosis (AB

PA

)

Allergic B

ronchopulmonary A

spergillosis (AB

PA

) is a hypersensitivity reaction A

spergillus colonization of the tracheobronchial tree and occurs in conjunction wi

asthma and cystic fibrosis (C

F). T

he AB

PA

occurs in non-iminunocom

promis

patients, in the absence of invasive aspergillosis, and is defined as a hypersensitivi disorder induced by an A

spergillus species. It is estimated that A

BPA

affects I to 21 of patients w

ith asthma and 7%

of all patients with cystic fibrosis (G

aur et al., 2006 A

llergic fungal sinusitis may also occur alone or w

ith AB

PA

Bronchocentri

granulomatosis and H

ypersensitivity pneumonitis are tw

o hypersensitivity lun diseases that are caused by A

spergillus species, but they are rare. Asthm

a and cysti fibrosis are the com

mon illnesses associated w

ith AB

PA. T

he prevalence of AB

PA i

reported to be 1-2% in asthm

atics, 7-14% in steroid-dependent asthm

atics, and 2 15%

in cystic fibrosis (CF) (B

ecker et al., 1996).

Invasive Pulm

onary Aspergillosis (IV

A)

Manifestations of invasive pulm

onary aspergillosis depend on the virulence and num

ber of spores inhaled, on the patient's imm

une status, and on the presence of any underlying chronic disease. Invasive aspergillosis is a rapidly progressive and often fatal infection that occurs in patients w

ho are severely imm

unosuppressed including

Aspergillus species, C

arcinogenic Mold in P

eanuts- A G

lobal Health T

hreat 23

et al., 2007). Prakash et al., (2010) reported ed to aflatoxins in different developing h am

ong the 10 most severe health risks

those who are profoundly neutropenic, those w

ho have received bone marrow

or solid organ transplants, and patients w

ith advanced AID

S or chronic granulom

atous disease. T

his infectious process is characterized by invasion of blood vessels, resulting in m

ultifocal infiltrates, which are often w

edge-shaped, pleural-based and cavitary (D

enning et al., 1991). Dissem

ination to other organs, particularly the central nervous system

, may occur. T

he frequency of invasive aspergillosis reflects d

isease status an

d treatm

ents th

at result in

pro

longed

neu

tropen

ia and

imm

unOsU

PP

reSS

ion. Invasive aspergillosis is estimated to occur in 5-13%

of recipients of bone m

arrow transplants, 5-25%

of patients who have received heart or

lung transplants, and 10-20% of patients w

ho are receiving intensive chemotherapy

for leukemia (K

ern and Lopert, 2010). A

lthough it has been described in individuals w

ho are imm

unocompeteilt, invasive aspergillosis is exceedingly uncom

mon in this

population.

Ch

ronic N

ecrotizing P

ulm

onary A

spergillosis (CN

PA

)

'triuloiiia an

d R

elated D

iseases

lillom

a, also k

now

n as m

yceto

ma o

r fungus b

all, is a clum

p o

f fungus

lilies that exists in the cavities of lungs. The term

aspergilloma w

as first used ye alm

ost a century later to describe a discrete lesion that classically colonizes vities of healed pulm

onary tuberculosis and other fibrotic lung diseases (Kern

?pert, 2010). Aspergillom

a are the diseases in livestock, domestic anim

als and is caused by ingestion of aflatoxins. Inhalation of airborne spores and ingestion rtam

inated peanuts by humans can also cause this disease. A

spergilloma is

ated with hem

optysis, which m

ay be severe and life threatening. The cavitary

e may include treated tuberculosis or other necrotizing infection, sarcoidosis

ruphysematous bullae. E

xposure to the aflatoxin can increase the risk of ping cancer in liver and lung and the toxicity is influenced by exposure level, ?A ,of exposure, age and consum

ers health conditions. Liver cancer takes tim

e velo

p b

ut th

e aflatoxin

s act as an im

munosu

ppressan

t so th

at affected

luals become susceptible to a w

ide range of diseases (IAR

C, 1987). Figure 3 b,

epots Aspergillom

a in lungs, liver and Carcinom

a in brain cells respectively.

~4

1 1 611

the su

sceptib

ility o

f individuals to aflatoxins varies considerably

species, age, sex and nutrition. Acute m

ycotoxicosis can cause serious m

etirnes fatal diseases. Aflatoxin exposure can depress the im

mune system

. It apse abortions in som

e instances; however, the circum

stances necessary for

caused by fungus of the genus Aspergillus

and mainly w

ild or domestic birds. T

his a lesion of a bird in 1842 by R

ayer and but m

olds likely belonging to the genus in the early 1800s. A

spergillus spores are ation of airborne spores and ingestion of ;e aspergillosis (F

ig. 3 a). Aspergillus is an

5 in cancer patients, transplant recipients,

uals, in

clud

ing th

ose w

ith A

IDS

wh

en

ng number of spores (C

eline, 2011). The

Ilergic bronchopulmonary, pulm

onary and jose an increasing threat to public health. also know

n to trigger contamination by

ts resulting in depletion of nutritive value. aave also been reported as resistant to heat ganism

(Galvano et al., 2005). A

spergillus m

ore than 150 types of mold that occur

ent. A. flavus is responsible for about 30%

)02).

illosis (AB

PA

)

(AB

PA

) is a hypersensitivity reaction to chial tree and occurs in conjunction w

ith P

A occurs in non-im

munocom

prornised losis, and is defined as a hypersensitivity It is estim

ated that AB

PA

affects 1 to 2%

ts with cystic fibrosis (G

aur et al., 2006). alone or w

ith AB

PA

. Bronchocentrjc

imonitis are tw

o hypersensitivity lung ies, but they are rare. A

sthma and cystic

with A

BP

A. T

he prevalence of AB

PA

is in steroid-dependent asthm

atics, and 2-)96).

VA

)

rrgillosis depend on the virulence and im

une status, and on the presence of any Ilosis is a rapidly progressive and often severely im

munosuppressed, including

Chronic necrotizing pulm

onary aspergillosis (CN

PA) is a rare condition and is a sub-

acute process usually found in patients with som

e degree of imm

unosuppression, m

ost comm

only that associated with underlying lung disease, alcoholism

, or long-term

cortico

steroid

therap

y (R

ajalingham

and A

nsh

ar, 2012). B

ecause it is

uncomm

on, CN

PA often rem

ains unrecognized for weeks or m

onths and can cause a progressive cavitary pulm

onary infiltrate. Frequently undetected in life and found at

autopsy, the ftequency of chronic necrotizing A

spergillus pneum

onia may be

underestimated. C

hronic necrotizing Aspergillus pneum

onia has reported mortality

rate of 10-40%, but rates as high as 100%

have been reported because it often rem

ains unrecognized for prolonged periods (Rajalingham

and Anshar, 2012).

24 P. N

. Acher and M

.Y. Sreenivasa

abortions to occur are not well defined (E

aton and Groopm

an, 1994). Aflatoxin

been shown to cross the placental barrier in hum

ans (Bhat and M

oy, 1997). Dciii

et al. (199 1) reported the quantity of Aflatoxins A

FB

and AF

GI1 in hum

an sera obtained at birth and in serum

obtained imm

ediately after birth from a m

othe T

hailand. National Institute of E

nvironmental H

ealth Sciences N

IEH

Sfun

scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of T

echnology, USA

, were am

ong the firs show

that exposure to aflatoxin can lead to liver cancer. Sim

ilarly, NIE

HS

-fun researchers at T

he Johns Hopkins U

niversity School of P

ublic Health show

ed w

hen people who test positive for the H

epatitis B virus are also exposed to aflatox

in the diet, their risk for developing liver cancer is about 60 times that of unexpo

individuals. This increase in cancer risk is m

uch greater than that observed w

either aflatoxins or Hepatitis B

virus alone.

Liver C

ancer

(3

Fig

. 3:

(a) Aspergillosis

in ey

es (b) A

spergillom

a in lu

ngs

(c) L

iver (d)

Carcinom

a in brain cells.

Aflatoxin

and L

ivestock Health

Aflatoxins are the m

ost intensively researched group of mycotoxins, because of their

demonstrated toxic and carcinogenic effects in the susceptible laboratory anim

als and livestock and their acute toxicological and chronic hepatocarcinogenic effects in

ton and Groopm

an 1994). Aflatoxin has

humans (B

hat and Moy, 1997). D

enning oxins A

FB

I and AF

GI I inhum

an cord im

mediately after birth from

a mother in

aental Health S

ciences NIE

HS

fJJnded echnology, U

SA, w

ere among the first to

liver cancer. Sim

ilarly, NIE

H5nded

Ly S

chool of Public H

ealth showed that

tis B virus are also exposed to aflatoxins

acer is about 60 times that of U

nexposed m

uch greater than that observed with

gillo

ma in

lun

gs (c) L

iver (d

)

AspergilluS species, C

arcinogenic Mold in P

eanuts- A G

lobal Health T

hreat 25

)up

of mycotoxjns because of their

the susceptible laboratory animals

onic hepatocarcinogenjc effects in

humans. D

omestic anim

al species such as chickens, ducks, cattle, swine and turkeys,

co nsuming sub lethal doses of aflatoxins for several days develop a toxic syndrom

e in w

hich liver damage is the m

ost significant change. According to W

HO

(1979), the biological effects of aflatoxins can be categorized into tw

o types, long term and short

term effects. L

ong term effects included chronic toxicity, cancer, birth defects and

genetic alterations. Livestock are also at risk but poultry are particularly susceptible.

Aflatoxins affect all poultry species. A

lthough they generally take relatively high levels to cause m

ortality, low levels can be detrim

ental if continually fed. Young

poultry, especially ducks and turkeys, are very susceptible. Cattle are not so

susceptible but if they are fed on contaminated feed the toxin m

ay pass into the milk.

Recently, a large chain super m

arket in US

announced a recall of select packages of pet food sold in som

eof its retail stores because the products may contain aflatoxin,

which poses a health risk to pets" and in 2006, a sim

ilar contamination led to the

deaths of hundreds of dogs throughout the country (Real T

ime laboratories, L

LC

,

2010). A

flatoxins are absorbed and carried to the liver via the circulatory system after

ingestion by animals. T

hey are then converted by the liver into toxic reactive epoxide s w

hich bind covalently to intracellular macrom

olecules such as DN

A, R

NA

an

d p

rotein

enzy

mes, resu

lting in

dam

age to

liver cells. In

additio

n to

their

hepatotoxic properties, aflatoxins are also carcinogenic. The chronic carcinogenic

dose of aflatoxins is much low

er than the acute dose. Susceptibility varies w

ith breed, species, age, dose, length of exposure and nutritional status. A

F131 is the most

potent toxin among aflatoxins and is principally a hepatotoxin and hepatocarcinogen,

but it causes a myriad of other effects either directly or indirectly associated w

ith this toxicity: im

munosuppresion, reduced grow

th rate, lowered m

ilk and egg production, reduced reproductivity, reduced feed utilization and efficiency and anem

ia (Negedu

et al., 2011). Aflatoxins are absorbed and carried to the liver via the circulatory

system after ingestion by anim

als. They are then converted by the liver into toxic

reactive epoxides which bind covalently to intracellular m

acromolecules such as

DN

A, R

NA

and protein enzymes, resulting in dam

age to liver cells. In addition to their hepatotoxic properties, aflatoxins are also carcinogenic.

The chronic carcinogenic dose of aflatoxins is m

uch lower than the acute dose.

Suscep

tibility

varies w

ith b

reed, sp

ecies, age, d

ose, len

gth

of ex

posu

re and

nutritional status. AFB

1 is the most potent toxin am

ong aflatoxins and is principally a hepatotoxin and hepatocarcinogen, but it causes a m

yriad of other effects either directly or indirectly associated w

ith this toxicity: imm

unosuppresion, reduced grow

th rate, lowered m

ilk and egg production, reduced reproductivity, reduced feed utilization and efficiency and anem

ia (Negedu et al., 2011). A

FB 1 has been show

n to induce hepatocellular carcinom

a in many species of anim

als including fish, poultry, n

on

-hu

man

prim

ates and

rod

ents. M

iller et al., (20

04

) recou

nted

a case of

pergiilosis in captive 2-week-old m

allards. Sporadic outbreaks of aspergillosis in

wild birds have also been reported, how

ever these incidents are preceded by some

Imm

unocomprornising effects. A

nimals consum

ing aflatoxins may suffer from

ym

ptoms ranging from

decreased growth rates, hepatic and nephritic toxicities,

rproductive failures, neurological degeneration and death (Bohra and P

urohit, 2003). T

he severity of aflatoxicosis differs by toxin and the species exposed. For

example, pigs are less sensitive to the effects of A

FB 1 than poultry, w

hich in turn are ever 0 tim

es as resistant compared to rabbits (M

iller, 1995). Aflatoxicol, a toxic

metabotite of aflatoxin, has been isolated from

all tissues of laying hens consuming

26 P. N

. Acher and M

.Y. Sreenivasa

AF

B 1 contam

inated feed, including eggs (Trucksess et al., 1983). A

flatoxins have been recovered from

the meat and m

ilk of cattle who have consum

ed contaminated

feed (Phillips et al., 2002).

Aflatoxin

Regu

lation

Since the discovery of the aflatoxins in the 1960s, regulations have been established

in many countries to protect consum

ers from the harm

ful effects of mycotoxins that

may contam

inate foodstuffs, as well as to ensure fair practices in food trade (R

eddy et al., 2002). L

egislations to establish safe maxim

um intake of A

FB1, have been tried

due to

seriou

s health

pro

blem

s caused

by

aflatox

in ex

po

sure, T

he F

oo

d an

d

Agriculture O

rganization (FA

O) of the U

nited Nations has played a m

ajor role in providing inform

ation on worldw

ide regulations for mycotoxins in foods and feeds

(FA

O 2001, 2003). A

flatoxin contamination of crops lim

its economic viability of

agriculture and can lead to severe health impairm

ent when present in staples required

to meet hum

an calorific or energy needs (Wu and K

hlangwiset, 2010). In developed

nations, strict regulations are enforced to prevent aflatoxins from entering the food

chain

. Th

is is in stark

con

trast to m

ost d

evelo

pin

g co

un

tries wh

ere aflatox

in

contaminated crops m

ay be the only food sources available and aflatoxin-related health problem

s are reported frequently (William

s et al., 2004). T

he U.S

. Food and D

rug Adm

inistration (US

FD

A) have set legal lim

its (20 ppb) on the am

ount of aflatoxin that can be present in grain sold through interstate com

merce. T

able 1 gives the permissible lim

its of aflatoxin concentration in specific agricultural foodstuffs (F

AO

).Most countries have adopted regulations that lim

it the quantity of aflatoxin in food and feed to 20 jrg/ K

g or less; however, environm

ental conditions in m

ost of the world w

here peanuts are produced and stored often make it

difficult or impossible to attain such low

concentrations (Dom

er, 2008).

Tab

le 1: Perm

issible lim

its of Aflatoxin

concen

tration in

agricultu

ral food

stuffs.

Con

c. C

riterion

20 For all food for hum

an consumption, for corn and other grains intended

for imm

ature animals (including im

mature poultry) and dairy anim

als, or w

hen food/feed ingredients is not known, and for anim

al feeds, other than corn or cotton seed m

eal. 100

For corn and other grains intended for breeding beef cattle, breeding

swine, or m

ature poultry. 200

For corn and other grains intended for finishing sw

ine (i.e., meat/pork)

of 100 pounds or greater weight.

300 F

or corn and other grains intended for finishing (i.e., feedlot) beef cattle, and for cottonseed m

eal intended for beef cattle, swine or

poultry.

Source: F

AO

, 2001

The U

nited Nations F

ood and Agriculture O

rganization (FA

O) and W

orld Health

Organization (W

HO

) determined the upper aflatoxin exposure lim

it as 30 pg kg-i in

Aspergillus species, C

arcinogenic Mold in P

eanuts- A G

lobal Health T

hreat 27

(Trucksess et al., 1983). A

flatoxths hav foodstuffs for hum

an (Moss, 1996). In 2002, E

uropean Union established m

aximum

if cattle w

ho have consumed contam

in a e safe lev

el as 4 an

d 2

pg

kg-1 for to

tal afl atoxin and

AF

B 1, respectively (M

oss, 2002). In addition, the C

odex Alim

entarius Com

mission, aoint F

AQ

/WH

O) decided

the maxim

um lim

it of total aflatoxin in peanut as 15 pg kg-1 (Ding et al., 2012).

WH

O fixed the lim

it at 5 p.g kg-i for different types of foods for AF

B (P

app et al., 2002). B

y co

nsid

ering th

ese limits, m

ost o

f the co

untries estab

lished

their o

wn

1960s, regulations have been established legislations. T

he permissible lim

its of different types of mycotoxin in E

uropean and

im the harm

ful effects of

mycO

tOxin

s that

other countries are given in table 2.

ensure fair practices in food trade (Reddy

Tab

le 2: Perm

issible lim

its of differen

t mycotoxin

s in E

urop

ean an

d oth

er naximum

b In

take 0

fAF

B1, have been tried

y aflato

xin

countries.

exposu

re. The F

ood

d iited

Nation

s has p

layed a m

aor M

ycotoxin

Fu

ngal

Host

Perm

issible levels

igIkg)

Itions for mycotoxths in foods and feeds

Types

source

EU

W

orld w

ide

)n of crops limits econom

ic viability o

f

Aflatoxin B

1 A

spergillus M

aize, Nuts,

airment w

hen present in staples required flavus and A

. R

ice, Wheat

0.1

-8.0

1.0

-20.0

In and Khlangw

iset 2010). In developed parasiticus

ifom entering the food

reelta

fiatoxins

dev

elop

ing

A

flatoxin B,

Do

Do

4.0-

15.0 0.0

-35.0

cou ntries where aflatoxin sources available and aflatoxin

-related GI& G2

Aflatoxin M

I D

o M

ilk 0

.02

5-0

.50

0.0- 15.0

ation (US

FD

A) have set legal lim

its (20 0.05 by

1

.

majority)

present in grain sold through interstateits

I

of aflatoxin concentration in sp ecific S

ource: Basappa, 2009

have adopted regulations that limit the

g

g or less; however, environm

ental C

on

trol

s are produced and stored often make it

entrations (Dorner, 2

JU

0).

.

Aflatoxin contam

ination may be m

in

i mized by adopting certain cultural, produce

handling, and storage practices (Upadhyaya et al., 1997). U

nder optimum

conditions concentratio

n in

ag

ricultural fo

od

for grow

th, A. fla

vus can

pro

du

ce som

e aflatox

in w

ithin

24

h an

d a b

iolo

gically

significant am

ount in a few days (Jacobsen et al., 1993). U

se of chemicals to control

Aspergillus

species has

proven to

be unsuccessful

and detrim

ental to

the

terion environm

ent. Due to the ubiquitous nature of A

. flavu

s, proper storage of edible pean

uts fro

m p

roduce to

selling p

oin

ts is difficu

lt. Curren

tly, th

ere is no k

now

n

ti

for co m

and other grains intended process, to treat the peanuts, know

n to farmers to control fungi that produce aflatoxin

nmature poultry) and dairy anim

als D

ornei and Lam

b, 2002). Many strategies, including natural and biological, and

' not k

now

n, an

d fo

r anim

al feeds

development of resistant cultivar, have been investigated to m

anage aflatoxins in crops. A

mong them

, biological control appears to be the most prom

ising approach

I for breeding beef cattle breedingfor control of a

fl atoxins in post-harvested crops. Health hazards fr om

exposure to toxic chem

icals and eco

nom

ic consid

erations m

ake n

atural p

lant ex

tracts ideal

for finishing Sw

ine (i.e. meat/pork\

alternatives to protect food and feed from fungal contam

ination (Reddy et al., 2009).

/ O

ver the years, efforts have been devoted to search for new antifungal m

aterials

d fo

r finish

ing

(i.e. feedlot

b fr

natural sources

for food

preservation (B

oyraz and

Ozcan,

2005; H

aciseferogullari 2005).

et iii.,

In US,

State o

f Geo

rgia a g

roup o

f researchers at

,tended

for b

eef cattle e o

r 45-

Agricultural R

esearch Station (A

RS

), Daw

son, after 14 years research reported a -

promising biopesticide against A

. flavus in peanuts by using non-aflatoxin spores of A

. fiavus to

act as a living shield around the peanut pod against toxigetlie fungi

anization (FA

O)

World

)Xin exposure lim

it

IDorn

er and L

amb, 2

002). R

ecently

, two p

roducts o

f nonto

xig

enic strain

s hav

e received U

.S. E

nvironmental P

rotection Agency (E

PA

) registration as bio pesticides

MW

28 P. N

. Acher and M

.Y. S

reenivasa

to control aflatoxin contamination in cotton and peanuts in several states

(Dorner, 2004). S

everal edible botanical extracts have been reported t

antifungal activity (Reddy et al., 2009; P

radeep et al., 2003). The essen

extracted from clove has been show

n to possess significant antifungal pr( (R

eddy et al., 2009, Yoossef et al., 2011, Q

uyen et al., 2011 & M

ungai et al., T

he inhibitory effects of neem (A

zadirachia indica) plant extracts on my

biosynthesis have also been reported (Reddy et al., 2009). T

he oils such as C

innamon, N

eem, E

ucalyptus, have been recently used, against Aspergillus

antifungal agents to prevent food spoilage. The antifungal nature of essential o

been demonstrated by M

ontes and Carvajal (1998) and B

asilico and Basilico

against fungi such as Aspergillus and F

usarium. T

ransgenic approaches are u

sed in

several in

du

stries and

academ

ic labo

ratories to

prev

ent in

vasi(

Aspergillus fungi or to prevent biosynthesis of aflatoxin (R

ajasekaran et al., how

ever this approach has not been widely accepted by the consum

ers arour globe.

Conclusion

Aflatoxin group of m

ycotoxins are natural by occurring contaminants for a varic

foodstuffs throughout the world. T

hey are of major concern due to their effe

both, human and anim

al health, Consum

ers' awareness around the globe is of ut

importance to m

inimize peanut related diseases such aspergillosis and aspergilli

To m

inimize the sam

e in pediatric population, it is important for parents i

aware of the difference betw

een peanut related allergies, reactions to other allergies and aspergillosis and aspergillom

a due to inhalation of airborne fu. spores or consum

ing contaminated food or food products. S

uch knowledge to

public at large will keep them

away from

the risk of aflatoxigenic forms of m

ol peanuts. T

here is much need to educate younger generation to keep our environu

and comm

unity safe from toxic chem

icals by using renewable resources

employing green technologies. Increased literacy in favor of use of sustaini

agricultural products to reduce fungal infections will help to address som

e of challenges to protect environm

ent and the consumers.

Acknow

ledgment

We w

ould like to thank Dr A

Choudhary ,

V

isiting Scientist D

ivision of Biologn

Standards and Quality C

ontrol, Office of C

ompliance &

Biological Q

uality (OC

B(

Center of B

iologics Evaluation &

Research (C

BE

R), F

DA

, Rockville, M

D for 1

critical suggestions during preparation of this chapter.

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