…in the ocean… biological productivity. we know what the ocean zones are and who lives...
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…in the Ocean…
• Biological Productivity
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• We know what the ocean zones are and who lives there…but HOW do they live there together?
• TROPHIC STRUCTURE:– Flow of energy or matter through an ecosystem,
a “feeding” or trophic system– Primary, Secondary etc. PRODUCERS AND
CONSUMERS– Food web/chain/pyramid
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Ecosystems
• An ecosystem is the totality of the environment encompassing all parts:– Chemical– Physical– Geological– Biological
• Ecosystems function by the exchange of matter and energy.
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• Plants use chlorophyll in photosynthesis:– to convert inorganic material into organic
compounds – to store energy for growth and reproduction
• Plants are autotrophs and the primary producers in most ecosystems.
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• All other organisms are heterotrophs, the consumers and decomposers in ecosystems.
• Herbivores eat plants and carnivores eat animals; omnivores eat both.
• Material is constantly recycled in the ecosystem.– Energy gradually dissipates as heat and is lost.
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Ecosystem Model
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The word “trophic” refers to nutrition
• Trophic dynamics is the study of the nutritional interconnections among organisms within an ecosystem.
• Trophic level is the position of an organism within the trophic structure of an ecosystem.– Autotrophs form the first trophic level.
– Herbivores are the second trophic level.
– Carnivores occupy the third and higher trophic levels.
– Decomposers form the terminal level.
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A food chain is the succession of organisms within an ecosystem based upon trophic dynamics.
Who is eaten by whom.
Fnft: Simple Food Chain
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A food web consists of interconnected and interdependent food chains
Fnft: Food Web
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• An energy pyramid represents a food chain in terms of the energy contained at each trophic level.
• The size of each level in an energy pyramid is controlled by the size of the level immediately below.
Fnft: Energy Pyramid
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Food chains transfer energy from one trophic level to another
• Biomass is the quantity of living matter per unit area or per volume of water.
• With each higher trophic level:– the size of organisms generally increases– the reproductive rate decreases– The number of organisms decreases– the total biomass decreases
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• The two major food chains in the ocean are:– the grazing food chain – the detritus food chain (non-living wastes form
the base of the food chain)
• Only about 10-20% of energy is transferred between trophic levels.
• This produces a rapid decline in biomass at each successive trophic level.
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Energy Transfer Between Trophic Levels
Fnft: Energy Transfer Between Tropic Levels
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• As the primary producers, plants require for photosynthesis :– Sunlight– Nutrients– Water– Carbon dioxide
• The formula for photosynthesis is:
6CO2 + 6H2O + solar energy C6H12O6 (sugar) + 6 O2
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Sun
Ligh
t ene
rgy
ProducersPhotosynthesizers: Green plants and algae, and specialized bacteria
Chemical energy
(carbohydrates,
etc.)
Consumers
Respirers:Animals and decomposers and plants at night Energy of
movement, waste
heat, entropy
To space
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• Sunlight and nutrients are the limiting factors in marine ecosystems.
• Phytoplankton blooms are the rapid expansion of a phytoplankton population because sunlight and nutrients are abundant.
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• Factors that limit plant growth and reduce primary production include:– Major Factors:
• solar radiation
• nutrients
– Secondary Factors:• Upwelling
• Turbulence
• grazing intensity
• turbidity
• Only 0.1 to 0.2% of solar radiation is used for photosynthesis, and its energy stored in organic compounds.
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• Primary production is the total amount of carbon (C) converted into organic material per square meter of sea surface per year
(gC/m2/yr)
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• Productivity varies greatly in different parts of the ocean in response to the availability of nutrients and sunlight.
• In the tropics and subtropics sunlight is abundant.
• This generates a strong thermocline that:– restricts upwelling of nutrients – results in lower productivity
• High productivity locally occurs in:– areas of coastal upwelling– tropical waters between the gyres– coral reefs
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• In temperate regions productivity is distinctly seasonal.
• Polar waters are nutrient-rich all year.
• Productivity is only high in the summer when light is abundant.
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Variations in Primary Productivity
Tropics
North Atlantic
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Spring Diatom Bloom in the North Atlantic
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• Primary productivity varies from 25 to 1250 gC/m2/yr in the marine environment.
• It is highest in estuaries and lowest in the open ocean.
• In the open ocean primary productivity distribution resembles a “bull’s eye” pattern.– The lowest productivity is in the center – The highest is at the edge of the basin
• Water in the center of the ocean is a clear blue because it is an area of downwelling, above a strong thermocline.
– It is almost devoid of biological activity.
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• Continental shelves display moderate productivity between 50 and 200 gC/m2/yr.
• This is because:– nutrients wash in from the land– tide- and wave-generated turbulence recycle nutrients
from the bottom water
• Polar areas have high productivity because there is no pycnocline to inhibit mixing.
• Equatorial waters have high productivity because of upwelling.
• Centers of circulation gyres, which occupy most of the open ocean, are biological deserts.
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Global Variations in Primary and Secondary Production
Fnft: Primary Productivity
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Upwelling in the South Pacific
Figure 10-14 Upwelling
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Coastal Upwelling
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…so that’s only 1 side of the equation…
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What about the CONSUMERS?
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Animals must consume pre-existing organic material to survive
• Animals break down the organic compounds into their inorganic components to obtain the stored energy.
• The chemical formula for respiration is:
C6H12O6 (sugar) + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
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• The recovered energy is used for:– Movement– Reproduction– Growth
• The food consumed by most organisms is proportional to their body size (exceptions occur).
– Smaller animals eat smaller food
– Larger animals eat larger food
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• The basic feeding strategies of animals are: – Grazing– Predation– Scavenging– Filter feeding– Deposit feeding
• Population size is dependent upon food supply and grazing pressure.
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Feeding Strategies
Crab
Barracuda
Feather Duster Worms
Predator
Scavenger
Filter Feeder
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Prey-Predator Relationships
Fnft: Prey-Predator Relationships
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• And finally, the “other” consumer…
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• Bacteria are decomposers.
• They break down organic material and release nutrients for recycling.
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Fnft: Nutrient Cycling
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Now let’s break it down…
• …the “basics”
• Food Webs and Trophic structures are different in different parts of the world (i.e. each HABITAT has its’ own unique balanced feeding structure)
• Each section is a (larger) part of the whole
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Fnft: Simplified paths of the flow of oxygen and carbon in an idealized marine ecosystem
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Fnft: Biogeochemical cycle of nitrogen or phosphorus
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Fnft: Energy flow in a marine ecosystem
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Fnft: Major biotic components of a marine ecosystem
Adapted from W. D. Russell-Hunter. Aquatic Productivity. Macmillan, 1970
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Fnft: Food pyramid that leads to an adult herring
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Figure 15.24
Herring during different
stages of development
(growth)
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Figure 10.13
antarctic food
chain
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Figure 10.14 antarctic
food web
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Benthic food web
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Figure 15.25
Epipelagic Foodweb
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• Epipelagic food web
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Remember
• EACH habitat will have its own food web/trophic structure based on:- location (and water chemistry)- organismal make-up- other abiotic “influences” (including proximity to land/pollution sources)
WATCH FOR THESE AS WE STUDY EACH HABITAT IN THE COURSE!