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Index

Aarhus Convention, 24–5, 641access to justice, 24–5acts of God. See force majeureanimals, wild animals, 413, 617–18Argentina, 29Austria

beaches, 532Case 1 (industrial plant), 80–4Case 2 (sudden accident), 167–70Case 3 (dangerous substances), 205Case 4 (GMOs), 226–8Case 5 (micro-organisms), 252–3Case 6 (waste disposal site), 263–4Case 7 (hazardous waste production),

279–80Case 8 (nuclear damage), 293–6Case 9 (harmless substance), 317–18Case 10 (historic pollution), 330–1Case 11 (cancer from pollution), 352Case 12 (increase in leukemia rate),

376–7Case 13 (dying forest), 397Case 14 (fish kill), 414Case 15 (contaminated land), 442–4Case 16 (polluted river), 479–80, 481Case 17 (oil spill), 532–3Case 18 (contaminated drinking water),

563–4causation, 352alternative causation, 414cumulative causation, 414easing burden of proof, 349free evaluation of evidence, 352intervening causation, 413, 414nuclear damage, 295presumption of causation, 350,

352, 376prima facie evidence, 348, 352, 376standard of proof, 348, 352statistical evidence, 373, 376–7

Chernobyl accident and, 45collective actions, 77, 84, 88conflict of lawstort rules, 34, 37transboundary nuclear damage, 47–8

contaminated landemergency measures, 443lost profits, 443–4negligence, 444restoration costs, 437standing, 435, 442

damagescontaminated land, 442–4death, 561, 564emotional distress, 561, 563–4GMOs, 227–8lost profits, 440, 443–4, 481, 525, 533motor vehicle accidents, 479negligence, 444neighbourhood law, 71nuclear damage, 295–6personal injuries, 84, 561, 563–4property damage, 83restoration costs, 437, 442–3scope, 76, 77subrogation, 377

defencescompliance with public law, 168contributory negligence, 168–70force majeure, 167–8licensing conditions, 165state-of-the-art, 227, 316, 317–18third party damage, 168

fault liability, 80burden of proof, 82contaminated land, 444damages, 444GMOs, 227protective law, 68

fishing rights, 533

673

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Austria (cont.)forest damage, 397GMOs, 224–5

burden of proof, 226–7contamination, 223–4damages, 227–8fault liability, 227neighbourhood law, 225specific regime, 225, 226–8

immissions, 79joint and several liability, 395–6, 397, 414judicial role, 79light deprivation, 81limitation periods, 328, 330–1negotiorum gestio, 533neighbourhood law, 69, 70, 71, 81–2

damages, 71GMOs, 225importance, 71standing, 71

nuclear damagecross-border damage, 295damages, 295–6jurisdiction, 293legal channelling, 293multiple causation, 295non-ratification of conventions,28, 293

operators’ liability, 294preventive costs, 296recovery of prevention costs, 443specific regime, 291–2, 293–6third party actions, 294–5

oil pollution by ships, 532–3product liability

burden of proof, 68GMOs, 227

social insurance, subrogation, 377standing, 82

contaminated land, 435, 442NGOs, 480, 532–3social insurance, 377water pollution, 533

state liability, 253, 443strict liability, 73, 75, 83–4

defences, 162GMOs, 226–8state-of-the-art defence and, 316water pollution, 521

sudden accidents, 161, 167unjust enrichment, 439–40vicarious liability, 80waste management, 261, 263–4

hazardous waste production, 279–80water pollution, 479–80, 481, 532–3

clean-up costs, 479–80, 521, 533clean-up measures, 532–3

ecological damage, 480–1lost profits, 481, 525, 533specific liability regime, 522standing, 533

Baia Mare incident, 44, 46Basel Protocol (1993), contents, 31Baxter, William, 33Beale, Joseph, 33Belarus, 29Belgiumactio popularis, 486animals, 228, 253Case 1 (industrial plant), 84–90Case 2 (sudden accident), 170–4Case 3 (dangerous substances), 206–8Case 4 (GMOs), 228–30Case 5 (micro-organisms), 253–4Case 6 (waste disposal site), 264, 266Case 7 (hazardouswaste production), 280Case 8 (nuclear damage), 296–8Case 9 (harmless substance), 318Case 10 (historic pollution), 331–2Case 11 (cancer from pollution), 352–4Case 12 (increase in leukemia rate), 377Case 13 (dying forest), 398Case 14 (fish kill), 415Case 15 (contaminated land), 444–7Case 16 (polluted river), 481–7Case 17 (oil spill), 533–5Case 18 (contaminated drinking water),

564–5causation

alternative causation, 413, 415burden of proof, 352–3cumulative causation, 415easing burden of proof, 350free evaluation of evidence, 353intervening causation, 415standard of proof, 348, 353–4statistical evidence, 373–4, 378–9

collective actions, 77, 78, 90contaminated land

damages, 444–7emergency measures, 438–9, 446–7lost profits, 441, 447reinstatement costs, 437, 446remedies, 89–90soil pollution, 85

criminal proceedings, parties civiles, 354damages

contaminated land, 444–7emotional distress, 562fault liability, 447GMOs, 229loss of common resources, 487marine pollution, 523

674 I N D E X






moral damages, 380nuclear damage, 297–8nuisance, 71, 77, 88–9occupational diseases, 379–80oil pollution by ships, 533–5personal injuries, 561, 564–5perte d’une chance, 373–4road traffic accidents, 481–2, 521standing, 444–5subrogation, 380sudden accidents, 172water pollution, 481–7

dangerous micro-organisms, 250, 253–4dangerous substancesduty of care, 206–8fault liability, 206–8

defencescompliance with public law, 164,

173, 208contributory negligence, 165, 174force majeure, 163, 172–3, 208necessity, 208state-of-the-art, 207, 316, 318third party damage, 164, 173

fault liability, 68–9damages, 447dangerous substances, 206–8defences, 208GMOs, 228

GMOs, 226damages, 229fault liability, 228nuisance, 228, 229product liability, 229

injunctions, 447, 486joint and several liability, 398, 415judicial role, 79jurisdiction, nuclear damage, 298limitation periods, 329, 331–2marine environment regime, 523, 535nuclear damage, 296–8jurisdiction, 298limitation period, 298operators’ liability, 297ratification of conventions, 29, 30, 290,

296–8sources of compensation, 297–8

nuisance, 70, 71, 85–9causality, 87damages, 71, 77, 88–9defences, 88GMOs, 228, 229remedies, 89–90standing, 71, 87sudden occurrences, 170

occupational diseases, 377–8, 380damages, 379–80

oil pollution by shipsclean-up costs, 534damages, 533–5international conventions, 26, 534lost profits, 534standing, 534–5

product liability, GMOs, 229public authoritiesliability, 253–4recovery of emergency costs, 439,

446–7standing, 486

res ipsa loquitur, 172res nullius, 485self-defence, 208social insurance, subrogation, 380standing, 436damages, 444–5NGOs, 483–6, 529–30, 534occupational diseases, 380oil pollution by ships, 534–5public authorities, 486

strict liability, 73, 75–6, 79, 84–5custody of defective things, 170–2, 521defences, 166GMOs, 224marine pollution, 523, 535

sudden accidents, 161, 170–2causation, 172

vicarious liability, 482waste management, 264, 266hazardous waste production, 278, 280

water pollutionclean-up costs, 481clean-up measures, 533–4damages, 481–7ecological damage, 482–6, 528lost profits, 486–7, 524

Bernasconi, Christophe, 50–1Bosnia-Herzegovina, 29Bulgaria, 29burden of proof

Case 11, 347common law countries, 69comparisons, 347, 609easing burden, 348–51, 610force majeure, 163neighbourhood laws, 68shifting burden, 67–8standard of proof, 347–8, 609–12

Case 1 (industrial plant), 56Austria, 80–4Belgium, 84–90comparative remarks, 67–9, 80collective actions, 77, 593–4fault liability, 67

I N D E X 675






Case 1 (industrial plant) (cont.)neighbourhood laws, 69–71scope of damages, 76–7, 592–3strict liability, 72–6

England, 90–102Finland, 102–3France, 103–7Germany, 108–14Greece, 114–17Ireland, 117–28Italy, 128–37Netherlands, 138–42Portugal, 142–9questionnaire, 57–8, 67Scotland, 150–1Spain, 151–8Sweden, 159–60

Case 2 (sudden accident), 56Austria, 167–70Belgium, 170–4comparisons

compliance with public law defence,164–5, 590–1

contributory negligence, 165–6, 167,591–2

damage by third parties, 163–4, 590defences, 162–6, 588–92force majeure, 162–3, 166–7, 589–90licensing defence, 164–5sudden accidents, 161–2, 588

England, 174–7Finland, 177–8France, 178–81Germany, 181–3Greece, 184–5Ireland, 185–9Italy, 189–91Netherlands, 191–5Portugal, 195–6questionnaire, 57–8, 161Scotland, 196–8Spain, 198–202Sweden, 202–3

Case 3 (dangerous substances), 56Austria, 205Belgium, 206–8comparisons, 204–5, 595England, 209–11Finland, 211–12France, 212Germany, 213–14, 215Greece, 215Ireland, 215–16Italy, 216Netherlands, 216–17Portugal, 217–18questionnaire, 58, 204

Scotland, 218–19Spain, 219–20Sweden, 220–1

Case 4 (GMOs), 56Austria, 226–8Belgium, 228–30comparisons, 222–6, 595–8England, 230–1Finland, 231–2France, 232Germany, 233–4Greece, 234–6Ireland, 236–9Italy, 239Netherlands, 240–1Portugal, 241questionnaire, 58–9, 222Scotland, 241–2Spain, 242–8Sweden, 249

Case 5 (micro-organisms), 56Austria, 252–3Belgium, 253–4comparisons, 250–2, 599

public service undertakings, 251–2England, 254Finland, 254–5France, 255Germany, 255–6Greece, 256Ireland, 256–7Italy, 257Netherlands, 257–8Portugal, 258questionnaire, 59, 250Scotland, 258–9Spain, 259–60Sweden, 260

Case 6 (waste disposal site), 56Austria, 263–4Belgium, 264, 266comparisons, 261–3, 599–601England, 265Finland, 266–7France, 267–8Germany, 268Greece, 269–70Ireland, 270–2Italy, 272Netherlands, 272–4Portugal, 274questionnaire, 59, 261Scotland, 274–5Spain, 275–7Sweden, 277

Case 7 (hazardous waste production), 56Austria, 279–80

676 I N D E X






Belgium, 280comparisons, 278–9, 601England, 280–1Finland, 281France, 282Germany, 282–3Greece, 283–5Ireland, 285Italy, 286Netherlands, 286–7Portugal, 287questionnaire, 59, 278Scotland, 287–8Spain, 288–9Sweden, 289, 290

Case 8 (nuclear damage), 56Austria, 293–6Belgium, 296–8comparisons, 290–3, 601–4England, 298–300Finland, 300France, 300–1Germany, 301Greece, 301–3Ireland, 303–5Italy, 305Netherlands, 305–10Portugal, 311questionnaire, 59–60Scotland, 311–12Spain, 312–14Sweden, 314

Case 9 (harmless substance), 56Austria, 317–18Belgium, 318comparisons, 315–17England, 318–19Finland, 319France, 319Germany, 319–20Greece, 320–1Ireland, 321–2Italy, 322Netherlands, 322–5Portugal, 325questionnaire, 315Scotland, 325Spain, 325–7

Case 10 (historic pollution), 56Austria, 330–1Belgium, 331–2comparisons, 328–30, 607England, 332–3Finland, 333France, 333–4Germany, 334–5Greece, 335–7

Ireland, 337–8Italy, 338–9Netherlands, 339–41Portugal, 341questionnaire, 60, 328Scotland, 341–2Spain, 342–3Sweden, 343

Case 11 (cancer from pollution), 57Austria, 352Belgium, 352–4comparisons, 347–51burden of proof, 347, 609easing burden of proof, 348–51standard of proof, 347–8,

609–12England, 354–5, 356Finland, 356France, 356–7Germany, 357–9Greece, 359–60Ireland, 360–2Italy, 362Netherlands, 362–4Portugal, 364–5questionnaire, 60, 347Scotland, 365–6Spain, 366–71Sweden, 371

Case 12 (increase in leukemia rate), 57Austria, 376–7Belgium, 377comparisonssocial insurance subrogation, 374–5statistical evidence, 372, 374–6,

613–15England, 380–1Finland, 382France, 382–3Germany, 383–4Greece, 384–6Ireland, 386–7Italy, 387Netherlands, 387–90Portugal, 390questionnaire, 61, 372Scotland, 390–1social insurance, 57Spain, 391–3Sweden, 394

Case 13 (dying forest), 57Austria, 397Belgium, 398comparisons, 395–7, 615–17England, 398–9Finland, 399France, 399

I N D E X 677






Case 13 (dying forest) (cont.)Germany, 400–2Greece, 402–3Ireland, 403–4Italy, 404Netherlands, 405–6Portugal, 406–7questionnaire, 61, 395Scotland, 407–8Spain, 408–10Sweden, 410, 411

Case 14 (fish kill), 57Austria, 414Belgium, 415comparisons, 412–14, 615–17England, 416–18Finland, 418France, 418–19Germany, 419–21Greece, 421–2Ireland, 422–3Italy, 423Netherlands, 423–5Portugal, 425–6questionnaire, 61, 412Scotland, 426–8Spain, 428–31Sweden, 431

Case 15 (contaminated land), 57Austria, 442–4Belgium, 444–7comparisons, 435–42

lost profits, 440–2, 625–6preventive measures, 438–40, 623–5scope of damages, 437–8, 621–3standing, 435–6, 620–1

England, 447–50Finland, 450–1France, 451–2Germany, 452–4Greece, 454–6Ireland, 456–8Italy, 458Netherlands, 460–6Portugal, 466–7questionnaire, 435Scotland, 468–70Spain, 470–5Sweden, 476–7

Case 16 (polluted river), 57Austria, 479–80, 481Belgium, 481–7comparisons, 478–9, 520–32, 626–36

clean-up costs, 520–3, 626–9ecological damage, 526, 632–6lost profits, 524–5, 630–1

England, 487–9

Finland, 489France, 489–91Germany, 491–3Greece, 493–4Ireland, 494–6Italy, 496–7Netherlands, 497–505Portugal, 505–6questionnaire, 62, 476–7Scotland, 506–9Spain, 509–17Sweden, 517–19

Case 17 (oil spill), 57Austria, 532–3Belgium, 533–5comparisons, 520–32, 626–36

clean-up costs, 520–3, 626–9ecological damage, 526, 543–4lost profits, 524–5, 630–1

England, 535Finland, 537–8France, 538–40Germany, 540–3Greece, 543–4Ireland, 544–7Italy, 547Netherlands, 548–51Portugal, 551–2questionnaire, 63, 520Scotland, 552–3Spain, 553–8Sweden, 559

Case 18 (contaminated drinking water), 57Austria, 563–4Belgium, 564–5comparisons, 560–3

emotional distress, 561–2, 618–19personal injuries and death, 560–1,617–18

standing, 562England, 565Finland, 565France, 566–7Germany, 567–8Greece, 568–9Ireland, 569–70Italy, 571Netherlands, 571–3Portugal, 573questionnaire, 63, 560Scotland, 574Spain, 574–5Sweden, 576

causationalternative causation, 413, 616–17burden of proof, 347, 609

easing burden, 348–51, 610

678 I N D E X






Case 11, 57, 347Case 14, 412–14comparisons, 609–17, 644–5cumulative causation, 412, 615–16intervening causation, 412–13, 431, 616Lugano Convention, 4multiple tortfeasors, 347–51, 615–17presumption of causation, 611–12standard of proof, 347–8, 609–12statistics. See statistical evidence

Chernobyl accident, 44, 45, 46collective actions, 77, 593–4conflict of laws

favour-principle, 34, 48, 51tortsbilocal torts, 43–4lex loci delicti commissi, 34, 37–8national rules, 33–8proposed EU rules, 38–43transboundary environmental

damage, 46–8contaminated land

Case 15, 435clean-up regimes, 204–5, 595damage to third parties, 624–5damages, 437–8, 621–3, 646–7Environmental Liability Directive, 16remedial actions, 19

preventive measures, 438–40, 623–5recovery of local authority costs,

439, 624standing, 435–6, 620–1

contingent valuation methodology, 11contributory negligence, 165–6, 167, 591–2cooperation, European Union, 23, 39Council of Europe, 3–6Croatia, 29, 43Currie, Brainard, 33Cyprus, 4Czech Republic, 29

damagesSee also pure economic lossBasel Protocol (1999), 31clean-up costs, 520–3contaminated land, 437–8, 621–3contingent valuation methodology, 11death, 561, 618, 645emotional distress, 561–2, 618–19Environmental Liability Directive, 12,

15–16industrial pollution, 76–7Lugano Convention, 5, 638neighbourhood laws, 71, 592–3nuclear damage, 28–31oil pollution by ships, 26–8personal injuries, 560–1, 617–18, 645

property damage to third parties, 440transboundary damages, 31–2US CERCLA, 10–11US Oil Pollution Act, 11–12

dangerous activitiesEnvironmental Liability Directive, 20Lugano Convention, 5–6, 638strict liability, 584–7

dangerous micro-organismsCase 5, 56, 250comparisons, 250–2, 599public service undertakings, 251–2

dangerous substancesCase 3, 56, 58, 204comparisons, 204–5, 595Environmental Liability Directive, 20Lugano Convention definition, 4

deathCase 18, 560damages, 561, 618, 645standing, 562

defencesSee also limitation periodscomparisons, 162–6, 588–92compliance with public law, 164–5,

590–1contributory negligence, 165–6, 167,

591–2damage by third parties, 163–4, 590Environmental Liability Directive, 21–2force majeure, 589–90Lugano Convention, 4strict liability and, 166, 643–4US CERCLA, 10

Denmark, 29, 39development risk. See state-of-the-art

defencedomestic legislation

conflict of laws rules, 33–8, 46–8Environmental Liability Directive andapportionment of liability, 22biodiversity damage, 14limitation of liability, 21

torts, 642–4, 648

ecological damage. See natural resourcedamage

emotional distress, damages, 561–2,618–19

Englandbreach of statutory duty, 211Case 1 (industrial plant), 90–102Case 2 (sudden accident), 174–7Case 3 (dangerous substances), 209–11Case 4 (GMOs), 230–1Case 5 (micro-organisms), 254Case 6 (waste disposal site), 265

I N D E X 679






England (cont.)Case 7 (hazardous waste production),

280–1Case 8 (nuclear damage), 298–300Case 9 (harmless substance), 318–19Case 10 (historic pollution), 332–3Case 11 (cancer from pollution),

354–5, 356Case 12 (increase in leukemia rate), 380–1Case 13 (dying forest), 398–9Case 14 (fish kill), 416–18Case 15 (contaminated land), 447–50Case 16 (polluted river), 487–9Case 17 (oil spill), 535Case 18 (contaminated drinking

water), 565causation, 354–5, 356

alternative causation, 413, 416–18burden of proof, 354‘but-for’ test, 417cumulative causation, 416easing burden of proof, 349–50intervening causation, 418novus actus interveniens, 440, 449scientific evidence, 355standard of proof, 348–9, 355–6statistical evidence, 374, 380–1

collective actions, 78, 535contaminated land

clean-up regime, 210–11damages, 205, 447–50emergencymeasures, 439, 440, 449–50historic pollution, 333local authority orders, 438lost profits, 441, 450negligence, 450scope of damages, 448–9standing, 436, 447–8statutory remedies, 101

damagesbreach of statutory duty, 211contaminated land, 205, 447–50death, 561, 565emotional distress, 561, 565negligence, 450nuclear damage, 298–300occupational diseases, 381oil pollution by ships, 524–5personal injuries, 76, 210, 355, 565pure economic loss, 75, 100, 381, 441,450, 488–9, 524–5, 536–7

remoteness, 488subrogation, 381water pollution, 487–9

dangerous substancescommon law, 209, 210statute law, 210–11, 521

defencesacts of God, 174–5compliance with public law, 164,176–7

contributory negligence, 165–6, 177licensing system, 101state-of-the-art, 316, 318–19third party damage, 163, 175–6volenti non fit injuria, 166, 177

fault liability, 69, 209, 210causation, 354

fishing rights, 536GMOs, 223, 225

negligence, 230statutory liability, 230–1

human rights, 95immissions, 79Irish and English law, 118, 122, 127joint and several liability, 396, 398–9,

413, 416–18limitation periods, 96, 299, 329negligence, 71, 209

burden of proof, 354–5contaminated land, 450GMOs, 230hazardous waste, 281

nuclear damagecommon law, 298damages, 298–300limitation periods, 299property damage, 299–300statutory liability, 299–300

oil pollution by shipsBraer disaster, 537clean-up costs, 536–7damages, 535ecological damage, 537lost profits, 536–7standing, 536strict liability, 535–6

private nuisance, 70, 71burden of proof, 355collective actions and, 102compliance with public lawdefence, 176

continuous interference, 92damages, 71, 95–6defences, 96foreseeability, 93–5, 318–19generally, 91–6historic pollution, 332–3importance, 71indirect interference, 92–3interference with enjoyment ofland, 93

nuclear damage, 298, 300personal injuries, 355

680 I N D E X






standing, 95–6sudden accidents, 174unreasonable interference, 92

public authoritiesliability, 254recovery of emergency costs, 439,

449–50remedial works, 488remediation notices, 449

public nuisance, 91, 101–2riparian rights, 488–9Rylands v Fletcher, 96–101acts of God, 175collective actions and, 102compliance with public law

defence, 176damages, 99–100dangerous substances, 209–10escape, 99foreseeability, 99GMOs, 230hazardous waste, 280–1likelihood of mischief, 98–9non-natural use, 97–8nuclear damage, 298, 300sudden accidents, 174

social insurance, subrogation, 375standingcontaminated land, 436, 447–8NGOs, 488occupational diseases, 381oil pollution by ships, 536social insurance, 375, 381

strict liability, 73, 74–5, 76, 90–1, 96, 99historic pollution, 332oil pollution by ships, 535–6

sudden accidents, 162, 166, 174waste management, 262, 263, 265common law, 265, 266hazardous waste production, 278, 280–1licensing, 281statute law, 265, 266, 333

water pollutionclean-up costs, 487–8, 536–7clean-up notices, 487–8, 522damages, 487–9ecological damage, 488, 527lost profits, 488–9, 524–5remedial works, 488, 535–6specific liability regime, 522standing, 488

Environmental Liability DirectiveAnnex II, 18–19Annex III, 20assessment, 638–42compensable damage, 13–16competent authorities, 16

recovery of costs, 21remedial actions, 17

contents, 8–25cooperation, 23dangerous activities, strict liability, 20definition of environmental damage, 13diffuse pollution, 20genesis, 6–8health risks, 19insurance, 22–3, 25international law interface, 23–5, 640–1liable persons, 19–20allocation of costs, 21–2dangerous activities, 20limits, 21, 25operators, 20strict liability, 20

minimum directive, 13non-retroactivity, 13objective, 56occupational activities, 19polluter pays principle, 8prevention principle, 8preventive measures, 17public trust doctrine, 12remedial actions, 17–19requests of action, 17review procedures, 25scope, 13, 16sustainable development, 8

Estonia, 29, 37Euratom, 23European Union

carriage of dangerous goods, 289conflict of lawsbilocal torts, 43proposed tort rules, 38–43, 48–51

cooperation, civil matters, 39Directive 2004/35. See Environmental

Liability Directiveenvironmental information, 24GMOs, 222Irish law and, 127–8Natura 2000 sites, 505nuclear damage, 298polluter pays principle, 8, 127–8product liability, 222, 315–16, 605public participation, 24state-of-the-art defence, 315–16, 605

evidenceSee also burden of proof; statistical

evidencefree evaluation, 348, 610, 612, 644prima facie evidence, 348, 610

fault liabilitycomparisons, 67, 579–81

I N D E X 681






fault liability (cont.)foreseeability, 315standard of care, 580–1

favour-principle, 34, 48, 51Finland

Case 1 (industrial plant), 102–3Case 2 (sudden accident), 177–8Case 3 (dangerous substances), 211–12Case 4 (GMOs), 231–2Case 5 (micro-organisms), 254–5Case 6 (waste disposal site), 266–7Case 7 (hazardouswaste production), 281Case 8 (nuclear damage), 300Case 9 (harmless substance), 319Case 10 (historic pollution), 333Case 11 (cancer from pollution), 356Case 12 (increase in leukemia rate), 382Case 13 (dying forest), 399Case 14 (fish kill), 418Case 15 (contaminated land), 450–1Case 16 (polluted river), 489Case 17 (oil spill), 537–8Case 18 (contaminated drinking

water), 565causation, 103

multiple causation, 418personal injuries, 566standard of proof, 348, 356statistical evidence, 374, 382

collective actions, 77, 103comprehensive environmental liability,

79, 102–3contaminated land

damages, 450–1emergency measures, 451lost profits, 451remedies, 211–12restoration costs, 450standing, 450–1strict liability, 451

damagesdeath, 566emotional distress, 562, 566GMOs, 231–2oil pollution by ships, 537–8personal injuries, 103, 212, 213, 565–6property damage, 212scope, 77–8, 102secondary economic loss, 441, 451,524–3, 538

subrogation, 375, 382thresholds, 177water pollution, 489–91

dangerous micro-organisms, 250, 254–5dangerous substances, 212defences

compliance with public law, 164, 178

contributory negligence, 178force majeure, 162, 166, 177–8, 212state-of-the-art, 316, 319third party damage, 178

GMOsdamages, 231–2product liability, 231specific regime, 225, 231–2strict liability, 224, 225

immissions, 79joint and several liability, 399, 418limitation periods, 330Lugano Convention and, 4neighbourhood law, 69, 70, 71nuclear conventions, 29, 291nuclear damage, 30, 300oil pollution by ships

damages, 537–8ecological damage, 538international conventions, 26lost profits, 538standing, 537

product liability, 231, 316Product Liability Convention (1973), 43

public authoritiesliability, 255recovery of prevention costs, 451

social insurance, subrogation, 375, 382standing

contaminated land, 450oil pollution, 537social insurance, 375, 382

strict liability, 67, 72, 76, 102–3contaminated land, 451dangerous substances, 212GMOs, 224, 225historic pollution, 333oil pollution by ships, 537

sudden accidents, 161, 177waste management, 261, 266–7

hazardous waste production,278, 281

water pollutionclean-up costs, 489, 520, 537damages, 489–91ecological damage, 489lost profits, 524–3, 537

fish, 413force majeurecomparisons, 162–3, 166–7, 589–90nuclear damage, 180Paris Nuclear Convention, 306

Franceadministrative liability, 107, 180

dangerous substances, 213EDF, 290nuclear damage, 290

682 I N D E X






asbestos compensation fund, 357Case 1 (industrial plant), 103–7Case 2 (sudden accident), 178–81Case 3 (dangerous substances), 212Case 4 (GMOs), 232Case 5 (micro-organisms), 255Case 6 (waste disposal site), 267–8Case 7 (hazardouswaste production), 282Case 8 (nuclear damage), 300–1Case 9 (harmless substance), 319Case 10 (historic pollution), 333–4Case 11 (cancer from pollution),

356–7Case 12 (increase in leukemia rate),

382–3Case 13 (dying forest), 399Case 14 (fish kill), 418–19Case 15 (contaminated land), 451–2Case 16 (polluted river), 489–91Case 17 (oil spill), 538–40Case 18 (contaminated drinking water),

566–7causation, 356–7alternative causation, 413, 419cumulative causation, 418–19intervening causation, 419prima facie evidence, 357standard of proof, 348, 350statistical evidence, 373–4, 382

collective actions, 78, 107contaminated landdamages, 451–2emergency measures, 451–2loss of profits, 452restoration costs, 451standing, 451

contravention de grande voirie, 213custody doctrine, 103–4, 178dangerous substances, 212historic pollution, 333–4strict liability, 521

damages, 71contaminated land, 451–2death, 567emotional distress, 567future damages, 106–7industrial pollution, 105–6moral damages, 419, 491oil pollution by ships, 538–40personal injuries, 566–7perte d’une chance, 373–4pure economic loss, 419, 491, 524,

539–40road traffic accidents, 521subrogation, 375, 382–3, 540sudden accidents, 179–80water pollution, 489–91

dangerous substances, 212administrative liability, 213asbestos compensation fund, 350custody doctrine, 212

defencescontributory negligence, 165, 167,

181, 567force majeure, 162, 180public authorisation, 181, 418third party damage, 163,

180–1fault liability, 68–9dangerous substances, 212–13

GMOs, 232fault liability, 225licensing, 232strict liability, 224

Italian law and, 128joint and several liability, 396, 399, 413,

418–19alternative causation, 413

judicial role, 79jurisdiction, 107, 491administrative jurisdiction, 106,

255, 451civil courts, 451nuclear damage, 300

limitation periods, 330neighbourhood law, 70, 104nuclear damage, 300–1bomb tests, 357EDF, 290, 300international conventions, 29jurisdiction, 300limitation period, 301regime, 290

oil pollution by shipsAmoco Cadiz, 539clean-up costs, 538–9criminal liability, 540damages, 538–40ecological damage, 540emergency measures, 538Erika disaster, 539international conventions, 538–9lost profits, 539–40strict liability, 539

precautionary principle, 316, 319Product Liability Convention (1973), 43public works, liability, 251remediesclosing orders, 106industrial pollution, 105–7repair, 106reparation in kind, 419suspension of activities, 106

ship oil pollution conventions, 26

I N D E X 683






France (cont.)social insurance, subrogation of

damages, 375, 382–3standing, 104, 436, 451

ecological damage, 490personal injuries, 213property damage, 213social insurance, 375, 382–3

state-of-the-art defence, 316, 319product liability, 316

strict liability, 73, 76, 79categories of installations, 105custody doctrine, 521oil pollution by ships, 539public services, 106

sudden accidents, 161, 178–9technological disasters, 179Toulouse (2001), 178

vicarious liability, 489, 521waste management, 267–8

hazardous waste production, 282water pollution

clean-up costs, 489damages, 489–91ecological damage, 490–1, 527–8standing, 490

GermanyCase 1 (industrial plant), 108–14Case 2 (sudden accident), 181–3Case 3 (dangerous substances), 213–14,

215Case 4 (GMOs), 233–4Case 5 (micro-organisms), 255–6Case 6 (waste disposal site), 268Case 7 (hazardous waste production),

282–3Case 8 (nuclear damage), 301Case 9 (harmless substance), 319–20Case 10 (historic pollution), 334–5Case 11 (cancer from pollution), 357–9Case 12 (increase in leukemia rate),

383–4Case 13 (dying forest), 400–2Case 14 (fish kill), 419–21Case 15 (contaminated land), 452–4Case 16 (polluted river), 491–3Case 17 (oil spill), 540–3Case 18 (contaminated drinking water),

567–8causation

alternative causation, 421burden of proof, 357–9circumstantial evidence, 359cumulative causation, 419–20easing burden of proof, 349free evaluation of evidence, 359

intervening causation, 421presumption of causation, 350,400–1, 402

standard of proof, 348statistical evidence, 373, 383

collective actions, 77conflict of laws, 36, 37, 47contaminated land

costs and reasonableness, 108–9damages, 452–4fault liability, 454prevention measures, 453restoration costs, 453standing, 452

damagescontaminated land, 452–4death, 111–12, 568environmental impacts, 111limitation periods, 334mental health, 113–14minor health impairments, 112–14neighbourhood law, 71, 110–11oil pollution by ships, 540–3personal injuries, 110–11, 112–14, 182,567–8

road traffic accidents, 491–2secondary economic loss, 441, 454,492–3, 525, 542

subrogation, 384sudden accidents, 182–3water pollution, 111, 491–3

defencescompliance with authorisation, 183contributory negligence, 183force majeure, 109, 183, 214state-of-the-art, 316, 319–20third party sabotage, 163, 183

Environmental Protection Actburden of proof, 357–8causation, 420damages, 111dangerous substances, 214definition, 109exemptions from liability, 112historic pollution, 334joint and several liability, 400–1meaning of installation, 491minor health impairment, 113standing, 452state-of-the-art defence, 316, 319statistical evidence, 373, 383sudden accidents, 181use for victims, 371

environmental scholarship, 79fault liability, 110, 214

authorised occupation, 214burden of proof, 68, 110, 111

684 I N D E X






damages, 454GMOs, 233limitation periods, 334minor health impairments, 113–14nuclear damage, 301protective law, 68state-of-the-art defence, 320sudden accidents, 182

Federal Immission Controlinstallations, 358

GMOsfault liability, 233specific regime, 225, 233–4strict liability, 225

immissions, 79joint and several liability, 396, 400–2,

419–21limitation periods, 328, 334–5negotiorum gestio, 440, 492, 541neighbourhood law, 69, 70, 71customary standards, 108, 156, 214damages, 71, 110–11dangerous substances, 213importance, 71requirements, 108–9standing, 71sudden accidents, 181thresholds, 108–9, 112

nuclear damage, 301operators’ liability, 301ratification of conventions, 29, 291third party actions, 301

oil pollution by shipsclean-up measures, 540–1damages, 540–3ecological damage, 542–3international conventions, 26liability, 541lost profits, 541–2specific regime, 521standing, 541

product liabilityburden of proof, 68, 110drugs, 316state-of-the-art defence, 316

property damage, meaning, 419removal of infringements, 109,

112, 214Salzburg Airport, 48social insurance, 114, 384standing, 435, 452legal interests, 419–20NGOs, 492, 541non-owners, 493social insurance, 384users’ rights, 493water pollution, 492

strict liability, 72, 75GMOs, 225water pollution, 521, 522

sudden accidents, 161–2, 166, 181–2waste management, 261, 268hazardous waste production, 282–3

water pollution, 109–10burden of proof, 358causation, 383, 420clean-up costs, 491–2damages, 111, 491–3dangerous substances, 214ecological damage, 492, 542–3meaning of installation, 491secondary economic loss, 492–3, 542specific liability regime, 522standing, 492strict liability, 521, 522sudden accidents, 181–2

GMOsCartagena Protocol on Biosafety, 32Case 4, 56, 58–9, 222comparisons, 222–6, 595–8Environmental Liability Directive,

20, 25neighbourhood laws, 223–4Products Liability Directive, 222, 595–6specific regimes, 225, 597

GreeceCase 1 (industrial plant), 114–17Case 2 (sudden accident), 184–5Case 3 (dangerous substances), 215Case 4 (GMOs), 234–6Case 5 (micro-organisms), 256Case 6 (waste disposal site), 269–70Case 7 (hazardous waste production),

283–5Case 8 (nuclear damage), 301–3Case 9 (harmless substance), 320–1Case 10 (historic pollution), 335–7Case 11 (cancer from pollution), 359–60Case 12 (increase in leukemia rate),


568–9causationalternative causation, 421burden of proof, 359, 385cumulative causation, 421intervening causation, 421–2prima facie evidence, 360reversing burden of proof, 349, 359

I N D E X 685






Greece (cont.)standard of proof, 348statistical evidence, 373, 384–5

constitutional rights, environment, 115construction law, latent damages, 336–7contaminated land

damages, 437–8, 454–6emergency measures, 455lost profits, 456property damage to third parties, 440remedies, 116–17restoration costs, 455standing, 435, 454–5

damagescontaminated land, 437–8, 454–6death, 568–9environmental protection law, 114fault liability, 116moral harm, 116, 455oil pollution by ships, 543–4personal injuries, 385, 561, 568personality rights, 116–17secondary economic loss, 440, 456,494, 543–4

state property, 494subrogation, 386water pollution, 493–4

defencesadministrative compliance, 184contributory negligence, 184–5force majeure, 184, 320state-of-the-art, 316, 320–1third party damage, 184

fault liability, 115burden of proof, 68, 116–17damages, 116origins-of-risk principle, 321, 359, 384

GMOs, 223, 224intentional release, 234–5product liability, 235unintentional release, 235

historic pollution, 335–7immissions, 79injunctions, 455joint and several liability, 396, 402–3,

421–2limitation periods, 329, 336–7Lugano Convention and, 4negotiorum gestio, 440, 543neighbourhood law, 69, 70, 71, 115

damages, 71nuclear damage

conventions, 29, 291, 301–3legal channelling, 30operators’ liability, 302–3

oil pollution by shipsclean-up measures, 543

damages, 523, 543–4ecological damage, 525, 544international conventions, 543, 544lost profits, 543–4standing, 543

personality rights, 115–17, 455product liability

burden of proof, 68, 116GMOs, 235

public service undertakings, 251ship oil pollution conventions, 26social insurance, 386standing

contaminated land, 435, 454–5NGOs, 543oil pollution by ships, 543social insurance, 386

state liability, 256defences, 320third party actions, 320

strict liability, 72sudden accidents, 184–5unjust enrichment, 440, 543waste management, 261, 269–70

hazardous waste production, 278,283–5

water pollutionclean-up costs, 493, 523damages, 493–4ecological damage, 494lost profits, 494

Hague Conference, 48–9, 50Hungary, 29, 37, 46

Iceland, 4immissions, 79informationEnvironmental Liability Directive, 23EU obligations, 24Lugano Convention, 4

insuranceEnvironmental Liability Directive,

22–3, 25oil pollution by ships, 27

international law, 637–8Irelandair pollution

causation defence, 118–19damages, 118defences, 118–19licensing exception, 119nuclear damage, 303–4state-of-the-art defence, 321statutory liability, 118–19, 128

Case 1 (industrial plant), 117–28Case 2 (sudden accident), 185–9

686 I N D E X






Case 3 (dangerous substances), 215–16Case 4 (GMOs), 236–9Case 5 (micro-organisms), 256–7Case 6 (waste disposal site), 270–2Case 7 (hazardouswaste production), 285Case 8 (nuclear damage), 303–5Case 9 (harmless substance), 321–2Case 10 (historic pollution), 337–8Case 11 (cancer from pollution), 360–2Case 12 (increase in leukemia rate),


569–70causationalternative causation, 422burden proof, 360cumulative causation, 422intervening causation, 422–3res ipsa loquitur, 123, 348–9, 360–1standard of proof, 348–9, 361–2statistical evidence, 374, 386

collective actions, 128, 238common law torts, 121–6GMOs, 236–7Irish and English law, 118,

122, 127nuclear damage, 304

Constitution, 122contaminated landdamages, 216, 456–8emergency measures, 439, 457lost profits, 441, 458property damage, 216remedies, 438restoration costs, 456–7standing, 456

damagesair pollution, 118contaminated land, 216, 456–8death, 123, 186, 570emotional distress, 562, 570GMOs, 238negligence, 123nuisance, 124oil pollution by ships, 544–7personal injuries, 216, 386–7,

569–70pure economic loss, 238, 441, 458, 495,

525, 546subrogation, 375, 387waste, 271water pollution, 120, 494–6

defencesacts of God, 118, 163, 166compliance with public law, 188contributory negligence, 166, 189force majeure, 186–7state-of-the-art, 316, 321–2third party damage, 163, 187–8

EU environmental law and, 127–8fault liability, 69GMOs, 223, 225common law liabilities, 236–7damages, 238permits, 236, 237

immissions, 79injunctions, 126–7, 456–7joint and several liability, 396, 403–4,

422–3licensing systemair pollution, 119water pollution, 120

limitation periods, 329, 338negligence, 71, 128damages, 123historic pollution, 338pure economic loss, 458res ipsa loquitur, 123state-of-the-art defence, 322sudden accidents, 185, 186tort, 122–3waste, 270–1

noise, 121nuclear damage, 292, 303–5air pollution, 303–4conventions, 28jurisdiction, 304torts, 304water pollution, 303

oil pollution by shipsclean-up measures, 544–5damages, 544–7ecological damage, 527, 546–7international conventions, 26, 545–6liability, 545–6lost profits, 546public authorities, 544standing, 528–9, 545

private nuisance, 70, 126common law, 122, 124, 126damages, 71, 124remedies, 124standing, 124, 238–9state-of-the-art defence, 322strict liability, 185tort, 124, 186waste, 270

public nuisance, 126, 239Rylands v. Fletcher, 121

I N D E X 687






Ireland (cont.)limitation period, 338nuclear damage, 304pure economic loss, 458scope, 122, 126, 128sudden accidents, 185, 187, 188tort, 124–5waste, 270, 337

social insurance, 375, 387standing

contaminated land, 215, 456nuisance, 124, 238–9oil pollution by ships, 528–9, 545public nuisance, 239social insurance, 375, 387trespass, 239

state immunity, 251–2, 257, 272strict liability, 73, 75, 76

historic pollution, 337–8sudden accidents, 162, 185–6trespass, 126, 185, 187

limitation period, 338nuclear damage, 304spitting, 322tort, 125waste, 271

waste management, 262, 270–2damages, 456hazardous waste production, 285historic pollution, 337statutory liability, 121trespass, 125

water pollutionclean-up costs, 494, 523damages, 120, 494–6definitions, 120ecological damage, 495injunctions, 494licensing defence, 120lost profits, 495, 525nuclear damage, 303sewage discharges, 120–1statutory liability, 119–21

ItalyBrussels Convention (1961), 133canon law tradition, 129Case 1 (industrial plant), 128–37Case 3 (dangerous substances), 216Case 4 (GMOs), 239Case 5 (micro-organisms), 257Case 6 (waste disposal site), 272Case 7 (hazardouswaste production), 286Case 8 (nuclear damage), 305Case 9 (harmless substance), 322Case 10 (historic pollution), 338–9Case 11 (cancer from pollution), 362Case 12 (increase in leukemia rate), 387

Case 13 (dying forest), 404Case 14 (fish kill), 423Case 15 (contaminated land), 458Case 16 (polluted river), 496–7Case 17 (oil spill), 547Case 18 (contaminated drinking

water), 571causation

burden of proof, 362problems of proof, 133–4res ipsa loquitur, 130, 133–4standard of proof, 348, 362

citizens suits, 459collective actions, 78conflict of laws, 35, 37, 43Constitution, right to health, 137contaminated land

damages, 458lost profits, 441preventive measures, 439, 440

damagescontaminated land, 458fault liability, 130, 131, 135gravity of faults and, 132neighbourhood law, 137oil pollution by ships, 547personal injuries and death, 571restoration and, 135restoration costs, 459secondary economic loss, 441, 497,524, 547

standing, 135–6, 458water pollution, 496–7

dangerous activities, 136dangerous substances, 216defences

compliance with public law, 190contributory negligence, 191force majeure, 163, 189licensing defence, 165neighbourhood law, 137state-of-the-art, 317, 322third party damage, 164, 190

fault liability1986 statute, 132–6access to information, 134–5damages, 130, 131, 135incoherences, 133–6problems of proof, 133–4remedies, 135standing, 137

French legal model, 128GMOs, 224immissions, 79joint and several liability, 396, 404, 423legal culture, 130limitation periods, 328, 338–9

688 I N D E X






Lugano Convention and, 4neighbourhood law, 69, 70, 71,

136–7nuclear damage, 305conventions, 29, 305

oil pollution by shipsclean-up measures, 547conventions, 26damages, 547jurisdiction, 547liability, 547lost profits, 547

product liabilityconflict of laws, 43state-of-the-art defence, 322

standing, 458, 496strict liability, 73, 133defences, 166legal history, 128–31

sudden accidents, 161Venezian law, 129waste management, 279, 286water pollution, 423clean-up costs, 496damages, 496–7ecological damage, 496–7, 526lost profits, 497, 524

joint and several liabilityCase 13, 57, 61Case 14, 57, 61, 413comparisons, 395–7, 413, 615–17

land damage. See contaminated landlandfill, 20Larenz, Karl, 474Latvia, 29Leflar, Robert, 34legal standing. See standingLepage, Minister, 103lex damni, 50–1lex loci delicti commissi, 34, 37–8, 41licensing, 164–5Liechtenstein, 4limitation periods

Case 10, 56, 328comparisons, 328–30, 607Environmental Liability Directive, 22Lugano Convention, 4oil pollution by ships, 28

Lithuania, 29Lugano Convention

contents, 3–6defences, 4gene technology, 4scope, 5–6, 638

Luxembourg, 4, 29, 43

Macedonia, 29, 43methodology

background, 55–6cases, 56–7Common Core project, 55–6questionnaires, 56–7

micro-organisms. See dangerous micro-organisms

Moldova, 29Montenegro, 29, 38, 43Morocco, 29

national security, 20natural disasters, 20natural resource damage

compensation, 526, 543–4, 647–8Environmental Liability Directive,

14–16, 18–19specific regimes, 531–2terminology, 12

negotiorum gestio, 439–40, 528, 624, 634neighbourhood laws

burden of proof, 68comparisons, 69–71, 581–3GMOs, 223–4scope of damages, 592–3standing, 71, 583tolerance thresholds, 70–1, 582–3

NetherlandsCase 1 (industrial plant), 138–42Case 2 (sudden accident), 191–5Case 3 (dangerous substances), 216–17Case 4 (GMOs), 240–1Case 5 (micro-organisms), 257–8Case 6 (waste disposal site), 272–4Case 7 (hazardous waste production),

286–7Case 8 (nuclear damage), 305–10Case 9 (harmless substance), 322–5Case 10 (historic pollution), 339–41Case 11 (cancer from pollution), 362–4Case 12 (increase in leukemia rate),


571–3causationalternative causation, 387–9, 405,

424–5burden of proof, 362–3cumulative causation, 423–4easing burden of proof, 349free evaluation of evidence, 363

I N D E X 689






Netherlands (cont.)intervening causation, 425personal injuries, 140presumption of causation, 364reasonable attribution, 364res ipsa loquitur, 363shifting burden of proof, 363–4standard of proof, 348, 363–4statistical evidence, 374

collective actions, 77, 78Constitution, environmental protection,

460, 550contaminated land

damages, 460–6lost profits, 441–40, 465–6preventive measures, 438, 439,463–4

property damage to third parties, 440restoration costs, 192, 463standing, 460–1, 462

damages, 71categories of harm, 500–1common resources, 498contaminated land, 460–6death, 573mental health, 140, 572oil pollution by ships, 548–51personal injuries, 140–1, 571–2proof, 309pure economic loss, 217, 441–40,465–6, 503–4, 524, 549–50

relatives, 141restitutio in integrum, 503scope, 77–8, 139–40state-owned amenities, 504–5subrogation, 389–90waste, 273water pollution, 497–505

dangerous substances, 138–9force majeure, 162GMOs, 240–1joint and several liability, 406micro-organisms, 251specific regime, 204, 216–17standing, 240, 241state-of-the-art defence, 322–3thresholds of inconvenience, 141–2,240, 241

waste production, 286–7defences

compliance with public law, 193–4contributory negligence, 60,194–5, 464

force majeure, 162, 192–3state-of-the-art, 317third party damage, 193

environmental scholarship, 79

GMOs, 225compliance with licences, 240dangerous substances, 240–1

group liability, 424immissions, 79injunctions, 462joint and several liability, 388, 396,

405–6, 423–5limitation periods, 329, 340–1

environmental damage, 310general rules, 310torts, 309

Lugano Convention and, 4Mines de Potasse d’Alsace, 44, 45, 141–2noise levels, 142nuclear damage, 305–10

conventions, 29, 291, 305–6limitation periods, 309operators’ liability, 305–6third party actions, 306–9

nuisance law, 70oil pollution by ships

clean-up measures, 548–9conventions, 26damages, 548–51ecological damage, 550–1liability, 549lost profits, 549–50standing, 548–9

product liabilityProduct Liability Convention (1973), 43state-of-the-art defence, 323–5

public authoritiespreventive measures, 463–4recovery of prevention costs, 439standing, 436, 462, 497–8, 505

remedies, torts, 139–41res communis, 550res nullius, 498segmented liability, 340social insurance, 389–90standing

contaminated land, 435, 460–2dangerous substances, 240, 241NGOs, 460–1, 462, 498–500, 529, 548–9property damage, 217public authorities, 436, 462,497–8, 505

social insurance, 389–90strict liability, 74, 138–9

GMOs, 224sudden accidents, 161, 191–2

licensing consent and, 193–4restoration costs, 192

tortious liability, 138breach of statutory duty, 307causation, 308–9

690 I N D E X






clean-up costs, 523foreseeability, 307–8latent damage, 310nuclear damage, 306–9proof of damage, 309requirements, 306, 307–9

‘unless clause’, 192–3, 306, 307–9waste management, 262, 263, 272–4hazardous waste production, 279,

286–7water pollutionclean-up costs, 497–8, 549damages, 497–505ecological damage, 500–3, 504, 527fault liability, 523lost profits, 503–4, 524standing, 498–500, 529

NGOs, standing, 17, 528–30, 532, 634–6Norway, 29, 43nuclear damage

Case 8, 56, 59–60, 289, 290comparisons, 290–3, 601–4Environmental Liability Directive and,

23, 25international conventions, 28–31,

290–1, 637legal channelling, 295scope of damages, 640sources of compensation, 297–8

legal channelling, 292Paris Convention (1960), 29–31, 44definition of nuclear accident,

298, 309force majeure, 180, 302, 306scope of liability, 297, 637, 640

Paris Convention (2004), 30–1, 640

oil pollution by ships1969 Convention, 26Case 17, 520clean-up costs, 520–3comparisons, 520–32Environmental Liability Directive and,

13, 23Fund Conventions, 26, 28, 534, 539, 545,

546, 557international law, 26–8, 640London Convention (1973), 44lost profits, 524–5, 630–1US legislation, 11–12

Palmer, Edith, 34personal injuries

Case 18, 57, 560damages, 560–1, 617–18, 645emotional distress, 561–2, 618–19standing, 562

Poland, 29polluter pays principle, 8, 127–8Portugal

actio popularis, 143, 466, 506Case 1 (industrial plant), 142–9Case 2 (sudden accident), 195–6Case 3 (dangerous substances), 217–18Case 4 (GMOs), 241Case 5 (micro-organisms), 258Case 6 (waste disposal site), 274Case 7 (hazardouswaste production), 287Case 8 (nuclear damage), 311Case 9 (harmless substance), 325Case 10 (historic pollution), 341Case 11 (cancer from pollution), 364–5Case 12 (increase in leukemia rate), 390Case 13 (dying forest), 406–7Case 14 (fish kill), 425–6Case 15 (contaminated land), 466–7Case 16 (polluted river), 505–6Case 17 (oil spill), 551–2Case 18 (contaminated drinking

water), 573causation, 364–5alternative causation, 413, 426burden of proof, 68, 147cumulative causation, 425easing burden of proof, 350–1free evaluation of evidence, 365intervening causation, 426

civil liability rules, 147–8collective actions, 78, 149Constitution, 143contaminated landdamages, 466–7ecological damage, 506emergency measures, 440, 467lost profits, 441, 467restoration costs, 466–7standing, 435, 466–7

damagescontaminated land, 466–7ecological damage, 413environmental harm, 143–4, 149oil pollution by ships, 551–2personal injuries and death, 149, 573property damage, 148–9secondary economic loss, 441, 467,

506, 525–30, 551–2subrogation, 390water pollution, 505–6

dangerous activities, 505dangerous substances, 217–18defencescompliance with public law, 164, 195contributory negligence, 196force majeure, 195

I N D E X 691






Portugal (cont.)state-of-the-art, 315, 316, 325third party damage, 163, 195

ecological damage, 425, 505environmental liability, 142–7fault liability, 467

burden of proof, 68, 147civil liability rules, 147–8environmental harm, 143

GMOs, 224, 241historic pollution, 341immissions, 79joint and several liability, 396, 406–7,

413, 425–6Lugano Convention and, 4negotiorum gestio, 551neighbourhood law, 69, 70

damages, 71dangerous substances, 218importance, 71liability, 147–8preventative restrictions, 148

NGOs, standing, 528nuclear damage, 311

conventions, 29, 311legal channelling, 30, 291

nuclear pollution, 146oil pollution by ships

clean-up measures, 551damages, 551–2liability, 551lost profits, 551–2standing, 551

precautionary principle, 466–7ship oil pollution conventions, 26social insurance, subrogation, 390standing

contaminated land, 435, 466–7NGOs, 528, 551social insurance, 390

strict liability, 72, 76, 143dangerous activities, 505electricity and gas, 147water pollution, 520–1

sudden accidents, 161, 195waste management, 261, 274

hazardous waste production, 279, 287water pollution

clean-up costs, 505, 520–1damages, 505–6ecological damage, 526fault-liability, 145, 523lost profits, 506, 525–30standing, 528strict liability, 520–1

preventive measurescontaminated land, 438–40, 623–5

Environmental Liability Directive, 17Lugano Convention, 5recovery of local authority costs, 439, 624

prima facie evidence, 348, 610private international law. See conflict of

lawsproduct liabilityarchetype of bilocal tort, 43–4European Union

GMOs, 222, 595–6state-of-the-art defence, 315–16, 605

public participation, EU, 24public service undertakings, 251–2, 604–5public trust doctrine, 9, 12pure economic losscontaminated land, 440–2, 625–6oil pollution by ships, 27water pollution, 524–5, 531, 630–1

questionnairemethodology, 56–7text, 57–63

remedial actionsEnvironmental Liability Directive, 17–19

Annex II, 18–19biodiversity damage, 18–19compensatory remediation, 18complementary remediation, 18land damage, 19primary remediation, 18water damage, 18–19

Lugano Convention, 5res ipsa loquitur, 69, 348, 610Romania, 29, 44, 46Rome Convention, 38Russia, 29

Schweizerhalle incident, 44, 45–6, 47ScotlandCase 1 (industrial plant), 150–1Case 2 (sudden accident), 196–8Case 3 (dangerous substances), 218–19Case 4 (GMOs), 241–2Case 5 (micro-organisms), 258–9Case 6 (waste disposal site), 274–5Case 7 (hazardous waste production),

287–8Case 8 (nuclear damage), 311–12Case 9 (harmless substance), 325Case 10 (historic pollution), 341–2Case 11 (cancer from pollution), 365–6Case 12 (increase in leukemia rate),

390–1Case 13 (dying forest), 407–8Case 14 (fish kill), 426–8Case 15 (contaminated land), 468–70

692 I N D E X






Case 16 (polluted river), 506–9Case 17 (oil spill), 552–3Case 18 (contaminated drinking

water), 574causation, 365–6alternative causation, 413, 427cumulative causation, 427intervening causation, 428novus actus interveniens, 198standard of proof, 348, 366, 390statistical evidence, 374

common law liability, 69, 151acts of God and, 196–7contaminated land, 218–19GMOs, 223, 241–2historic pollution, 341nuclear damage, 311, 312

contaminated landdamages, 219, 468–70emergency measures, 439, 469historic pollution, 341–2liability, 218–19, 468local government obligations, 342, 507lost profits, 440, 469standing, 218, 435, 468

damagescontaminated land, 219, 468–70death, 391emergency measures, 468–9emotional distress, 574GMOs, 242oil pollution by ships, 552–3personal injuries, 390–1, 508, 574preventive measures, 439pure economic loss, 218, 440, 469,

508–9, 552road traffic accidents, 521solatium, 391subrogation, 375, 391water pollution, 506–9

dangerous substances, 218–19, 521property damage, 218transport, 506

defencesacts of God, 196–7compliance with public law, 164, 198contributory negligence, 165–6, 198third party damage, 164, 197–8volenti non fit injuria, 166, 198

fishing rights, 426GMOscommon law, 241–2damages, 242statutory duty of care, 242

historic pollution, 341–2common law, 341statutory liability, 342

immissions, 79interdicts, 150joint and several liability, 396, 407–8,

426–8limitation periods, 329, 342nature reserves, designation, 507negligenceGMOs, 241hazardous waste production, 287–8nuclear damage, 311

negotiorum gestio, 508nuclear damagecommon law liability, 311, 312statutory liability, 311–12

oil pollution by shipsclean-up measures, 552damages, 552–3ecological damage, 553liability, 552lost profits, 552standing, 552

private nuisance, 70, 71, 150GMOs, 242–2on-going nuisances, 150water pollution, 427

property rights, 426–7fish, 426water, 426–7

public authoritiesbreach of statutory duty, 259recovery of emergency costs, 469recovery of prevention costs, 439remediation notices, 468–9

riparian rights, 508–9Rylands v. Fletcher, 150social insurance, subrogation, 375, 391standingcontaminated land, 218, 435, 468oil pollution by ships, 552SEPA, 508social insurance, 375, 391

state-of-the-art defence, 316, 325statutory nuisances, 150–1strict liability, 73, 75, 150sudden accidents, 161, 196waste management, 262, 263,

274–5common law, 287–8hazardous waste production, 278,

287–8statutory liabilities, 288

water pollutionclean-up costs, 506–8, 522damages, 506–9lost profits, 508–9nuisance, 427

wild animals, 426

I N D E X 693






Serbia, 29, 38, 43Slovakia, 29Slovenia, 29, 34, 36–8, 43social insurance, standing, 57, 374, 619–20Spain

actio popularis, 247animals, 243Aznalcollar accident, 555Case 1 (industrial plant), 151–8Case 2 (sudden accident), 198–202Case 3 (dangerous substances), 219–20Case 4 (GMOs), 242–8Case 5 (micro-organisms), 259–60Case 6 (waste disposal site), 275–7Case 7 (hazardous waste production),

288–9Case 8 (nuclear damage), 312–14Case 9 (harmless substance), 325–7Case 10 (historic pollution), 342–3Case 11 (cancer from pollution), 366–71Case 12 (increase in leukemia), 391–3Case 13 (dying forest), 408–10Case 14 (fish kill), 428–31Case 15 (contaminated land), 470–5Case 16 (polluted river), 509–17Case 17 (oil spill), 553–8Case 18 (contaminated drinking water),

574–5causation

alternative causation, 428–30burden of proof, 67, 152, 366construction law, 429cumulative causation, 409, 428easing burden of proof, 351, 368–71free evaluation of evidence, 367multiple tortfeasors, 413, 428–31presumption of causation, 367–8, 370proportional liability, 392–3road traffic accidents, 510standard of proof, 348, 366–7, 391statistical evidence, 373

collective actions, 77–8, 158Constitutional rights, 153

environment, 513territorial waters, 553

contaminated landclean-up costs, 509–10, 523damages, 470–5ecological damage, 513–15, 526–7emergency measures, 439, 471–3lost profits, 441, 474–5public authority liabilities, 438restoration in kind, 470–1standing, 219–20, 223, 436, 470–1

damagescontaminated land, 437, 470–5death, 575

emotional distress, 575GMOs, 243–4, 245–8nuclear accidents, 313oil pollution by ships, 553–8personal injuries, 154–5, 156, 246,574–5

restitutio in integrum, 470road traffic accidents, 509–10secondary economic loss, 441, 474–5,515–16, 524, 556–7

subrogation, 248, 374, 393thresholds, 156–8water pollution, 509–17

dangerous substances, 219–20transport, 289

defencescompliance with public law, 200–1contributory negligence, 165, 201–2force majeure, 199–200, 202, 509state-of-the-art, 244, 316, 325–7third party malfeasance, 200

ecological damage, 246–8fault liability, 151–4, 475

burden of proof, 67, 152foreseeability, 326objectivisation, 152standard of care, 152

GMOs, 226damages, 243–4, 245–8fault liability, 225, 242specific regime, 243–4strict liability, 224, 243vicarious liability, 244–5

historic pollution, 342–3immissions, 79injunctions, Catalonia, 155joint and several liability, 396, 408–10

causation, 413, 428–31construction law, 429hunting regulation, 429–30improper liability, 409, 410, 411, 428

judicial role, 79jurisdiction, administrative courts,

516–17limitation periods, 328neighbourhood law, 70

Catalonia, 155–6, 157noise, right to privacy, 152–4, 220nuclear damage, 312–14

conventions, 29, 313damages, 313legal channelling, 313operators’ liability, 313third party actions, 313

oil pollution by shipsclean-up measures, 553–4damages, 553–8

694 I N D E X






ecological damage, 557–8international obligations, 26, 557liability, 554–5lost profits, 556–7Prestige accident, 246, 515, 553–4,

556–7standing, 555

polluter pays principle, 154privacy rights, 150, 220product liability1973 Convention, 43contributory negligence, 201GMOs, 243state-of-the-art defence, 316, 326

public authoritiesliabilities, 473recovery of emergency costs, 439, 471–3strict liability, 251, 259–60, 263waste, 276

social insurance, 248, 374, 393standing, 158Catalonia, 219contaminated land, 219–20, 223, 436,

470–1Navarra, 219NGOs, 511–13, 530, 555social insurance, 374, 393

strict liability, 73–4GMOs, 224toxic fumes, 151

sudden accidents, 161, 198–9waste management, 262–3hazardous waste production, 279,

288–9specific regime, 275–7

water pollutionclean-up costs, 523damages, 509–17lost profits, 515–16, 524standing, 511–13, 530

standingCase 12 (b), social insurance, 374–5Case 15, 62, 435–6comparisons, 619–20contaminated land, 435–6, 620–1neighbourhood laws, 71, 583NGOs, 528–30, 532, 634–6personal injuries and death, 562

state-of-the-art defenceCase 9, 56, 315comparisons, 315–17, 605–7

statistical evidenceCase 12(a), 57, 61, 372comparisons, 372, 374–6, 613–15

strict liabilitycomparisons, 72–6, 583–8, 642dangerous activities, 584–7

defences, 166, 643–4European Union, product liability, 222GMOs, 223–5specific regimes, 587–8state-of-the-art defence and, 315–17,

605–7water pollution, 520–2, 626–9

sudden accidents. See Case 2 (suddenaccident)

sustainable development, 8Sweden

Case 1 (industrial plant), 159–60Case 2 (sudden accident), 202–3Case 3 (dangerous substances), 220–1Case 4 (GMOs), 249Case 5 (micro-organisms), 260Case 6 (waste disposal site), 277Case 7 (hazardous waste production),

289, 290Case 10 (historic pollution), 343Case 11 (cancer from pollution), 371Case 12 (increase in leukemia rate), 394Case 13 (dying forest), 410, 411Case 14 (fish kill), 431Case 15 (contaminated land), 476–7Case 16 (polluted river), 517–19Case 17 (oil spill), 559Case 18 (contaminated drinking

water), 576causation, 431burden of proof, 371standard of proof, 348, 371statistical evidence, 374

Chernobyl accident and, 45collective actions, 78, 160, 518comprehensive environmental liability,

79, 159–60contaminated landdamages, 542–3emergency costs, 476lost profits, 476–7restoration costs, 476standing, 220, 436, 476

contributory negligence, 203damages, 71, 159contaminated land, 542–3oil pollution by ships, 559personal injuries and death,

394, 576pure economic loss, 519, 524–3, 559road traffic accidents, 517, 521–2subrogation, 375water pollution, 517–19

dangerous micro-organisms, 250defencescompliance with public law, 203force majeure, 162, 166

I N D E X 695






Sweden (cont.)state-of-the-art, 316

fault liability, 160GMOs

neighbourhood law, 249strict liability, 249

international law obligations, 518joint and several liability, 410,

411, 431limitation periods, 330, 343negligence, 159negotiorum gestio, 440neighbourhood law

GMOs, 249strict liability, 221

nuclear damage, 314conventions, 29legal channelling, 30

nuisance law, 71oil pollution by ships

clean-up measures, 559damages, 559ecological damage, 559international obligations, 26, 559liability, 559lost profits, 559

public authoritiesrecovery of emergency costs,439, 476

standing, 476, 517, 518social insurance, 375standing, 71

contaminated land, 220, 436, 476NGOs, 518, 528personal injuries and death, 394public authorities, 476, 517, 518social insurance, 375

strict liability, 67, 72, 75, 159GMOs, 224neighbourhood law, 221road traffic accidents, 517, 521–2thresholds, 159–60

sudden accidents, 161, 202–3waste management, 261, 277water pollution

clean-up costs, 517–18, 521–2damages, 517–19ecological damage, 518, 526lost profits, 519, 524–3secondary economic loss, 524–3standing, 518, 528

SwitzerlandChernobyl accident and, 45conflict of laws, 43, 46–7nuclear conventions, 29Schweizerhalle incident, 44,

45–6, 47

Tampere Conclusions, 39tortsbilocal torts

archetypes, 43–4EU rules, 43product liability, 43–4specific domestic statutes, 46–8

comparisons, 642–4, 648conflict of laws

domestic laws, 33–8proposed EU rules, 38–43transboundary damage statutes, 46–8

national laws, 642–4, 648ownership of natural resources and, 12

transboundary environmental damageBasel Protocol (1993), 31Environmental Liability Directive,

cooperation, 23Hague Conference, 48–9, 50increasing number of accidents, 44–6torts

bilocal torts, 44national conflict of laws rules, 33–8proposed EU rules, 38–43, 48–51specific domestic solutions, 46–8

transport conventions, 31–2Turkey, 29

Ukraine, 29UNCLOS, 540United Kingdomconflict of laws, 35–6, 37nuclear conventions, 29, 30, 290nuclear damage, limitation periods,

290, 299ship oil pollution conventions, 26

United StatesCERCLA, 9–11citizens suits, 459class actions, 158defences, 10environmental damages, 10–11environmental legislation, 9–12international torts, theories, 33–4National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration, 12Oil Pollution Act (OPA), 11–12public trust doctrine, 9, 12

unjust enrichment, 439–40, 528, 624, 634

volenti non fit injuria, 592

war damage, 21–2, 27waste managementCase 6, 56, 59, 261comparisons, 261–3, 599–601Environmental Liability Directive, 20

696 I N D E X






hazardous wasteBasel Protocol (1993), 31Case 7, 56, 59, 278comparisons, 278–9, 601

illegal dumping, 263, 600Lugano Convention, 4

water pollutionCase 16, 57, 62Case 17, 57, 520

clean-up costs, 531comparisons, 520–32, 626–36, 647Environmental Liability Directive, 16,

18–19lost profits, 524–5, 531, 630–1specific liability regimes, 522–3,

628–9strict liability, 520–2

wild animals, 413, 617–18

I N D E X 697






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