Index

References to figures are given in italic type; references to tables are in bold type.

'acceptability in earthworks', 251 acceptable daily intake (ADI), 326, 334 acceptable material, envelope of, 255, 257 acceptable risk, 354 acoustic emission activity, 228 acoustic emission/microseismicity, 223

monitoring of induced seismicity, URL, 224, 227 adsorbed water, non-Newtonian behaviour of, 187 adsorption, 162, 181,273, 281

and hydrophobic character of adsorbate, 276 adsorption isotherms, 274 adsorption spectrophotometry (AAS), 280 AE/MS see acoustic emission/microseismicity air flush drilling, finding worked coal seams, 106 air pressure method, suction control, 310, 311 alluvial deposits, gypsum waste disposal site, 46 ammoniacal liquors, 103, 107, 110 ammonium, 162 anaerobic digestion, 68 anchor trenches, 166 anion exclusion, 180, 181, 183, 187 aquatic environments, botulinum toxins in, 67 aquicludes, 367 aquifer protection, Vale of St Albans, 362 argillaceous host-rocks, 180, 189 asperities, roughness amplitude of, 213 attenuation mechanisms, 159, 160 avian botulism, 67-70

barrier material, clay-based, taking up water, 215 barrier systems, 326

bentonite-sand, 215-22 cementitious chemical barriers, 267-72 clay, diffusion of contaminants through under acidic

conditions, 279-89 composite cementitious, 270, 271, 271 composite clay/geomembrane, 127-8, 128, 129

base liner, 127, 128 design of, 271-2 geomembrane-based, 127-31 multibarrier concept, 223

basalt, jointing in, 135 Bayes theorem, importance of, 344-5 bedding planes, sandstone, 145 Beddingham landfill

installation details and methodology, 111, 114 settlement data, 112-13, 114

preliminary analysis, 114-17 bentonite gel mud system, 197 bentonite-enhanced sand (BES), 137

bentonite-sand barrier, modelling in situ water uptake in, 215-22

buffer-rock-concrete plug interaction test, 216-18 modelling approach adopted, 216, 219-20

benzol, 103 Berea Red Sand, 20, 21, 35 berrns, to assist liner placing, 137 bias, and elicitation process, 350 biaxial testing, after overcoring, 204, 205-6 Biesboch-Haringvliet Estuary, proposed repository,

80, 84 bioavailability, 335-6 biodegradation, 114, 115, 116, 118, 162 'blue billy', 103, 110 Bognor Member, 292 Boom Clay, 183-4, 189

diffusion-accessible porosity, 185 radiolysis effects, 188

boreholes, 106 Sellafield

design of, 196, 197 rigorous quality control, 194

Borre Probe, 202, 203-5 Borrowdale Volcanic Group, 195, 201,202, 209 botulism, 67, 69 boulder clay, 149

Drumlough Moss, 71, 72 in bund construction, 74

see also glacial till BRE Report BR212, 5 Brockram, 209 buffer-rock-concrete plug interaction test (Manitoba),

216-18 buffering exhaustion, 270 bunds, 51, 53-4

Gerrards Cross, 292-3 HDPE-lined, 74, 74, 75

2CR see command, control and rectify (2CR) attitude cable percussion boring, 106, 109 cadmium contamination, 79, 80 Caesium sorption, 183 Caithness Flagstone, 149 Calder Sandstone, 201,202 Canadian Nuclear Fuel Waste Management Program

(CNFWMP), 215, 223 possible configuration of repository, 215, 216 capping layers, differential settlement, 260-1,264, 265 14C, speciation in the clay environment, 183 14C testing, 245

388 INDEX

carbonate content, and attenuation, 159 carbonates, and sorption behaviour, 182 Carboniferous Limestone, 195, 201 carboxylic acids, adsorption isotherms for, 274-5, 275 Cardiff Bay Development, adsorptive lifespan of clay

barrier, 276 cation exchange, 180, 281-2, 287 cation exchange capacity (CEC), 182, 273, 280 cations

migration of, 281-2, 282 organic, properties of, 273

cement-bentonite cutoff wall, 6, 31-2, 35 subsoil drain and pump chamber, 32, 33, 34, 35

cementitious chemical barriers, 267-8 design of, 271-2 gas transmission through, 270-1 modes of failure, 270 properties of cementitious materials in, 268-70

Chalk aquifer, high quality drinking water from, 365 groundwater pollution, 362 regional groundwater flow, Vale of St Albans, 365

chemical barriers, sacrificial operation of, 268 chemical mass transfer, 337 chemico-osmosis, 183, 187 chloride, 162 chloride process, titanium dioxide production, 45 choice, extension into strategy, 356 clay barrier walls

organically-modified, 273, 276, 277 prediction of adsorptive lifetime, 276-7

clay content, and attenuation, 159 clay layer, variation in thickness of, 94, 96-7 clay liners

construction of, 171-6 Compliance Document, 176 construction quality assurance, 171, 174-5 control of construction, 256-7 field compaction, 173 in situ density measurement, 173-4 material acceptability, 254-5 material conditioning, 173 material quality, 175-6 material suitability, 252-4 permeability, 171-2 sampling, 174 specification, 172-3 test results, 175

permeability assessment, case histories, 291-7 see also barrier systems, clay

clay minerals, 273, 278, 280 clay-water-solute interactions, 180-9, 187 clays

acceptability of in earthworks, 254 conditioning of, 173 consolidation theory in, 262 in disposal of radwaste, 179

evaluation of as landfill linings, 251-8 factors affecting containment properties, 259-65 gypsum waste disposal site, 46, 47 material characteristics of, 251 mixed-layer, 182 preferred alignment along shear zones, 261,263, 264 see also boulder clay; glacial till

cleavage, 141 Clostridium botulinum, 67

creation of unfavourable environment for, 70 Coal Measures clay, 161 Codes of practice for landfills, NAWDC, 251,372 coke, 103, 110

hazardous by products from, 104, 109 waste products from, 103-4

colliery spoil, 107 column leaching, 273 command, control and rectify (2CR) attitude, 326, 331,

338, 339 trigger values for pollutants, 335

compaction, 257 degree of, and radionuclide transport, 183 field compaction of clay, 173 lagoon PFA and conditioned PFA, 39, 40 and material acceptability, 254-5

Compliance Document, 176 compressibility

gypsum waste site clays, 47, 50, 51 of iron-rich gypsums, 53 lagoon and conditioned PFA, 42

compression physical, 114, 115, 116 physical creep, 114, 115, 116 Pitsea compression cell, 62-4

concrete, buffering and sorption capacity of, 268 conditioned PFA, 37

compaction, 39, 40 compressibility, 42 material properties, 38 particle size distribution, 39, 40 shear strength, 41

conditioned PFA site engineering considerations, 44 ground conditions/investigation/site history, 38

consequence control, 356 construction quality assurance, 169-70, 352, 356

clay liners, 171, 174-5 geomembrane seams, 131

containment Drumlough Moss, 72, 73-5 physical and chemical, 268 principle of, 127-8 of radwastes, 179

containment systems comparison of, hard rock quarries, 137-8 gypsum waste disposal scheme, 51, 52, 53-4 safe management of, 325

INDEX 389

contaminant transport, 337, 339 in soils, proper analytical model, 331-3 in vadose and saturated zones, 332

contaminant-soil interactions and retention, 279-89 contaminants

bioavailability of, 335-6 and health threats, 333-5 inorganic and water quality, 333, 333-4

contamination chemical, management of, Cardiff Bay, 101-2 diffuse, 361 from repositories for hazardous waste, 242-3 Hawthorn Coke Works, 107-9 public water supply source, Vale of St Albans, 362 of soil solids, 338 Spennymoor Police Station site, 109-10 treatment in situ, 106 of underwater sediments, 77-86 see also groundwater pollution

contractors, and financial risk, 357-8 Control of Pollution Act (1974) (COPA), 3, 251 core handling, 198-9 core quality, 195 corebarrels, 202

length, 196 liners, 195

corebits, initial design, 197-8 coring

continuous, 197-8 penetration rates, 198

coring mud control system, incorporation of electromagnetic flowmeters, 198, 199-200

coupled flow phenomena, 180, 187, 189 CQA see construction quality assurance Craigmore Landfill

Phase 1, 9 Phase 2 liner design, 9-10

critical permeability, defined, 141 critical permeability unit, 142 CSIRO Hollow Inclusion Stress Cell, 202 cumulative density function, 343, 343 cut-offs, impermeable, 73-4

danger control, 356 Darcy's Law, 184, 186, 231 data management systems, geotechnical, 5, 101, 102

radwaste repository investigations, 245-8 data points, knowledge-based, 100 DD175, guidelines (BS 1988), 104 decision analysis, 341,342, 356-7 Dee, River

major source of potable water, 367 threat of leachate pollution, 369-70

deep drilling rigs, 195-8 deep radioactive waste repository

design, geotechnical core and rock mass characterization for, 209-14

geotechnical investigations drilling, 193-200 in situ stress measurements, 201-7

deformation, of clays, 259, 261-5, 375 desorption, 286 determinands, labile and stable, 245 dewatering, 215 diagenetic alteration, 180 diamond drilling, 224 diesel hydraulic rigs, 195 diffusion

of contaminants in the soil substrate, 332 through a clay barrier, 279-89

in plastic clays, 185 diffusion accessible porosity, 183, 185 diffusion parameter, determination of, 285, 287-8 dilation, 263 discontinuities, and groundwater movement, 183 dispersion, hydrodynamic, 184-6 distribution coefficient and retardation factor, 184 'double-layers', compact clays and mudrocks, 180-1 Dounreay, 195 downhole data logger, 202, 203, 203 drains/drainage

of rock cavern repositories, 239 Seater, 151 sub-horizontal, Monte Umbriano, 89-91

drawdown, in leachate pumping tests, 59-60 drift deposits, Seater landfill, 149, 151 drilling fluids, 197, 198 drilling investigation contractor, responsibilities,

193-4 drilling rigs and associated equipment, 195-8 'drinking water' guidelines, 333-4 Drumlough Moss, County Down

containment measures, 73-5 development by local authority, 71, 72 solid and drift geology, hydrogeology, 71-2 water-quality monitoring programme, 71, 75

ductile flow, 261 greater Durban area, landfills and leachate

case history 1, 16-26 geological cross-section, 17-19 geology/site investigation, 16-23 permeability tests, 21-2, 23 potential leachate production, 25-6 sump for landfill, 22, 23, 26 water balance and leachate generation, 24-6

case history 2, 26-35 contamination, 31, 31, 32, 33 geology/site investigation, 28, 29-31 inspection pits, 29, 29, 31 leachate pond for, 28, 29, 31 remedial measures, 31-5 seepage from closed landfill site, 26, 31

climate, 15-16, 24

390 INDEX

Durham coalfield, former coal carbonization sites, 104 remediation of, 106-10 site investigation, 104-6

Dwyka tillite, 20, 21, 29, 35 dynamic cone penetrometer tests, 31

Earnley Sands, 291,292 earth pressure (total) development, of bentonite-sand

buffer, 218, 218 Earthworks on Landfill Sites NRA NW region, 372 EC Directive 78/319, 'waste disposal', 325 EC Directive on Waste 75/442 (and amendments), 362 EC Groundwater Directive (80/68/EEC), 3, 5, 362 EC Surface water Directive (75/440/EEC), 5 'edge effect', 115, 118

leads to surcharge round site periphery, 116, 118 electric leak location surveys, 14

Craigmore Landfill Phase 2 liner, 10-12 results of other surveys, 12-13, 13 technique, 10, 10

electrical resistivity sub-surface imaging (SSI), 95, 95-6 used to check hydraulic integrity of HDPE liner, 97,

97 electrical-resistivity vertical electrical soundings (VES),

96 electrochemical viscous drag, 187 electromagnetic ground conductivity, 94, 94

mapping, 94-5, 96, 97 electrophoretic mass transport analyser, 280 elicitation process, 350 embankments

settlement and stability, 43 trial embankment, 51 Utrecht scheme, criticised, 375, 376

encapsulation, 106-7, 107 of gas, 314-15, 322 of radwaste, 179

engineering geology course content, 383-4 and the Utrecht waste disposal scheme, 374-5

environmental assessments gypsum waste, Malaysia, 46 Utrecht, argued against, 376

environmental audits, 101-2 environmental geological engineering, 381-8

definition of, 381-3 educational issues, 381-8 environmental component of course, 384 new MSc course, Durham University, 384

environmental geology, 381 Severn Estuary coastal wetlands study, 101

environmental geotechnics, 381-2, 382-3 environmental geotechnology, 382 environmental impact report, 373, 376 environmental issues, 381,382

educational implications of developments, 383-4

environmental liability assessments, 358 environmental pressure determination, 197 Environmental Protection Act (1990), 3, 251,361 environmental risk, 342 error trapping, 247 EU Landfill Directive, 251,371-2

test of equivalence, 371 evapotranspiration, 24, 35, 150 excavation-induced damage, in situ studies of, 223-30 exposure assessment, 335 exposure pathways, 338, 351 extractability, problem of, 337-8

failure envelopes, PFA, 41, 44 falling head permeability tests, 22 falling head permeameter test, 295-6, 301 faults/faulting, 21

affects groundwater movement, 123 Pen-Y-Bont site, 367, 370

ferric oxide, 159 Fickian diffusion, 185, 188-9 Fickian process, 332 filter tanks, buried, 110 filtration, molecular and colloidal, 181, 183 financial liability

assessments, 357 for contaminated land, 358

financial risk, 342 finite-difference technique, 285-6 fissure flow, 147 fissures, in lodgement tills, 299, 301,303 flow meters, electromagnetic, 198, 199 flue-gas cleaning product, 237 fluid, expelled from shear zones, 261 fluid flow

in high-permeability environments, 185-6 and shear zones, 261-4, 265

formation settlement, 259-60 fracture mapping, 195 fracture plane, macroscopic, shear and implosional AE

along, 228 fracturing, 224

thermally-induced, laboratory investigations of, 227-8

gabions, 129 gamma radiation, 188 gas bubbles

analysis of mobility, 316-17, 318 increase in with application of pressure gradient, 318 movement of, 322

gas encapsulation, and imbibition, 314-15, 320-1,322 gas generation, 270

within a repository, cause for concern, 188-9 gas migration, 189, 264, 321 gas mobility, influence of rate of pressure change, 321

INDEX 391

gas phase, mobility of within a porous network, 313-22

use of 2D micromodels, 313-14, 322 gas(es), 68, 103

and gas migration, 187-9 movement as bubbles, 313 possible transport mechanisms, 189 radioactive, types of, 188 transmission in saturated barriers, 270 see also landfill gas(es)

General Conditions Environmental Hygiene Act see Wet Algemene Bepalingen

Milieu-hygyi~ne, Netherlands Geobor S wireline string/system, 198, 202 Geocells, 157 geochemical data management system, radwaste

repository investigations, 245-8 data entry and validation, 247-8 geochemical testing, 245 system overview, 245-6

Geographical Information System (GIS), IDRISI, 316

geogrids, 154, 155, 156-7 essential design properties, 153-4 reinforcement with, 43

geomembrane seams, 129 extrusion welding, 131, 166, 167-8, 169

non-destructive testing technique, 167-8 'hot wedge' fusion, 131, 166, 167 site documentation of, 168 verifying integrity, 131, 167

geomembranes, 107, 128-9, 165-70 defects in, 352, 353 design of, 129-30 fixing direct to rock face, 130 leak location survey, 9-14 protection from damage, 129, 130 see also HDPE liners/geomembranes; liners

geonets, 129 geophysical cones, 94 geophysical surveys/techniques, 4, 77, 78, 80, 82-5

equipment for, 78, 81 use of, 93-8

geophysics main role of, 96-8 scope of, 93-6

geosynthetic fabric, 33 geotechnical investigations, Seater landfill, 149,

150-1 geotechnical logging charts, 209-13 geotextiles, 129 Gerrards Cross, Bucks, clay liner permeability

assessment, 291,292-3 alternative test procedures, 295-6 verification, permeability specification, 294-5

Geulhaven, contamination survey, 82, 83, 84 Glacial Gravel, 292

glacial till, 71, 136, 253 containment properties, Norfolk, 299-307 as landfill liners, 295, 295

goals, in strategic modelling, 357 governments, role of, waste management, 5-6, 325,

326-7 granite, 220, 220-1,221, 224 granite plutons, 216-17, 224 greywackes, permeability of, 72, 74 ground contamination determination, criteria for,

338 ground substrate, as contaminant barrier system, 326 ground-penetrating (-probing) radar, 94, 97, 150-1

survey, 96 groundwater, 5-6, 77, 149, 176, 337, 364

average linear velocity, 184 beneath proposed Dutch waste dump, 375 categories of, 338 and chemical barriers, 268 classification of vulnerability, 363 contradictory definitions, 361 controlled by soil-moisture deficit, 88 importance of, 362 levels, contamination and direction of flow, 106 monitoring of, 123 protection of, 332

from effects of waste disposal, 361-6 radionuclide transport in, 181-4 a sustainable resource, 365-6 variation in levels, Monte Umbriano, 88-9

groundwater balance, drained repository, 240, 240 groundwater chemistry, 183 groundwater flow, 21, 185

as a function of stress history, 180 prediction of round an underground waste repository,

231-6 groundwater pollution, 16, 379

control of, Seater landfill, 151 needing remediation, 380

groundwater quality, 337-8 effect of waste disposal on, 362

groundwater trace test, Manywells Quarry, 145-7 grout, 267, 270, 271 Guidance on the use o f landfill liners, NWWDO, 251 Guidelines on risk issues, Engineering Council, 354 gypsum waste, Malaysia

disposal scheme design of, 51, 52 impact of, 53-4

disposal site ground conditions at, 46-7, 49-50, 51 location of, 46, 47

produced by pressure filtration, 53 properties of, 51, 53 waste products, 45-6 white and red gypsum, 45, 46, 54

392 INDEX

Hardwick Airfield, Norfolk, 299-307 permeability of lodgement tills, 299-300 proposed landfill site, 300-6

assessment of borehole and trial pit data, 301 assessment of permeability data, 301-4, 305 other considerations, 304, 306

result of Public Inquiry, 306 site development on cellular basis, 300-1

Hawthorn Coke Works, County Durham, case history, 107-9

hazard assessment, 357 hazard control, 355-6 hazardous environments, development control in, 101 Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (US), 325 hazardous waste

regulation of, 327-8 risk assessment for landfill, 351-2, 353 storage at shallow depths, 237-44

costs, 243-4 environmental aspects, 242-3 layout of repository, 238-40

siting process, 240-2 types of waste, physical and chemical properties, 237,

237, 238 hazards, 342 HDPE liners/geomembranes, 74, 75, 125, 127, 128-9,

137, 165-6, 272, 304 deformation by drag-down forces, 157 double, Scottish quarry, 135, 136, 138 placement of cover, 168-9 seaming and testing, 166-8 single, 9, 135, 136 site preparation for, 166 stress/strain behaviour, 129-30, 130 see also geomembranes; leak location survey, electric;

liners health hazard assessment, some selected substance

categories, 328, 329 health protection issues, in land disposal of waste, 326 health risk assessments, 357 health risk criteria, landfills and contaminated land,

357 health risk influence diagram, 348, 348 health value system, 353, 354 health/environmental threats, 338, 339

and contaminants, 333-5 determination of, 328-9

heavy metals, 45, 159, 273, 279, 280-1 high pH 'boulder' formation, 270 Hoek Cell, 268, 269 hoop stresses, compressive and tensile, 228 'hot keys', use of, 100 hydration, 181 hydraulic conductivity, 60, 141, 142, 185, 219-20, 233

of individual joints, 232 of joints, 234-5 reduction in, 64

Swedish crystalline rock masses, 234 variation with stress, 235

hydraulic fracturing, 141, 143, 201 hydraulic heads, anomalous, 186 hydro-mechanical coupling, 180, 186 hydrodynamic particle movement and clogging, 187 hydrofracture see hydraulic fracturing hydrogen bonding, 273, 276 hydrogeology

Drumlough Moss, 72 hard rock quarries, 133 and radwaste disposal, 180, 185-5 Seater, 149-50

Ijssel, River, contaminated, 77 Ijsselmeer Lake, contaminants, 79 ilmenite, 45 imbibition, and gas encapsulation, 314-15, 320-1,

322 in situ permeability tests, 22, 296, 369, 369 in situ stress measurements, Sellafield, 195, 201-7 in situ stress state, calculation of, 201,206 induced seismicity, application of to radwaste

management programmes, 223-30 industrial clay, 273-4 inerts, promoting rapid stabilization, 118 influence diagrams, 347, 348, 348-9

liner seepage, 351,352 inter-granular sliding, 261 iodine, 183 ion exchange, 181 ions/solutes, 'non-extractable' and 'extractable', 337 IRCL Guidance Note 17/78, 4, 5, 6 IRCL Guidance Note 59/83, 5 iron oxides, 182 iron salts, in titanium waste gypsum, 53 ISAT water absorption test, 296 isotopic exchange, 188

joint joint joint joint joint joint joint joint joint 232 joint

alteration number, 211 characterization, Sellafield, 213-14 frequency, 211 length, 213 orientation data, 213 roughness, coefficient and number, 211 set number, 211 spacing, 211 systems geometry, and rock mass permeability,

wall compressive strength, 211 joint water reduction factor, 211 joints/jointing, 16, 20, 135, 145, 217, 235

NGI characterization method, 209 permeability of single joint under stress, 231-2

judgement, 349, 350

INDEX 393

kaolinite, 20 karstification

beneath Vale of St Albans, 365 South Essex aquifer system, 364

Ketelmeer Lake, 77 proposed repository, 84-5, 86

kick detection and procedures, 198, 199

Lac du Bonnet batholith, 216-17, 224 lagoon PFA, 37

compaction, 39, 40 compressibility, 42 material properties, 38 particle size distribution, 39, 40 shear strength, 39, 41

lagoon PFA site engineering considerations, 43 ground conditions, investigation, moisture content, 38 site history, 37-8

lagoons, bunded, 51 land-use planning, 101 landfill see waste landfill caps, 128, 260-1

see also capping layers landfill cells, 251,252 landfill chemistry, assessment of, 5 landfill failure, 154

risk assessment, 380 survey, 379-80

landfill gas(es), 5, 127, 251 migration, 379, 380 see also gas

landfill performance assessments, 357 landfill sites

case histories, Netley, Southampton and Gerrards Cross, 291-7

contaminant pathways impacting on humans, 328, 328

influences on design, 57 lined, development of next to a major potable supply

river, 367-72 policy to site away from major aquifers, 363 potential unknowns, 96 problem, 379-80 proposed, Hardwick Airfield, Norfolk, 300-6 Seater, Caithness, ground investigation and design,

149-52 Vale of St Albans, 364, 365 see also Drumlough Moss; waste disposal sites

'Landfill Tax', 3 landfilling

effect on hydrogeological properties of refuse, 57-60 and waste management, 331-3

landfills classic problem, 2CR and PMR implications, 329-31 closed, 26-35, 93

assessment of, 5-6

geology/site investigation, 29-31 geophysical surveys over, 97-8 investigation of, 3-5 remediation, 6, 31-5

construction of clay liners for, 171-6 evaluation of clays as linings to, 251-8 existing, vertical extensions to, 156 guidelines, NAWDAC, 372 investigations during construction, 96-7 lining design, stability considerations, 153-7 stages of investigation, 4

landraise sites, 301,306 Lateraal Kanaal, 77

quality/quantity control over cover material, 80, 82 leachate drainage layer, 135 leachate flow, proposed Ketelmeer repository, 85 leachate investigations, 5 leachate levels

build up of, 57, 58 effect of landfilling on, 57-60, 59

leachate plumes, 31, 32, 33 classic landfill problem, 329, 330 PMR-type control, 327

leachate pumping tests, 59-60 leachate-collection/liner-protection layer, 135, 326 leachate-detection layer, 135, 136, 137 leachate-leakage-detection layer, 135, 138 leachates, 6, 251,268, 303

acid, 279 attenuation mechanisms, 159 build up allowable at Pen-Y-Bont site, 369-70 chemical composition and waste type, 25, 25 collection and removal system, 89-91, 127 generation

and composition of, 15 and control of, 57 and water balance, Durban area, 24-6

leakage of (PA example), 351-2 prevention of migration, 127 and proposed EU directive on landfill, 371-2 quantity controlled by liquid entering, 24, 25-6, 35 and till fissures, 301 toxic substances in, 327-8

leaching column tests, 280, 286 see also column leaching

leaching processes/efficiencies, 337 lead contamination, 336 leak detection system, 326 leak location survey, electric, 9-14 leakage, HDPE geomembranes, 165-6, 169 Lek, River, 374-5 liners, 125, 133, 165-70, 326

basal, 137, 165, 292 placed over existing landfill, 156

bentonite-based, 9 see also bentonite-sand barrier

clay, 125, 251-8, 372

394 INDEX

liners (continued) assessment of permeability, 291-7 construction of, 171-6 suitability of Ruabon Marl, 370-1

composite, 135, 136, 137, 304, 351 design, stability considerations, 153-7 geosynthetic clay (GCL), 10 high-attenuation, investigations into, 159-64

chemical design philosphy, 159-60 natural mineral, 96, 135, 137, 165 placement of in deep quarries, 138 side-slope, in steep-sided quarries, 127, 129-30 sloping, reinforced soil veneers, 154, 156 see also geomembranes; HDPE liners/geomembranes

lining systems composite, 166 interface shear strength, 153, 154

liquids, assessment standards, 5-6 lodgement tills, clay-rich, permeability, 299-307 London Clay, 292

pH at Bradwell, 183 low pressure test, to determine permeability of large-

dam foundations, 141-3 Lower Lias Clay, 253-4, 254 Lowestoft Till, field vs. laboratory permeabilities, 301-4

Mackintosh probes, 149 maghemite, 53 magnetic anomalies

fracture zones, associated with faulting, 124, 124 small-scale igneous intrusions, 124-5, 125

magnetic field, 123 magnetic minerals, 123 magnetic profiling, delineating faults/fracture zones,

124-5 magnetometers, 123-4 Malaysia, engineering properties and disposal of

gypsum waste, 45-55 Manywells Quarry, groundwater trace test, 145-7 maps/plans (old), use of, 104, 107, 109 mass transport, 180, 332 material acceptability, and compaction, 254-5 material properties, lagoon/conditioned PFA, 38-43 material suitability, 251,252-3, 257

mapping of, 253-4 MCV apparatus, 251 MCV compaction test, 251,254-5 Measurement While Drilling (MWD) package, 196 metal hydroxide sludge (MeOH), 237 metals, anoxic corrosion of, 188 micromodels, 2D, 313-14, 315, 316, 322

Small Hexagonal Model (SMH), 314, 317-18, 319 Middle Coal Measures, 135, 367 Milieu-effect rapportage see environmental impact

report mineral deposits, 365 mineral workings, S Essex, use for landfill, 364

mineralization, 181 mining rig, trailer-mounted, 195 model uncertainty, 351 moisture condition value see MCV moisture content

acceptable lower limit, 256 PFA, 37, 38, 39, 40

monetary value systems, 353, 354 monitoring, Utrecht scheme, challenged, 375 monitoring systems, 329-31 Monte Carlo method, 347, 352, 357 Monte Umbriano waste complex, Ancona

effluent chemistry, 91 extension of existing dump, 91 geological and geomorphological setting, 87-8 installation of further drains, 91 material characteristics, 88, 89 slope failure, 87 stabilization of existing dump, 88-91

montmorillonite, 273 montmorillonite clay, suction-controlled oedometer

tests in, 309-12 suction control methods, 309-10

mound stability, 44 MSW see municipal solid waste mudrock, 180

non-clay mineralogy, 182 stress history of, 180

multiple barrier concept, underground radwaste disposal, 179, 223

municipal solid waste, toxic substances in leachates, 327-8

Natal Group, 16, 21, 29, 35 National River Authority see NRA Neptunium, 183-5 net present value (NPV) of cash flow, 354, 356 Netherlands

contaminated waterways, 77, 78 government assessment standards for groundwater,

5-6 government contamination guidelines, 5 shallow reflection surveys, 80, 82-5 statutes influencing waste disposal, 373, 374 waste dump scheme, engineering geological and legal

aspects, 373-7 Netley, Southampton, clay liner permeability

assessment, 291-2, 293 alternative test procedures, 295-6 site operations, 292 verification, permeability specification, 294-5

non-Darcy behaviour, 187 nonlinearities and thresholds, 187, 189 NRA, 361,362

definition of suitable materials, 253 recognized problem of till permeability, 303-4

INDEX 395

NRA groundwater protection policy, 134, 134, 135, 362-6

not covering Scotland, 135 nuclear density probe, 174

occluded salts, 159 oedometer tests, 310, 311 oilfield land rigs, 195 Onsagerian coupling, 187 Opalinus Clay, 183, 186 organic carbon, and attenuation, 159 organic chemicals, synthetic and volatile, 334, 334 organic matter, 183

decomposition in repositories, 188 organic species, adsorption by clays/commercial landfill

barrier materials, 273-8 organo-clay reactions, 273 'osmosis', 187 osmotic pressure, 181 overcoring, 201,202-3, 205

for in situ stress measurement, 206-7 Oxford Clay, 161, 162

PA see performance assessments packer tests, 21, 141 parameter uncertainty, 349 particle size distribution, 47

lagoon PFA and conditioned PFA, 39, 40 tests, 293, 293, 294, 294-5

PCB contamination, 77 peat bog landfill site, remedial containment measures

for, 71-5 construction techniques, 74-5 design objectives, 72-3 geology, 71-2 surface water, 73-4

Peclet number, 331, 332 Pen-Y-Bont, proposed development of lined landfill site,

367-72 development of proposals, 370-1 geology, 367 ground conditions, 369, 370 hydrogeology, 367 initial proposals, key problems, 369-70 site investigations, 367, 369

performance assessment modelling, 357 performance assessments, 342, 347, 355

an example, 351-2, 353 bottom-up approach, 347 top down approach, 347-8

performance estimates, 358 performance, monitor and rectify (PMR) attitude,

326-7, 338, 339 importance of analytical modelling, 331-3 specification of trigger values for pollutants, 335 types of monitoring strategy, 329-30

performance under disruptive events, 342

permeability, 72, 141,211 anisotropic, 262 of clay for clay liners, 171-2, 172, 252, 253, 254-5

alteration through deformation, 259, 262-4 clay-rich lodgement tills, 299-300 gypsum waste site clays, 47 increase with decreasing moisture, 255, 256 lagoon and conditioned FPA, 43 Natal Group and Dwyka tillite, 21-2, 35 requirements for landfill linings, 255-6 of rock masses, 232-3 of Ruabon Marl, 367, 370 secondary, 143 of single joint under stress, 231-2 variability between field and laboratory results, 296,

301-3 permeability specifications, verification of, 294-5 permeability tests, 174, 256

Lowestoft Till, 301-3 Pitsea compression cell, 62, 63

permeability-deformation relationship, 262-4 permeability-tortuosity relationship, 261-2 PFA see pulverized fuel ash pH

alkaline, 162 and chemical barriers, 268 of porewater (clays), 183 see also soil pH

phenols, 110, 273 adsorption isotherms for, 275, 275 Pierre Shale, subnormal heads in, 186-7 Pietermaritzburg Shale, 20 pipe, for wireline coring strings, 196 Pitsea compression cell, 60-1

compression tests on domestic refuse, 62-4 hydraulic system, 61 water flow and measurement system, 61

plastic limit, 257 plasticity, the A-line, 252, 252-3, 253, 254, 294, 295 plasticity index (PI), 171, 171,253, 292 PMR see performance, monitor and rectify (PMR)

attitude Policy and practice for the protection of groundwater,

NRA, 251,362-3, 365-6 pollutants see contaminants polluter must pay principle, 3 pollution see contamination polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), 109 porewater, 205, 271 porewater pressure, 58, 217, 217, 221 porewater pressure head, 221, 221,222 porosity, diffusion accessible, 183, 185 potential gradients, 186, 189 Pouisselle's Law, 261 pre-construction surveys, 96 pre-design evaluation, cost of, 125 precipitation, 181

396 INDEX

pressure gradient, affecting gas bubbles, 318, 320 pressurised fluidised bed combustion product (PFBC),

237 probability density function, 343, 343 probability distribution, 343, 343 probability theory, Bayesian, 341,342 'propagation of uncertainty', 347 public health protection, 338-9

determination of standards and measures, 325-6 pulverized fuel ash, 271-2

engineering properties of, 37-44 generation of leachate, 268

pump tests/testing, 123, 124 pyrite, 183

Q-system, 209, 211,213, 213 quality control certificate, for geomembranes, 166 Quality Management System, 194, 199 quarries

disused, as landfill sites, pre-design evaluation, 123-6 hard rock

containment systems comparison, 137-8 factors influencing design of containment systems,

133-4 Quarry 1,134-5

double HDPE liner proposed, 135, 136 Quarry 2, 135-6

composite liner proposed, 135, 136, 137 Quarry 3, 136-7

composite liner proposed, 137 within major aquifer, 136

steep-sided, waste disposal in, 127-31 lining support to sides of, 157 side-slope drainage and protection, 127-8 side-slope lining, 129-30

radioactive waste containment objective, 268 disposal of in argillaceous formations, 179-89

clay-water-solute interactions, 180-1, 187 gases, and gas migration, 187-9 hydrogeology, 184-6 radionuclide transport, 181-85

repository feasibility investigations, geochemical data management system for, 245-8

repository scheme, 267 see also deep radioactive waste repository; Sellafield;

underground waste repository radiolysis, 188 radionuclide migration, 181-83

physical and chemical barriers to, 179 radionuclide retention and retardation, 180, 181 radionuclide speciation, 183-2 radionuclide transport, 181-85

advection/dispersion model, 184-5 in groundwater, 181-84, 268 to the biosphere, 181

radionuclides calculation of loss from a repository, 268 critical, non-critical, possibly critical, 181 movement retarded in clays, 189

Reading Formation, 292 recommended daily allowance (RDA), 334 refuse see waste regulatory attitudes

and landfill performance, 326-7 and technology development, 327

remediation, 6 of closed landfills, 6, 31-5 of contaminated coke producing sites, 106-7 of landfill failure, 380 peat bog landfill site, 71-5 see also Monte Umbriano waste complex

repositories for hazardous waste, 238 environmental aspects, 242-3 hydraulic principles for drainage, 239-40 monitoring and long-term stability, 240 rock caverns, 238-9 site studies, 241-2 see also bentonite-sand barrier, modelling in situ

water uptake in; induced seismicity, application of to radwaste management

programmes repulsion, in mudrocks, 181 residual friction angle, 213 resistivity, 94 resistivity-depth profile, 95, 95 Resource Conservation Recovery Act (RCRA) (US),

325, 326 definition of solid waste, 328-9

Rhine-Maas delta, contamination in, 77, 79, 80 rhodochrosite, 182 ring infiltrometers, 174, 296 risk

acceptable, 354 and Bayes theorem, 344-5 concepts of, 341-2 indicator performance, 344--5, 346 and uncertainty, 341 updating with new information, 345, 346

risk assessment, 341-59, 380 definition of terms used, 341-2, 342 issues in, 341-2

risk aversion, 350 risk management, 341,353-7

decision analysis and strategy simulation, 356-7 risk control, 355-6 uncertainty reduction, 355 value system, 353-4

risk studies, 345, 347-9, 357, 358 risk tolerance, 354, 358 Risk-analysis, perception, and management, Royal

Society, 354 risk-based procedures, advantage of, 358

INDEX 397

river beds, contaminated, sand cover for, 77, 80 River Terrace Gravels, 291-2 rock cavern repositories, 238, 238-9 rock face stabilization, 129 rock mass conductivity, variation with depth, 232-3 rock masses

characterization of, 209 permeability of, 211,232-3

rock quality designation (RQD), 211 root time, 284, 285, 286-7, 288 rotary drilling rigs, 202 Rotterdam harbour, contamination, 80 Rough Rock, 145 Rough Rock Flags, 145 Ruabon Marl, 367, 369, 370

St Albans, Vale of groundwater protection, 364-5, 365 waste disposal and groundwater, 362

St Bees Sandstone, 195, 201,202 sand bodies, in lodgement tills, 299, 300, 301,303 Schmidt-hammer rebound number, 213 seagulls, dying from avian botulism, 67 Seater, Caithness, landfill

conceptual hydrogeological section, 150 design considerations, 151 site investigations, 149-51

sector logging and testing, 196 seepage, through clay barriers, 277 seismic events, preferential clustering of, 224 seismicity studies, monitoring of crack development,

223 selenium, 184 self-polarisation, 94 Sellafield

conceptual design for deep repository, 193 geology, 195, 209 joint characterization, 213-14 numerical modelling of cavern excavations, 214 see also deep radioactive waste repository

settlement Beddingham landfill site, 111-19 calculations, Buisman-DeBeer method, 43, 44 differential, base of landfill sites, 259-60 irregular, 130 long-term, 51 long-term monitoring programme, 111 measurement of, 114, 116 post-closure, 57 as a result of surcharging existing wastes, 64 time-dependent, 43

settlement guidance values, underestimations, 117 shaft excavation, seismicity induced by, 224 shallow drilling, geotechnical site investigation rigs, 198 shallow reflection surveys, Netherlands, 77, 80, 82-5

equipment for, 78, 81

shear strength, 375 clays, 256, 256-7 gypsums

ageing effects, 53, 54 dependent on void ratio, 51, 53

lagoon PFA and conditioned PFA, 39, 41, 41-2, 42 remoulded, 255, 256 unsaturated soils, 41-2

shear zones fluid zones along, 261-4 microscopic, 261,264 potential for off-site gas migration, 264

sheepsfoot roller, 292, 293 Sherwood Sandstone Group, 136 shotcrete, 130 siderite, 182 silo repositories, 239, 239 Site Investigation in Construction (1993), 3-4 slip planes, colluvium, 87-8, 91 slope failure, 260

Monte Umbriano waste complex, 87 slope instability, 380 sludge, and leachate generation, 24, 35 Slufter repository basin, 80, 82, 85 smectite, 182 smectite clays, 309 smooth drum rollers, 173, 174, 257 smooth vibrating roller, 292 sodium bentonite, polymer-treated (Culseal), 32 sodium montmorillonite barrier wall, 273, 276, 277 soft sediment samplers, 78, 81 soil column, adsorbed cation concentrations, 282, 283 soil pH, and heavy metal retention, 279 soil pollution, 335-6 soil quality, 326, 337-8

and PMR regulatory requirements, 330-1 soil solids contamination, 338 soil-water systems, multi-toxicant, problem of

determination of bioavailability, 336 soils

alluvial, 29 buffering capacity of, 281,286 colluvial, 22, 29 partially-saturated, stress-strain behaviour, 309 polluted, 77

solute transport in a clay barrier, 283-5, 287 diffusion transport, 332-3 in porous media, 184-5

source protection zones, definition of, 363 South Essex

multilayer aquifer beneath, 364 protection of groundwater, 363-4, 364

Southleigh, Emsworth, lining clay, 291,292 Spennymoor Police Station

case history, 109-10 tracing site development, 104, 105

398 INDEX

spent oxides, 103, 107 stability, 5

in sloping lining systems, 154, 156 static cone penetration tests, 39, 44 Stewartby and Brogborough lakes, 67-8, 69 Stewartby L-field refuse disposal site, 67-9

investigation into presence of botulinum toxins, 69-70 lower zone

botulinum toxins present, 69 leachate treatment plain, 68 suitable environment for clostridia growth and

toxin release, 70 storativity, of refuse, 64 strain softening and strain hardening, 263 STRATA3 visualization software, 99-102

data points and interpolation, 99-100 development of, 99 output facilities and model interrogation, 100 practical applications, 100-1 use in environmental geology, 101 used in a contamination study, 101-2

strategy, differentiated from plan, 356-7 stress, 130, 211 stress reduction factor (SRF), 211 stress relief, through overcoring, 201 stress unload-reload cycle, 260 substrate choices

high-attenuation liners, 160-1 tested in column experiments, 161-2

subsurface models creation of with STRATA3, 99-100 for engineers and geologists, 100-1

suction of bentonite-sand buffer, 217-18, 218, 221,222

strength due to, 41, 42 suction-controlled oedometer tests, montmorillonite

clay, 309-12 suction/moisture content relationships, PFA, 41-2, 42 sulphate action, on concretes, 270 sulphate process, titanium dioxide production, 45 sulphuric acid solutions method, suction control, 310,

311 surface water drainage, Drumlough Moss, 72, 73-4 surface water pollution, 379, 380 swab and surge potential, 198 Sweden

central, geological and topographical conditions, 240-1

layout of permanently drained hazardous waste repository, 238-40

site studies for repository, 241-2 systems uncertainty, 349

tamping rollers, 173 tar, 103, 107, 109 technetium, 183 technical casing, 196

technology development, regulatory attitudes, 327 tensile strain, 153 tension cracks, 87 Terzaghi's theory of one-dimensional consolidation, 43,

44 thermal mapping, 94 thermal release, 188 titanium dioxide (TiO2) production

waste products from, 45-6 see also gypsum waste, Malaysia

toe heave, Monte Umbriano waste complex, 87, 89 tolerability, concept of, 354, 358 The tolerability o f risk from nuclear power stations,

Health and Safety Executive, 354 toluene-extractable matter (TEM), 109 tool joint strength, t96 toxic chemical waste, dumped, detection of, 77 toxic solutions, 279 toxic substances, classified according to toxicity level,

334-5, 335 toxicant concentration, problems of determination of,

336 toxicity assessment, 335 transient flow, 180

long-term, 186-7, 189 transport equation, one-dimensional, 184 trial pits

Seater landfill, 149, 150, 151 use of, 104, 106, 107-8, 109

Triassic sandstone, 160 triaxial cell permeability test, 294 triaxial tests

conditioned PFA, 41 iron-rich gypsums, 53

trigger concentrations, 5, 335 tunnel construction hazard assessment, 357 tunnel excavation, seismicity induced by, 224, 227

ultrafiltration, 181 ultrasonic tomography, 228 uncertainty, 343, 345, 349

Bayesian approach to expression of, 343-4 uncertainty reduction, risk management, 355 Underground Research Laboratory (URL) (AECL),

215 in situ stress investigation, 224, 225, 227 major fracture zones, 224

underground waste repository prediction of groundwater flow round, 231-6 see also deep radioactive waste repository

underliner drainage system, 135, 151 underwater sediments, contaminated, survey and

containment of, 77-86 Upper Chalk, 292 uranium, speciation in the clay environment, 184 URL see Underground Research Laboratory (URL)

(AECL)

INDEX 399

USBM Borehole Deformation Gauge, 202 Utrecht, Netherlands, disposal of waste, 373-4

initial communications, 375 objections to, 374-5 second round communications, 376 subsequent developments and comments, 376

value systems, 353-4 Van der Waals' forces, 273 velocity and attenuation surveys, URL, 224, 227 vertical stress, Pitsea compression cell, 62, 63 video images, in gas phase research, 316, 318 vitrification, 179 VLDPE geomembrane, 128 void ratio, 51, 115, 118, 276

desiccation-hydration cycles, 311, 312 volumetric joint count, 213

waste, 64, 64, 251,365 change in nature and composition, 3 compacted, use of, 91 controlled waste, 5

and non-controlled waste, 362 defined, 361-2 density related to absorptive capacity, 25, 25 environmentally safe management of, 326 evaluation of geotechnical and hydrogeological

properties, 57-65 handling of in rock caverns, 239, 239 hydraulic conductivity reduced, 60 industrial, hazardous and non-hazardous, 5 mechanical compression of, 57 neutralization and detoxification before discharge/

disposal, 328 nuclear, objectives of containment, 267-8 settlement of, 260-1 solid/liquid ratios, 24 stress-strain relationship at different moisture

contents, 64, 64

total settlement, three stages of, 114 see also gypsum waste, Malaysia; hazardous waste;

radioactive waste waste disposal, 3

European Community, 325 N American term, 325 protection of groundwaters from, 361-6

waste disposal sites, dynamic environments in, 259-61 Waste Management Paper No. 26, 5, 6, 251,370, 372 Waste Management Paper No. 27 (landfill gas), 5, 6 Waste Management Regulations (1994), 361,362 waste treatment system, gypsum waste disposal scheme,

51 waste-conditioning, of radwaste, 179 water, as primary contaminant carrier, 326 water balance calculations, 15, 24, 57 water flow, in rock masses, 233, 235 water pressure tests, 141 water quality, 3 Water Resources Act (1991), 361 water-tables, 133

below quarry base, 136 and gas mobility, 313 no deposition of polluting waste below, 363 perched, 5, 88, 130 topography of (greater Durban area), 21, 22

weathering Dwyka tillite, 20, 29 lodgement tills, 299-300

well control, 198 Wenner array, 95 Wet Algemene Bepalingen Milieu-hygyifine,

Netherlands, 373 wetlands, 364 wireline coring, advantages of, 199 wireline coring systems, heavy duty, 195-6 wireline drill strings, design and construction of, 196

zero-option (nulalternatief), 373