INDEX

A Acetic acid, 46, 49 Acetobacter aceti, 329, 334 Acid(s)

content of juices, 523 foods, 177 preservative effect, 161 value, of fat, 463

Acidophilus milk, 388 Activated sludge tank, 628 Activation energy, 50 Adulterated foods, 665 AFDOUS frozen food code, 222 Aflatoxins, 150, 497 Aging, of beef, 207 Agency for International Development, 707 Agglomeration, see Instantizing Agitating retorts, 187 Agricultural Marketing Service, 130 Air convection driers, 262-272

air-lift drier, 266 belt-trough drier, 265 cabinet, tray, and pan driers, 263-264 fluidized-bed drier, 266 kiln drier, 263 spray driers, 266-272

air patterns, 268 atomization, 269 dried particle characteristics, 270 drying chambers, 268 foam-spray drying, 272 low-temperature spray drying, 272

product collectors, 272 tunnel and belt driers, 264-265

Air freezing, methods, 231-235 Air-blast freezers, 100, 231 Air-lift drier, 266 Air Freez process, 283 Albedo, 30 Alcaligenes lipolyticus, 334 Alcohol, and fermentation, 336, 631 Alimentary pastes, 476 Algin, 41 Alpha-tocopherol, 72 Alum, as flocculant, 620 Aluminum, in packaging, 590, 599 Amino acids, 42-43 Ammonium sulfate, 655 Amoebic dysentery, 152 Amylopectin, 37 Amylose, 37 Anaerobic digester, 628 Animal fats, 445

composition, 445 percentage in foods, 396

Animal feeding tests, 644, 646 Annatto seed, extract, 454, 653 Anthocyanins, 53, 509 Anthoxanthins, 509 Antibiotics, food use and current status, 165 Anticaking agents, 655 Antioxidants, 50, 651 Antisticking agents, 655 Appearance factors, and quality, 114-120

715

716 Index

Apple juice, 528 Arachidonic acid, 66 Aromatization, see Coffee Arterial pumping, hams, 399 Ascorbic acid, 50, see also Vitamin C

as antioxidant, 526 as fruit dip, 526

Aseptic canning and packaging, 193-196 recent advances, 196, 607-609

Aspartame, 534, 654 Aspergillus fiavus, 150 ASHRAE,225 Atherosclerosis, 82 Avidin, 55

B Bacillus cereus, 150 Bacillus stearothermophilus (FS 1518), 172,

175,177 Bacteria, see also Microorganisms, individ-

ual species counts for milk, 353 forms and structures, 144 spores, 144

Bactofuge, 354 Bakers' yeast, see also Saccharomyces cerevi­

szae as leavening agent, 486-487 production, 339

Baking, see Cereal grains and their pro­cessing

Baking ingredients, functions of, 485-490 eggs, 489 leavening agents, 486-489 shortening, 489 sugars, 490 wheat gluten, 485 wheat starch, 485

Baking powders double acting, 489 fast acting, 488 ingredients, 488 reaction rates and times, 488 slow acting, 488

Barley malt, see Malt Beef

composition, 395, 396 effects of feeding practice, 10 grades, 391-393 tenderness, 395, 398

Beer analysis of, 542 brewing, 539 cereal adjuncts, 539 cold pasteurization, 543 fermentation, 540 finishing steps, 541 hops, 539 light beer, 544 malt, 539 mashing, 539 raw materials and manufacture, 538-544 storage, 540

Belt drier, 264 Belt-trough drier, 265 Bentonite, 655 Benzaldehyde, 654 Benzoyl peroxide, 652 Beriberi, 73, 478 Beta-carotene, 71, 508 Beverages, 532-562, see also Beer, Coffee,

Soft Drinks, Tea, Wine Bile acids, 652 Bioavailability, of nutrients, 69 Biodegradable detergents, 624 Biological oxygen demand, 624-626 Biological value, 69, 128 Biotechnology, II, 711 Biotin, 75 Blanching

fruits, 525 definition, 171 vegetables, 516-517, 634

Bleaching agents, 652 Bloom gelometer, 123 Blue cheese, 384 Boiler scale, 619 Botulism, 659, 663, see also Clostridium bo­

tulinum Bran, of cereal grains, 25, 469 Bread, see also Cereal grains and their pro­

cessmg dough, dividing, 27

fermentation, 26 film-forming property, 26, 485 mixing and development, 26, 485 proofing, 28 rounding, 28 sheeting-molding, 28 typical formula, 27

fermentation, 336 ropiness, 336

Index 717

flour, 485 staling, at refrigeration temperatures, 214

Brevibacterium linens, 386 Brines and sugar solutions, as refrigerants,

238 British thermal unit, 224 Brix, degrees, 524 Brix to acid ratio, 524 Broilers, feed conversion ratio, 412 Bromate, oxidizing agents, 652 Bromelin, 398 Browning reaction, 38, 53

in dehydration, types, 260 Buckwheat, 467 Bulgur, 17 Bulk density, 257 Butter, and buttermaking, 454-456

batch method, 454 continuous method, 456

Butter oil, 362, 364 Butter printer, 456 Butterfat, 362 Buttermilk

from churning cream, 455 cultured, 387

Butylated hydroxyanisole, 463, 651 Butylated hydroxy toluene, 463, 651 Butyric acid, 45

C Cabinet drier, 263 Caffeine, 534, 554,559 Caffeine-tannin complex, 562 Cake flour, 485 Cakes and batters

changes during baking, 489 influence of ingredients, 485-490

Calcium, in nutrition, 76 Calcium salts, and texture of plant tissue,

506 Calories, 60 Camembert, see Cheese Campylobacter jejuni, 150, 663 Cancer, 84 "Cancer Clause," 645 Candida utilis, 343 Candy, see Confectionery products Can-making machine, 583 Canning, determining process times, 180-

183

pressure effects and control, 188-189 Caramel, 293, 534, 653 Caramelization, 38, 53 Carbohydrates, 36-41, 61-63

celluloses, 37, 40 dextrins, 37, 39 gums, 37, 40 hemicelluloses, 37, 40 pectins, 37, 40 starches, 36, 38, 39 sugars, 36, 38

Carbon dioxide in egg storage, 212, 420 purging, 540

Carbon filtration, 620 Carbonated nonalcoholic beverages, 532-

538 ingredients and manufacture, 533-538

acids, 535 carbon dioxide, 537 colors, 534 flavorings, 534 plant layout, 537 sugar, 533 water, 536

Carbonation beer, 541 beverages, 90

Carboxymethyl cellulose, 366, 534, 652 Cardiovascular disease, 82 Carotene, 50, 53, 508

as coloring agent, 454, 653 Case hardening, 256 Casein, 349 Catalase, 421, 516 Catechins, 509 Catechol-tannin substrates, 526 Cell, membranes, 162

turgor, 505 Cellophane, 594 Cellulose acetate, 594 Cell uloses, 37, 40 Cephalin, 66 Cereal grains, 467-491

baking, principles of, 484-491 bakery type products, 484 ingredients and functions, 485-490 oven baking reactions, 485-491

barley, oats, rye, 482 bread and breadmaking, 24-28, 484-488

batch processing operations, 26-28 continuous process, 28

718 Index

Cereal grains (continued) breakfast cereals, preparation, 483 corn, 479-482

dry milling, 479 wet milling, 480

germ, 25, 469 grain compositions and structures, 468-

472 rice, 477-479

enrichment methods, 478 improved varieties, 478 milling, 477 rice products, 479

wheat, 24-26, 472-476 alimentary pastes, 476 conventional milling, 25, 473 turbomilling and air classification, 473 uses of wheat flour and granules, 475

Certified food colors, 534, 653 Cesium-137,308 Champagne, 546 Cheddar cheese, see Cheese Ched-O-Matic process, 379 Cheese, 372-387

blue-veined cheeses, 384 Camembert, 384 Cheddar, advanced processes, 379

and its manufacture, 374-379 cheddaring, 387 curdmaking, 374-378 curing or ripening, 378 milling and salting, 378 pressing, 378

cheese substitutes, 386 composition of varieties, 375 cottage cheese manufacture, 379 Limburger, 386 process cheese and related products, 386-

388 Swiss cheese manufacture, 381

eye formation in, 129,381,382 varieties and classification, 372-374

Cheese curd, cooking, 377 cutting, 376 from raw milk, 376 matting, 377 role of acid, 376 role of salt, 378

Chelating agents, 651 Chemical oxygen demand, 625 Chicken, see aLm Poultry

marketing classes, 412 quality grades, 412 shelf-life of meat, 413

Chlorination, 621 break point, 621

Chlorine, in nutrition, 77 Chlorine dioxide, 652 Chlorophyll, 52, 507 Chloroplasts, 53, 507 Chocolate, 570-575

cacao bean and processing, 570-571 chocolate liquor, 571 cocoa, types, 573 cocoa bu tter, 571 Imitation chocolate, 575 substitute, 448 types and manufacture, 573-575

Cholesterol, 45, 82-83 Choline, 75 Chromoplasts, 507 Churns

batch, 455 continuous, 456

Citric acid, 49, 535, 652 Citrus juice extractor, 31, 527 Clarifier, centrifugal, milk, 353 Clarifying agents, 655 Clostridium botulinum

heat requirements for destruction, 172, 176, 185, 656

in food poisoning, 9, 150,658 heat sensitivity of toxin, 169 resistance to radiation, 312 sensitivity to acid, 49, 162, 177

Clostridium perfringens, 150,656 Cobalt, in nutrition, 77 Cobalt-60, 306 Cocoa, see Chocolate Cocoa butter, 448, 571 Cod liver oil, 447 Codex, of food chemicals, 650 Codex Alimentarius, 669 Codex Alimentarius Commission, 670 Coextrusion, 405, 410, 600 Coffee, 548-558

instant coffee manufacture, 554-558 aromatization, 557 dehydration, 556 extraction, 554

processing of, 550-558 brewing, 552

Index 719

grinding, 551 machine vending, 552 roasting, 550

production practices, 448-550 bean sorting and grading, 549 coffee cherry structure, 549 drying of beans, 549 pulping of beans, 549

Coffee oil, 558 Coffee whiteners, 363 Cold damage

to foods, 153 to fruits and vegetables, 153,213

Cold preservation and processing, 201-245 Cold sterilization, 166, 305 Cold-break process, 506 Coliform organisms, 617 Collagen, 395 Colloid mill, 462 Color Additive Amendments of 1960, 650 Color measuring devices, 115-119 Color, of foods, 52-53 Colorimetry, 118 Commercially sterile, definition, 170 Computerized operation, 12, 456 Concentrated milks, 359-360, see also Milk,

modified products Concentration effects

from freezing, 218 kinds of food damage, 219

Concentration of foods, 285-294 aspects of preservation, 286 methods and equipment, 288-293

flash evaporators, 289 freeze concentration, 291 open kettles, 289 solor concentration, 288 thin film evaporators, 290 ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis, 292 vacuum evaporators, 291

reduced weight and volume, 287 some changes from, 293-294

Conching, of chocolate, 573 Conducting cells, of plants, 504 Conduction heating, in canning, 179 Confectioners glaze, 577 Confectionery products, 564-570, 575-578

ingredients and functions, 565-570 chocolate, see Chocolate corn syrups, 569 invert sugar, 568

other ingredients, 569 sucrose, 567

manufacturing practices, 575-578 aerating, 576 depositing, 576 enrobing, 577 extruding, 576 glazing, 577 liquid centers, 578 panning, 577 starch molding, 576

Conical blender, 96 Consistometers, 120 Consumer preference groups, 126 Consumer protection, 638-671 Consumer spending, on food, 17,20 Container-forming systems, 106 Controlled atmosphere storage, 8, 212 Convection heating, in canning, 179 Convenience foods, 640 Cooling, non preservative uses, 214 Copolymers, in packaging, 598 Copper, in nutrition, 77 Corn

flakes, 484 flour, 480 gluten, 480 grits, 480 meal, 480 oil, 480 source of alcohol, 482 starch, 480 syrups and sugars, 480

Cottage cheese long set method, 379-381 short set method, 381

Cottonseed, 447, 468, 497 Countercurrent air flow, 232, 265 Cranberry separator, 522 Cream

dairy, 362 churning, 454

Cream separator, 362 Cream of tartar, 568 Crocetin, 508 Cross-linking, 40 Cryogenic freezing, 9, 239-243 Cryogenic liquids, 239 Cryptoxanthin, 508 Crystallization

of fats, 443-445, 453, 459

720 Index

Crystallization (continued) purification by, 93 of sugar, 564-565, 567-568

Curd-A-Matic process, 379 Curing

bacon, 399 corned beef, 399 ham, 399

Cuticle of egg shell, 418 of plant structures, 505

Cyanogens, 55 Cyclamates, 534, 653 Cyclone separators, 272

D D-value, 172 Dark-cutting beef, 394 Dasher, mixing element, 369 Dehydration of foods, 246-285

drying methods and equipment, 261-285 heat and mass transfer, 248-253

air velocity effects, 250 drying rate curves, 253 dryness of air, 250 evaporation and cooling, 251 pressure and vacuum, 251 surface area, 249 temperature, 250 time-temperature relationships, 253

optimization of variables, 261 properties of food materials, 255-261

cellular structure, 256 chemical and other changes, 259 constituent orientation, 255 food porosity, 258 shrinkage and thermoplasticity, 256-

258 solute concentration, 255 water binding, 255

weight and bulk relationships, 247 Deionization, 12 Delaney Clause, 645 Demersal fish, 426 Desalting, 12 Desugaring, egg white, 423 Detergent materials, 90-91 Deteriorative factors

air and oxygen, 154 bacteria, yeasts, and molds, 143-150

control of, 140-167 heat and cold, 153 insects, parasites, and rodents, 150-153 light, 156 moisture and dryness, 154 natural food enzymes, 153, 166

Dextrins, 37, 39 Dextrose, 480, 568 Diacetyl, flavor, 454 Dielectric heating, 323 Dietary guidelines, 84 Dietetic beverages, 534 Dietetic foods, 653 Diethylstilbestrol, 11 Diglycerides, 46, 454 Dilatometry, 464 Direct flame sterilization, 191 Direct immersion freezing, 100, 237-243 Direct steam injection heating, 196 Disk colorimeter, 117 Disodium phosphate, 386 Dried milks, 362 Driers, see specific types Drip loss, from flesh, 398 Drum or roller driers, 102, 272-274

atmospheric drum driers, 272 vacuum drum driers, 274 zoned temperature control, 274

Dry bulb thermometer, 252 Dry caustic peeling, 631 Dry Ice, powdered

in freezing, 243 sublimation of, 280

Drying capacity, of driers, 265 Dutch Process cocoa, 573

E Edible films and coatings, 60 I Egg breaking machines, 422 Eggs, 416-423

bacterial infection of, 420 pasteurization, 420

candling, 419 composition of

white, 419 whole egg, 419 yolk, 419

dried eggs, 422 egg substitutes, 423

Index 721

formation in oviduct, 416 natural defects, 418

freezing process for, 100,421 breaking and separating, 421

quality factors, 419 grading, 419

storage, 420 structural features, 418-419

albumen, 418 membranes, 418 shell, 418 yolk, 418

Elastin, 395 Electrical tenderization, of meat, 398 Electrodialysis, 12 Electron accelerators, 307 Electron volt, definition, 307 Electronic sorting, 92

of coffee beans, 549 Electrostatic smoke, 403 Emmental cheese, 381 Emulsifiers, 48 Emulsions

continuous phase, 49, 229, 255, 454 discontinuous phase, 49, 229, 255, 454 fats, 48-49 influence on drying rates, 255

on freezing rates, 229 reversal, 454

Endosperm, 25, 469 Energy

for food processing, 109-111 values of foods, 59-61

Enrichment, with nutrients, 80, 478, 676, 683

Enterotoxigenic E. coli, 663 Environmental Protection Agency, 617, 636,

650, 670-671 Enzymatic browning, 525 Enzymatic changes in frozen fruit, 525

prevention, 525-527 Enzymatic hydrolysis, 37, 51 Enzymatic spoilage, control, 166 Enzymes, 50-52

and flavor, II commercial preparations, 51 live animal injection, 10, 398 in meat tenderizing, 10, 398 resistance to irradiation, 314

Enzyme-substrate complex, 50 Equilibrium relative humidity, 250, 296

Ergosterol, 45, 71 Essence

add-back, 260, 528 recovery system, 528

Essential amino acids, 42-43, 67 Essential fatty acids, 66 Ethyl butyrate, 654 Ethyl formate, 651 Ethylene dibromide, 150, 650 Ethylene gas, in fruit ripening, 212, 521 Ethylene oxide, 651

as fumigant, 150 Ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid, 652 Eutectic

ice, 223 mixture, 223 temperature, 223

Evaporative cooling, 205, 251 Evaporators, see Concentration of foods Extrusion, 105 Extrusion cooking, 105

F F Value, 173-174 Fo value, or sterilizing value, 174, 182 Fabricated foods, 6 Fabricated meats, 410 Fair Packaging and Labeling Act, 666 Farina, 483 Fat bloom, 572, 574 Fat globule

membrane, 455 milk, 356

Fat marbling, 392 Fat-soluble vitamins, 45, 66, 70 Fats and oils, 45-47, 66, 441-465

production and processing methods, 449-454

bleaching, 451 degumming, 451 deodorization, 451 hydrogenation, 451 mono- and diglyceride preparation, 454 plasticizing and tempering, 453 pressing or expelling, 449 refining, 451 rendering, 449 solvent extraction, 450 winterizing and fractionation, 452

722 Index

Fats and oils (continued)

products, 454-462 butter and its manufacture, 454-456 margarine, 456-459 mayonnaise and salad dressing, 461-462 shortenings and frying oils, 459-461

quality control tests, 462-465 chemical, 463 performance, 465 physical, 464

raw materials, 45-47, 66, 441-454 chemical compositions and structures,

45-47,441-446 chemical-physical properties, 45-47,

441-446 functional requirements in food uses,

448-449 modification and interchangeability of,

447-448 nutritional roles, 66 sources, 447-448

Fatty acids, 46, 441-446 chain length, 46, 441-445 degree of unsaturation, 46, 441-445 isomers, 442-443

Federal grade standards, 130-133,668 Federal Meat Inspection Act, 393, 667 Federal Register, 644, 666, 683 Federal Trade Commission Act, 668 Federal Water Pollution Control Act, 636 Fermentation

definition, 329-331 in food, 328-346

controlling with, acid, 335-336 alcohol, 336

oxygen level, 339-340 salt, 340-341 starter cultures, 337-338 temperature, 338-339

importance, benefits from, 328, 331-333 types of microbial changes, 333-335 of tea leaves, 559 role in preservation, 328-346

Fermentative changes, 331, 333 Fermented foods

kinds, 330 nutritional aspects, 331-333

Fiber, 40, 63, 78-79 Ficin, 398 Filled milks, 363 Fire point, of fats, 47 Firing, of tea leaves, 559

Firming agents, for fruit, 655 Fish, see Seafoods Fish flour, 4, 436 Fish meal, 436 Fish oils, 447 Fish parasites, 438 Fish protein concentrate, 436-437 Fish stick water, 630 Fishing vessels, factory type, 8, 425 Flame peeling, of vegetables, 515 Flash 18 process, 197 Flash points, fats, 47 Flavedo, 30 Flavor

enhancers, 654 evaluation methods, 126-128 and odor exchange in storage, 213 potentiators, 654 psychological factors, 126 regional preferences, 54 related factors and quality, 125

Flavoring agents, 654 Flexible pouches, 583, 585 Flour, all-purpose, 486 Fluidization, of particles, 234 Fluidized-bed, freezing, 234 Fluidized-bed drier, 266 Fluorine, in nutrition, 83 Foam drying methods, 284-285

continuous system, 285 edible whipping agents, 284 foam-mat drying, 284 foam-spray drying, 272

Folacin, 75 Folic acid, 75 Fondant, 564 Food additives, 638-656

definition, 641-642 Food Additives Amendment of 1958,

642-648 burden of proof, 644 cancer issue, 645 GRAS vs nonGRAS, 642-644 older restrictions, 644 requirements beyond safety, 648 risk-benefit concept, 647 testing for safety, 646-647

intentional, broad classes of, 651-656 antioxidants, 651 bleaching and maturing agents, starch

modifiers, 652 buffers, acids, alkalies, 652

Index 723

flavoring agents, 654 food colors, 653 miscellaneous additives, 655 nitrite issue, 655 non nutritive sweeteners, 653 nutrient supplements, 654 preservatives, 651 sequestrants, 651 stabilizers, thickeners, 652 surface active agents, 652

Food analogs, 6 Food and Agriculture Organization, 669,

701-704, see also World food needs Food and Nutrition Board, 669 Food Chemicals Codex, 650 Food composition, influence on freezing,

216 Food constituents, properties, 35-57 Food dehydration and concentration, 246-

301 definitions and distinctions, 247

Food and Drug Administration, 664-667 Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, Federal,

664-667 Color Additives Amendment of 1960, 650 Food Additives Amendment of 1958,

642-648 Miller Pesticide Amendment of 1954,

648 Food industry, characteristics of, 16-33 Food preservation, principles, 140-167 Food Protection Committee, 641, 669 Food science, definition, 1-14 Food sensitivity, time-temperature rela-

tionships, 185-186 Food-borne diseases, 146-150,656-664 Forced convection, 179 Formic acid, 46 Fortification, see Enrichment with nutrients Fortified milk, 358 Fortified wines, 337, 545 Frankfurter meat emulsion, 404 Free radicals, 309 Freedom from Hunger Foundation, 706 Freeze concentration, see Concentration of

foods Freeze-drying, see Vacuum drying meth­

ods Freeze Flo process, 244 Freezer coils, condensation and defrosting,

232-234 Freezers, ice cream, 368

Freezing and frozen storage, 215-245 choice of final temperature, 220-222 factors determining freezing rate, 228-230 freezing rate and quality, 220 methods and equipment, 230-245 packaging considerations, 244 physical and chemical changes, 216-220 properties of food systems, 216-220 refrigeration requirements, 224-228 thawing damage, 222-223

Freezing curves, 217-218 Freezing point, and solute concentration,

216-218 of foods, 208-211, 227

Freezing rate, equipment design variables, 229

influence of food composition, 228 Freon freezing, 243 Frozen convenience foods, 215-216 Frozen foams, 369-371 Frozen foods, storage life, 222 Frozen storage, temperature fluctuation in,

222 Fructose, 36, 38, 480, 569 Fruit juices, see Vegetables and fruits Fruit, see also Vegetables

concentration and drying, 527 juices

clarification, 528 deaeration, 528 extraction, 527 frozen orange concentrate, 29-33 further processing, 528

quality factors, 520-524 stabilization for freezing, 525-527 variety differences, 518 when to pick, 520

Frying oils, 460-461 Fumaric acid, 535 Fumigation, 150

G Gamma rays, 306 Gas chromatography, 54, 464, 602, 603 Gas transfer

rates, of packages, 594-600 through eggshell, 418

Gel strength, measurement, 123 Gelatin, 395 Gelatinization of starch, 39, 523

724 Index

Gelation of concentrated milk, 294 of egg yolk, 422

Genetic engineering, 11,345 Gibberellic acid, 655 Glass containers

breakage, 592-594 surface coating of, 592

Glazing technique of fish, 431 in freezing, 234

Glucose, 36 Glycerin, 422 Glycerol, 45, 441 Glycogen, 38

reserve, and keeping quality of meat, 213, 394, 428

Goiter, 78 Goitrogen, 55 Good Manufacturing Practices Code, 666 Gorgonzola cheese, 384 Gossypol, 55, 497 GRAS, non GRAS substances, 642-644 Green revolution, 689, 709-710 Grinding, low temperatures, 94 Gums, 40-41

H

agar-agar, 41 algin, 41 arabic, 41, 577 carageenan, 41 guar, 366 karaya, 41 thickeners and stabilizers, 41, 366 tragacanth, 41

Headspace gas, 603 Heart disease, see Atherosclerosis Heat constants

definitions, 224-225 offoods, 208-211, 226

formulas for estimating, 227 of water, 224

Heat exchanger, tubular type, 32 Heat-irradiation process, 315 Heat of respiration, 206, 208-211 Heat perservation and processing, 169-199

canned foods, requirements, 178, 180-183 characteristics of heat transfer, 179-183 degrees of preservation, 169-171 determining heat treatments, 171-185

government regulations, 198 heating food in containers, 187-191 heating prior to packaging, 191-198 lethality of heat, 180-183 margin of safety, 176-177 protective effects of food constituents, 183 thermal death curves, 172-176 time-temperature combinations, 185-186

Heating of air, 263

direct and indirect methods, 263 high temperature-short time, 185-186,

192 methods, 98-99

Heavy metals, 55 Hedonic scale ranking, 127 Hemagglutinin, 55, 497 Hemicelluloses, 37, 40 Hemoglobin, 43 Hermetic closure, 585-588 Histidine, 43 Holding tube, 192 Home canning, 197 Homogenization, 94 Homogenizer valve, 357 Hops, 539 Hot beef, 397 Hot pack or hot fill, 196-197 Hot-break process, 506 Human barriers, to food acceptance, 696-

697 Human milk, 358 Humane slaughter, 393 Humectants, 570 Hunger, see World food needs Hydro-cooler, portable type, 204 Hydrogen peroxide, 421, 652

from radiation, 309 Hydrogenation, 442, 451 Hydrologic cycle, 615 Hydrolysis, of carbohydrates, 37 Hydrolytic rancidity, 463 Hydrolyzed vegetable proteins, 652 Hydrometer, 523, 552 Hydroponic greenhouses, 8 Hydrostatic pressure cooker and cooler, 189 Hypertension, 83 Hypobaric storage, 212

Ice cream, 364-372 compositions, 364-365

Index 725

functions of ingredients, 366 air, 365 emulsifiers, 366 flavors, 366 milk fat, 366 msnf,366 stabilizers, 366 sugars, 366

manufacturing procedures, 366-369 ageing of mix, 368 freezing, 368 hardening, 369 homogenization, 367 mix preparation, 366 novelty ice cream, 369 pasteurization, 367

other frozen desserts, 371 physical structure, defects, 369-371

Ice crystals food damage from, 219 formation, 217 freezing rate and size, 219

Ice milks, 364, 371 Ices, 364, 371 Imitation ice cream, 363, 372 Immersion freezing

methods, 237-243 refrigerant requirements, 238

Immobilized enzymes, 51 Incaparina,4 Individually quick frozen, form, 232, 234 Infant Formula Act of 1980, 668 Industrial contaminants, 167 Infant formulas, 359 Infectious hepatitis, 435 Infrared absorption analysis, 464 Infrared energy, 304 Inoculated pack studies, 184 Inositol, 75 Insect eggs, destruction, 150 Instantizing, of dried particles, 269 Intentional food additive, 641, see also Food

additives Inter-American Development Bank, 703 Intermediate moisture foods, 294-30 I

principles, 295-299 technology, 299-30 I

International Agricultural Research Cen-ters, 710

International Executive Service Corps, 708 International food standards, 13, 669 International Fund for Agricultural Devel-

opment, 707

International Rice Research Institute, 479, 709

International Units, vitamin activity, 71 Intestinal microflora, role in nutrition, 63 Invert sugar, 490, 568 Invertase, 490, 578 Iodine, in nutrition, 78 Iodine Value, of fat, 463 Iodized salt, 78 Ion exchange, 620 Ion pair production, 309 Ionomers, in packaging, 598 Iron, in nutrition, 77 Irradiation, food, 303-320

controlling the radiation process, 315-317 dose determining factors, 312-315

cost considerations, 315 resistance of enzymes, 314 resistance of food, 312 resistance of microorganisms, 312

food safety and wholesomeness, 317-319

food storage life, 313, 315 gross effects of radiations, 310-311 insect control, 313, 318 ionizing radiations, definitions, 306-307 kinds of energy, 304 mechanisms of action of radiations, 307-

310 direct effects, 308 indirect effects, 308-309 minimizing indirect effects, 309

processing facilities, 320 the future for irradiation, 319 units of radiation, definitions, 306-307 uses beyond preservation, 319

Isoelectric point of proteins, 219 Isoleucine, 42

J Jelly, jam, 286, 289 Junket dessert, 387

K Keeping quality, 128 Ketone group, 37 Kiln drier, 263 Kraft paper, 594 Kwashiorkor, 4

726 Index

L Lactalbumin, 374 Lactic acid, 49

fermentation, 334, 338 of muscle, 394, 395

Lactobacillus in milk fermentation, 335-336 acidophilus, 388 bulgaricus, 381, 388 cucumeris, 338 pentoaceticus, 338

Lactoglobulin, 374 Lactose, 36, 63, 349

intolerance, 359 Lagering, of beer, 540 Laminates, in packaging, 598-600 Lard, 447, 449

effect of feed on hardness, 213 Latent heat

of crystallization or fusion, 217, 225 of evaporation or vaporization, 225, 252

Latent heats of fusion, of foods, 208-211, 225

Lecithin, 48, 66, 451 Legumes and oilseeds, 467, 492-498

composition, 492 peanuts, 496 proteins, 492-494 soybean technology, 494-496 special problems, 497

Leucine, 42 Leucoanthocyanins, 509 Leuconostoc citrovorum, 380, 387

mesenteroides, 338-339 Lignin, 506 Limburger cheese, see Cheese Linoleic acid, 46, 66, 442 Linolenic acid, 66 Lipase, 50 Lipolytic changes, 331, 333 Liquid carbon dioxide freezing, 243 Liquid nitrogen

economic factors, 243 in freezing, 9, 101,239-243 freezing equipment, 242 manufacture and handling, 240 refrigerated trucks, 88, 241

Listeria monocytogenes, 663 Loss factor, 321 Low-acid foods, 177 Low-lactose milk, 359 Lycopene, 53, 508

Lye peeling, 92, 514 Lysine, 42, 654

M Macaroni,476 Machinery lubricants, 655 Magnesium, in nutrition, 76 Magnetic separation, 93 Magnetron, 324 Maillard reaction, 53 Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, 709 Malic acid, 49, 535 Malt, 482, 539 Maltose, 36 Manganese, in nutrition, 78 Maple syrup, 286 Marasmus, 4 Margarines, processing, 456-459

types, 447, 456 Market milk, 352 Maturity, of fruit, 520 Mayonnaise, 461-462

emulsion, 48, 461 Meat and meat products, 390-411

ageing or ripening, 395-397 animal by-products, 391 composition, 395, 396 conserving practices, 410 conversion ratios from grain, 390 cooking effects, 407, 410 curing, 399

effects on color, 399-40 I ingredients, 399 preservative effects, 399

freezing, 405-407 fresh storage, 407 government surveillance, grading, 391-

393 inspection for wholesomeness, 393

nutritional advantages, 390 pigments and color changes, 400-40 I sausages and table-ready meats, 403-405 slaughtering practice, 393

resting of animals, 394 smoking, 402 sources, 391 structure, 394-395, 408-409 tenderizing, 395-397,407

artificial tenderizing, 398 Meat Inspection Act of 1906, Federal, 667 Meat modifiers, hormones, II

Index 727

Mechanically separated meat, 410 Medfly, 152 Melloream, 363 M ellorine, 363 Melting properties, of fats, 441-446, 464 Menhaden, 424 Mercury, in fish, 437 Methionine, 43, 67 Methyl bromide, as fumigant, 150 Methyl salicylate, 654 Methyl silicones, 461 Metmyoglobin, 400 Microbial destruction

by food concentration, 294 by food dehydration, 252

Microbial food poisoning, 150, 656-664 Microbial protection, by food components,

183 Microbiological considerations, 656-664

centralized production, 663 current status, 664 microbiological methodology, 663 mildly processed and new foods, 659 newer packaging methods, 662 prepared convenience foods, 658

Microencapsulation, 601 Microorganism(s), see also Molds, Yeasts,

individual species aerobic, 146 anaerobic, 146 control of, 157-166

acid, 161, 335-336 air, 163, 339-340 chemical, 164 cold, 159 drying, 160 heat, 157 radiation, 165 smoke, 163 sugar and salt, 162, 340-341

resistance to irradiation, 312 DM values, 312

Microporous membranes, 12,89,93 filters, 543, 547

Microwave heating differences from conventional heating,

323 food applications, 325-326 generators and equipment, 324-325 mechanisms, 322 properties of microwaves, 321-322

Microwave oven, 324

Military, feeding requirements, 5 Milk, 348-357

from cow, composition and variability, 349-350

curd, 358, 374 fermentation, of raw milk, 335 grades, 353 legal standards and regulations, 351 processing operations, 353-357

clarification, 353 homogenization, 356 pasteurization, 355

production and handling practices, 351 products, 348-388 quality control tests, 352-353 species variations, 349 variability, effect on processing, 13, 349

Milk, modified products, 357-363 dried whole milk, 362 evaporated milk, 359 low fat milks, 362 low lactose milk, 359 low sodium milk, 358 milk substitutes, 362 multivitamin mineral milk, 358 separation of milk, 362 soft curd milk, 358 sterile milk, 359 sweetened condensed milk, 360 vitamin D milk, 358

Milk Ordinance and Code of U.S. Public Health Service, 353

Miller Pesticide Amendment of 1954, 648 Milling, see Cereal grains Miltone,4 Minerals, nutritional properties and occur-

rences, 76-78 Miracle wheat, 709 Mixer-beater, for ice cream, 97, 369 Mixers, types, 96 Moisture

contents of foods, 208-211 from respiration and transpiration, 154

Molds, 144-145 Monoglycerides, 46, 454 Monomolecular layer of water, 57, 297 Monosodium glutamate, 415, 655 MSNF, of milk, 350 Multiplate contact freezers, 236 Multiple effect evaporator, 101,291 Muscle, structure, 394-395

and meat tenderness, 394-395

728 Index

Muscle fibers, 394-395 Mycobacterium tuberculosis, 355 Mylar, 594 Myoglobin, 400 Myosin, 395

N National Academy of Sciences-National

Research Council, 641, 651, 655, 669

Neutralization, of butterfat, 454 Neutrons, 306 Niacin, 74 Nibs, cacao, 571 Nicotinic acid, see Niacin Nitrates, nitrites, 399, 655 Nitric oxide myoglobin, 401 Nitrogen, liquid, in freezing, 9, 101,239 Nitrosohemochrome, 401 Nitrous oxide, 606 Nonnutritive sweeteners, 534, 653 Nonthermal-gradient heating, 323 Normal drying curve, 253

constant rate period, 253 falling rate period, 253 heat and mass transfer phenomena,

253 5' -Nucleotides, 655 Nutrient(s)

conversions, efficiencies of species, 697 losses in refrigerated storage, 214

in cooked foods, 80 supplements. 654

Nutrition labeling, 673-687 changes in food commodities, 674-675 consumer education, 676-678 information needed, 675-676 knowledge gaps, 678-680 new responsibilities, 681-683 nutrition labeling regulations, 683-687

Nutritional quality, 128,673-687 Nutritive properties of food constituents,

59-85 dietary guidelines, 84 interrelationships of nutrients, 61 nutrient values of common foods, 62 nutritional requirements, 64-65 stability of nutrients, 80-82

Nylon, 594

o Oatmeal, 483 Off-flavors, of milk, 353 Oils, liquid, 441 Oilseeds, 467-468, 492-498

processing of, 449-451, 494-498 Oleic acid, 46, 442 Olive oil, 447 Orange juice frozen concentrate, process­

ing,29-33 Orange peel oil, 30 Oranges, frost prevention, 30

structure, 30 varieties, 30

Organic acids, 49 Organoleptic or sensory properties, 129 Osmosis, 162, 292 Osmotic forces, and texture of plant tis-

sues, 505 Osmotic pressure, 286, 292 Overrun, ice cream, 365 Oxalates, in foods, 76, 645 Oxidation, 50

of fats, 442 Oxidative rancidity, 463 Oxidized flavor, 353

role of metals, 353 Oxygen

for fermentation activity, 339-340 and meat color, 400-401 meat packaging films, 40 I requirement for microbial growth, 339-

340 Oxygen scavengers, 155 Oxymyoglobin. 53, 400 Oxystearin, 655

p

Package engineering, 580 Packaging of foods, 579-614

considerations, 611-614 environmental issues, 611 psychology of design, 611

package testing, 602-603 gas transfer rates, 602 mechanical properties, 602 resistance to chemicals, 603 simulated use tests, 603 water-vapor transmission, 602

Index 729

packaging materials, 588-602 edible films, 601-602 glass, 592-594 laminates, 598-600 metals, 588-592 organic coatings for cans, 591 papers, 594 plastics, 594-598

requirements and functions of contain­ers, 580-582

special feature packages, 603-611 aerosol container, 606 "boil-in-bag," 604 composite paper cartons, 607 cargo containerization, 609 military and space flight, 601, 609 paperboard, coated, 609 plastic shrink package, 605 refrigerated biscuit can, 604 rigid plastic bottles, 607 sanitary tin can, 587

types of containers, 582-588 hermetic, non hermetic, 585-588 preformed, in-line formed, 583-585 primary, secondary, 682 rigid, nonrigid, 583

Pan drier, 263 Pantothenic acid, 74 Papain, 398 Para-aminobenzoic acid, 75 Parasitic worms, 152 Parenchyma cells, components and struc­

ture, 503-504 Pasta, 476 Pasteurization

batch or holding method, 192 equipment for, 192 high temperature-short time method, 192 of milk, 192,355-356 in-package method, 191

Peanuts, 496 Pectin, 37, 40, 506-507 Pectin methyl esterase, 506 Pediococcus, in sausage fermentation, 341 Pelagic fish, 426 Pellagra, 74 Penetrometers, 123 Penicillium camemberti, 384 Penicillium roque/orti, 384 Pepsin, 50 Peptones, 45

Pericarp, 500 Permselective membranes, 12,292-293 Perm-selectivity of living cells, 505 Pernicious anemia, 75 Peroxidase, 516 Peroxide value, of fat, 463 Pesticides, 648 Pet foods, semimoist, 295, 299-300 Petroleum wastes, food from, 4 Phenol oxidases, 525 Phenylalanine, 43 Pheophytin, 508 Phosphatase, alkaline, 355 Phosphatase test, in milk, 356 Phosphate salts, and drip loss, 398 Phospholipids, 48, 66, 451 Phosphoric acid, 535 Phosphorus, in nutrition, 76 Pickle fermentation, 340 Pigment shifts, in meat, 400-401 Pigments and colors

of animals, 53,400-401 natural, 52 of plants, 53, 507-509

Plasmolysis, 162 Plasmoptysis, 162 Plastic bottles, 607 Plastic films, properties, 594-598 Plasticizers, 598 Plasticizing, of fats, 453 Plate type heat exchanger, 98 Pneumatic conveying, 88 Poisons, 645 Pollution, 167, 615-636 Polyethylene, 594 Polymerization of amino acids, 43 Polypeptide, 42 Polyphosphates, 652 Polypropylene, 594 Polysaccharide, 37 Polystyrene, 594 Polyunsaturated fatty acids, 66 Polyunsaturated-saturated fat ratio, 83 Popcorn, 479 Population explosion, 692-694 Pork products, safety of, 402, 406 Porosity, in foods, 258, 280 Post-harvest changes, fruits and vegeta­

bles, 510-513, 520 Potassium, in nutrition, 78 Potato sprout inhibition, by irradiation, 318

730 Index

Poultry, 411-416 composition and nutritive value, 415 processing plant operations, 412

chilling, 413 defeathering,413 eviscerating, 90,413 government inspection, 414 packaging, 413 scalding, 413 slaughter and bleeding, 413

production aspects, 411 products from meat, 416 tenderness and flavor, 415

Poultry Products Inspection Act of 1957, Federal, 668

Preference testing, 127 Preservatives, 65 I Process cheese food, 386

spread, 386 Progressing cavity pump, 95 Propionates, 651 Propionibacterium shermanii, 381 Propionic acid, 46, 381 Propylene glycol, as refrigerant, 238 Propylene oxide, as fumigant, 150 Protein

functionality, 45 quality, and measurement, 67-69, 685 role in nutrition, 63-66

malnutrition, 4, 66 supplementation and complementation,

66,492-494 Protein-sparing effect, 63 Proteolytic changes, 331, 333 Proteoses, 45 Proteus vulgaris, 334 Psychrophilic bacteria, 146 Psychrotrophic bacteria, 146,202 Puffed cereals, 483 Puffing of foods, 258, 277 Pure Food Law, 664 Putrefactive Anaerobe No. 3679, 172, 175,

177 Putrefactive changes, 331, 333 Pyridoxine, see Vitamin B6

Q Q fever, 355 Quality attributes, of specific foods, 129-133 Quality control

charts, 137 planned testing, 133-137

Quality factors color and gloss, 115-119 consistency, 119 other factors, 128-129 flavor, 125-128 measurement of, 113-139 size and shape, 115 texture, 120-125

Quality standards, 129-133 government, 129-133 research, 129 trade, 129

R Rad, definition, 307 Radiant energy, germicidal effects, 304 Radiation, dosage, 306-307

doses for specific effects, 310-315 dosimeters, 316 effects

on bacon, 311 on egg white proteins, 311 on packaging materials, 310

pasteurization, 311, 313 sterilization, 311, 313

Radioactive fallout, 167 Radioactive fuels, 306 Radioactivity, in foods, 308, 318 Radiolysis of water, 309 Rancidity of fats, 47 Recommended Dietary Allowances, 64-65,

676-678, 684 Recycling, of packaging materials, 611-614 Red tide, 438 Reducing sugars, 37 Reduction rolls, 25, 474 Refractometer, 523 Refrigerated areas, design factors, 205 Refrigerated perishables, 203-214

changes on storage, 213-214 commodity variability, 213 optimum storage conditions, 208-211 protection in storage, 207

Refrigerated trucking, 88 Refrigerating effect, of refrigerants, 229,

240 Refrigeration

and cool storage, 203-215 air circulation and humidity control,

206-207 controlled temperature, 205

Index 731

economic considerations, 215 modified gas atmospheres, 212 need for rapid cooling, 204

and freezing, 202 early development, 201 temperature relationships and micro­

bial growth, 202 Refrigeration load, 205, 224

calculation, 225-228 Refuse Act of 1899, 635 Rehydration loss, from dehydration, 260 Relative humidity

in cool storage areas, 206-207 and microbial growth, 160 requirements of foods, 206-211

Rennet, 376 Rennin, 376 Respiration of plant tissue, 510, 512 Retinol, see Vitamin A Retort pressure cooker, 98, 108 Retorting, flexible pouches, 189, 600

glass jars, 189 Retorts, determining heating times, 180-183 Retrogradation of starch, 39 Reverse osmosis, see Concentration of foods Riboflavin, 74 Ribose, 38 Rice

brown, 477 converted, 478 enrichment standards, 478 flour, 479 instant, 479 IR-8, 479, 709 parboiled,478 polished, 477

Rickets, 71 Rigor mortis, 395, 415 Ripeness, fruit, 520 Risk-benefit concept, 647 Rodents, 150 Roentgen, definition, 307 Roller mill, 25, 474 Rolling, of tea leaves, 559 Roquefort cheese, 384 Rumen activity, 11, 332 Rye flour, 482

S Saccharin, 534, 653 Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 334

Saccharomyces ellipsoideus, 334, 339 Safety of food supply, 638-671 Saffron, 653 Safrole,55 Salad dressings, 461-462 Salad oils, 448, 453 Salmonella infected eggs, 421 Salmonella organisms, 150, 656, 663 Salt

concentration and microbial growth, 286 distribution in butter, 456 from sea water, 288

Salt tolerance, and fermentation, 340-341 Salt yolk, 422 Sandiness, from lactose crystallization, 294,

371 Sanitary tin can, construction, 587 Saponification value, of fat, 463 Saran, 594 Saturated fat, 46 Sauerkraut fermentation, 338-339, 340 Sausage products

casings, 404 fermentation, 341 types, 403

Scotch-Pak, 594 Scurvy, 72 Seafoods, 424-440

consumption of, 424 extending fish supply, 438-440 fish meal and fish protein concentrate,

436 fish procurement, 425 marine fish, 426-433

composition and nutrition, 426 preservative methods, 429 spoilage factors, 427-429

mercury and other problems, 437 processing plant operations, 430-433

canning, 431 freezing, 431 inspection and grading, 432

shellfish, 433-435 crabs, 435 oysters and clams, 435 shrimp, 433

shipboard operations, 429 Self-basting poultry, 415 Semi moist foods, see Intermediate mOIs­

ture foods Semolina, 476 Sensible heat, 225

732 Index

Sequestrants, 651 Serum solids, of milk, 350 Setting, of cheese milk, 376 Sharp freezer, 231

still-air, 231 Shear press, 121 Sherbets, 364, 371 Shigella dysenteriae, 150 Shortenings, 459

emulsified shortening, 459 liquid shortening, 459 plastic range, 459 plastic shortening, 459

Shrimp enzymatic darkening of, 434 liquid nitrogen freezing of, 242

Silica gel, 264 Single cell protein, 342-344 Skim milk, 356, 362 Sling psychrometer, 252 Slush-freezing, 32 Smoke, preservative effects, 163 Smoke generator, 403 Smoke point of fats, 47 Smokehouse, operation, 402 Sodium, in nutrition, 77 Sodium benzoate, 458, 536, 651 Sodium citrate, 386 Sodium hypochlorite, 652 Sodium nitrate, nitrite, 399, 655 Soft drinks, see Carbonated nonalcoholic

beverages Solanine, 55 Solid Fat Index, 459, 464 Soluble solids

coffee, 552 fruit juices, 523

Sorbic acid, 651 Sorbitol, 570 Sorghum, 467 Sour breads, 336 Sour cream, 387 Soybean meal, 98 Soybean milk, 363 Soybean oil, extraction, 450 Soybean proteins, texturized foods from, 6,

495 Soybean technology, 494-496 Space feeding, problems, 4, 609

space foods, 60 I Sparkling wines, see Wine

Specific heat, 224 of foods, 208-211, 226

Spectrophotometer, 115 Spray drying, see Air convection drying

methods Stabilizers, 652 Stainless steel, 50, 353 Standards of Identity, 665 Staphylococcus aureus, 150, 658 Starch

granules, 39 modified, 40 modifiers, 652 swelling, and potato texture, 507

Starter cultures, 337-338 State and municipal food laws, 668 Static electricity, explosion from, 88 Stearic acid, 46, 442 Steel, for cans, 589-590 Sterilization, definition, 170 Still retort, 187 Stilton cheese, 384 Storage stability, 128 Streptococcus lactis, 329, 334, 376 Streptococcus thermophilus, 381, 388 Sublimation, 103, 232, 280 Succulometer, 121 Sucrose

boiling point of solutions, 567 as disaccharide, 36 properties in candymaking, 567

Sugar(s), 36, 38 concentration and microbial growth, 286 crystallization, defects from, 294 syrups, 286

fruit use of, 526 Sugar bloom, 572 Sugar to acid ratio, 523-524 Sugar yolk, 422 Sulfur dioxide

as fruit dip, 526 functions, 526 thiamin sensitivity, 73

Sun drying, 246 Supercooling, 217 Superheated steam, 194 Surface active agents, 48, 652 Surimi,439 Sweet corn, loss of sweetness, 204 Swiss cheese, see Cheese Synthetic diets, in milk production, II

Index 733

T Tallow, 447 Tamper resistant containers, 581 Tannins, 53, 509, 539, 559 Tartaric acid, 49, 535, 547 Taste panels, 54, 126-128 Tea, 558-562

instant tea manufacture, 560-562 leaf processing, 559

black tea, 559 green tea, 559 Oolong tea, 559 subtypes, 559

Temperature effects on fermentation, 338-339 and reaction rates, 153 relations to microorganism life, 157-159

Tempering of chocolate, 574 of fats, 453

Tenderay process, 207 Tenderfrank process, 405 Tenderometer, 121, 123 Tertiary butylated hydroquinone, 651 Texture

changes, 125 factors, and quality, 120-125 measuring devices, 121-124 modifiers, 125

Thawing bacterial multiplication, 223 changes during, 222-223

Theobromine, 571 Thermal conductivity

influence of food composition, 228 physical structure, 228

Thermocouple, 180 Thermophilic bacteria, 146 Thermoplastic property, of food materials,

258 Thermoplastic resins, 585 Thermostabilization, of eggs, 420 Thiamin, 73 Thickeners, 652 Threonine, 43 Tin coating, of cans, 588 Tin-free steel, for cans, 589 Titanium dioxide, 653 Tocopherols, 651 Tomato pulp, puree, and paste, 287 Ton of refrigeration, definition, 227

Torr, pressure equivalent, 277 Toxicants, 55-56 Trace elements, in nutrition, 78 Transpiration of plant tissue, 510 Tray drier, 263 Triangle test, 127 Trichinosis nematode, 152

destruction by frozen storage, 406 destruction by heat, 402

Trickling filter, for waste water, 627 Triglycerides, 46 Trimethylamine, 428 Tri-stimulus colorimetry, 118 Truth in Packaging Law, 666 Trypsin, 398 Tryptophan, 43, 74 Tubers, 501 Tubular scraped-surface heat exchanger,

193 Tubular slush freezers, 236 Tuna, canning, 431 Tunnel blast freezer, 232 Tunnel drier, 264 Tyramine, 55

U Ultrafiltration, 93, 292 Ultra-high-temperature sterilization, 193,

359 Ultrasonic energy, 94

used in meat grading, 392 Ultraviolet light, 71, 90, 207, 304 Unit operations, approach to food process-

ing, 87-111 cleaning, 89 controlling, 107 conveying, 88 disintegrating, 93 drying, 102 energy considerations, 109-111 evaporating, 101 forming, 104 heat exchanging

cooling, 99 heating, 98

materials handling, 88 mixing, 96 packaging, 106

734 Index

Unit operations (continued) pumping, 94 separating, 90

Unsaturated fat, 46 U.S. Poultry Products Inspection Act, 414,

668 U.S. RDA, 684-687

V Vacuum deaeration, of fruits, 527 Vacuum deaerator, 32, 528 Vacuum drying

continuous vacuum belt drier, 277 degree of vacuum, 277 freeze-drying, 103, 278-284

drying and temperature curves, 281-282

drying systems, 283 principles, 280

methods of, 274-284 system components, 275-277

heat sources, 275 moisture condensers, 277 steam ejectors, 277 vacuum chambers, 275 vacuum pumps, 275

Vacuum evaporator, 101 Valine, 43 Vegetable fats and oils, 447

compositions, 444 Vegetables, and fruits, 500-530

activities of living systems, 510-511 cellular structure, 503-505 gross compositions, 501-502 morphology and properties, 500-50 I pigments and color changes, 507-509

carotenoids, 508 chlorophylls, 507 flavonoids, 508

turgor and texture, 505-507 cellulosic materials, 506 osmotic effects, 505 pectic substances, 506 starch, 507

vegetables, blanching, 5 I 6-517 canning, 518 cutting and trimming, 515 harvesting and preprocessing, 511-513 skin removal, 514 variety differences, 511 washing, 513

Vending machines coffee, 552 soft drinks, 537

Vibrio parahaemolyticus, 150 Vinegar

fermentation, 340 generator, 340

Vinyl chloride, 594 Viscometers, 120 Vitamin insufficiency, 75 Vitamins

A, 50, 66, 70 B" see Thiamin B2 , see Riboflavin B6,74 B 12,75 C,50,72 0,71

addition to milk, 358 E, 50, 72 K,72 properties and occurrence, 70-75 synthesis, by fermentation, 332

Vitelline membrane, 418

W Waste, see Water and waste Water

as a food constituent, 56-57 man's need for, 79-80

Water activity, 161,295-299 Water and waste, 615-636

concern for, 615-617, 635-636 processing requirements, 617-622

chlorination, 621 drinking water standards. 617

other impurities, 620 water hardness, 619

properties and treatments, 617-622 waste solids, upgrading and treatment,

630-631 waste water

lowering discharge volumes, 631-635 properties, 622-629

biological aspects, 624 biological oxygen demand, 624-626 chemical aspects, 623 physical aspects, 622

treatment, 626-629 primary, 626 secondary, 627-629

Index 735

Water binding adsorbed water, 256 capillary effects, 258 chemically bound water, 256 colloidal water, 256 degrees of, 255, 297 free water, 256

Water migration, methods during dehy-dration, 257-258

Water purity, for beverages, 536-537 Water softening, 619 Water sorption isotherms, 250, 296 Water-soluble vitamins, 70 Water-vapor transmission rates, 596, 598,

602 Wet bulb, properties of food particles, 252

thermometer, 252 Wet heat, 183 Wet milling, see Cereal grains Wet strength, 594 Wheat

composition, 25, 469 hard, 25, 472-473 soft, 25, 472-473 spring, 24 winter, 24

flour breadmaking properties, 25, 485-486 fractionation of, 472-475 strong, 25, 472, 485 weak, 25, 472, 485

gluten, 25, 485 starch, 473, 485

Whey, 374 cheeses from, 374 modification and disposal, 630

Wholesome Meat Act of 1967, 667 Wholesome Poultry Products Act of 1968,

668 Wholesomeness of foods, 638-671 Wine, 544-548

fermentation and other operations, 546-547

naming of wines, 547 wine varieties, 544-546

color, 544 effervescence, 545 sweetness and alcohol content, 545

Wine yeast, see Saccharomyces ellipsoideus World Bank, 703

World Food Congress, 706, 707 World Food Council, 707 World food needs, 689-712

aid programs, 704-709 Food and Agriculture Organization, 701-

704 green revolution, 709-711 parameters of problem, 691-701

crop yields, 694-695 current status, 700-701 erosion and pollution, 700 farm machinery, 698 fertilizer, 697-698 human factors, 696-697 livestock yields, 695 other factors, 700 pesticides, 698 population trends, 692-694 population-land ratios, 694 storage and packaging, 699 transportation, 699 water, 699

some conclusions, 711 World food surveys, 706-707 World Health Organization, 669 Wort, of beer, 539

X Xanthophyll, 508 X-ray diffraction, 464 X-rays, 305

Y Yeasts, 145,334,339,345,486

yeasts as food, 342-344 Yersinia enterolitica, 663 Yogurt, 372, 388

z Z value, 173 Zein, 480, 577 Zero 0 F standard, for frozen foods, 220-

222 Zero tolerance requirement, 649 Zinc, in nutrition, 77