india

India

This article is about the Republic of India. For otheruses, see India (disambiguation).

India ( i/ndi/), ocially the Republic of India(Bhrat Ganarjya),[12][lower-alpha 3] is a country in SouthAsia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, andthe most populous democracy in the world. Bounded bythe Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on thesouth-west, and the Bay of Bengal on the south-east, itshares land borders with Pakistan to the west;[lower-alpha 4]China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Burmaand Bangladesh to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India isin the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; in addition,Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritimeborder with Thailand and Indonesia.Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation and aregion of historic trade routes and vast empires, theIndian subcontinent was identied with its commercialand cultural wealth for much of its long history.[13]Four world religionsHinduism, Buddhism, Jainism,and Sikhismoriginated here, whereas Judaism,Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived in the1st millennium CE and also helped shape the regionsdiverse culture. Gradually annexed by and brought underthe administration of the British East India Companyfrom the early 18th century and administered directly bythe United Kingdom from the mid-19th century, Indiabecame an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle forindependence that was marked by non-violent resistanceled by Mahatma Gandhi.The Indian economy is the worlds tenth-largest bynominal GDP and third-largest by purchasing power par-ity (PPP).[14] Following market-based economic reformsin 1991, India became one of the fastest-growing ma-jor economies; it is considered a newly industrialisedcountry. However, it continues to face the challengesof poverty, corruption, malnutrition, inadequate publichealthcare, and terrorism. A nuclear weapons state anda regional power, it has the third-largest standing armyin the world and ranks ninth in military expenditureamong nations. India is a federal constitutional repub-lic governed under a parliamentary system consisting of29 states and 7 union territories. India is a pluralistic,multilingual, and a multi-ethnic society. It is also hometo a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats.

1 EtymologyMain article: Names of India

The name India is derived from Indus, which originatesfrom the Old Persian word Hindu. The latter term stemsfrom the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the histori-cal local appellation for the Indus River.[15] The ancientGreeks referred to the Indians as Indoi (), whichtranslates as the people of the Indus.[16]

The geographical term Bharat (pronounced [bart] ()), which is recognised by the Constitution of India asan ocial name for the country,[17] is used by many In-dian languages in its variations. The eponym of Bharatis Bharata, a theological gure that Hindu scriptures de-scribe as a legendary emperor of ancient India.Hindustan ([ndstan] ( )) was originally a Persianword that meant Land of the Hindus"; prior to 1947, itreferred to a region that encompassed northern India andPakistan. It is occasionally used to solely denote India inits entirety.[18][19]

2 HistoryMain articles: History of India and History of theRepublic of India

2.1 Ancient India

The earliest authenticated human remains in South Asiadate to about 30,000 years ago.[20] Nearly contempo-raneous Mesolithic rock art sites have been found inmany parts of the Indian subcontinent, including at theBhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh.[21] Around7000 BCE, the rst known Neolithic settlements ap-peared on the subcontinent in Mehrgarh and other sitesin western Pakistan.[22] These gradually developed intothe Indus Valley Civilisation,[23] the rst urban culture inSouth Asia;[24] It ourished during 26001900 BCE inPakistan and western India.[25] Centred on cities such asMohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan, andrelying on varied forms of subsistence, the civilisationengaged robustly in crafts production and wide-rangingtrade.[24]

During the period 2000500 BCE, in terms of culture,

1

2 2 HISTORY

many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from theChalcolithic to the Iron Age.[26] The Vedas, the oldestscriptures of Hinduism,[27] were composed during thisperiod,[28] and historians have analysed these to posit aVedic culture in the Punjab region and the upper GangeticPlain.[26] Most historians also consider this period tohave encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan migra-tion into the subcontinent from the north-west.[29][27][30]The caste system arose during this period, which cre-ated a hierarchy of priests, warriors, free peasants andtraders, and lastly the indigenous peoples who were re-garded as impure; and small tribal units gradually coa-lesced into monarchical, state-level polities.[31][32] On theDeccan Plateau, archaeological evidence from this periodsuggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of politicalorganisation.[26] In southern India, a progression to seden-tary life is indicated by the large number of megalithicmonuments dating from this period,[33] as well as bynearby traces of agriculture, irrigation tanks, and crafttraditions.[33]

Paintings at the Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, 6thcentury

In the late Vedic period, around the 6th century BCE,the small states and chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain andthe north-western regions had consolidated into 16 ma-jor oligarchies and monarchies that were known as themahajanapadas.[34][35] The emerging urbanisation andthe orthodoxies of this age also created heterodox reli-gious movements, two of which became independent re-ligions. Buddhism, based on the teachings of GautamaBuddha attracted followers from all social classes except-ing the middle class; chronicling the life of the Bud-dha was central to the beginnings of recorded history inIndia.[36][37][38] Jainism came into prominence during thelife of its exemplar, Mahavira.[39] In an age of increasingurban wealth, both religions held up renunciation as anideal,[40] and both established long-lasting monastic tra-

ditions. Politically, by the 3rd century BCE, the king-dom of Magadha had annexed or reduced other states toemerge as the Mauryan Empire.[41] The empire was oncethought to have controlled most of the subcontinent ex-cepting the far south, but its core regions are now thoughtto have been separated by large autonomous areas.[42][43]The Mauryan kings are known as much for their empire-building and determined management of public life as forAshoka's renunciation of militarism and far-ung advo-cacy of the Buddhist dhamma.[44][45]

The Sangam literature of the Tamil language revealsthat, between 200 BCE and 200 CE, the southernpeninsula was being ruled by the Cheras, the Cholas,and the Pandyas, dynasties that traded extensively withthe Roman Empire and with West and South-EastAsia.[46][47] In North India, Hinduism asserted patriarchalcontrol within the family, leading to increased subordina-tion of women.[48][41] By the 4th and 5th centuries, theGupta Empire had created in the greater Ganges Plaina complex system of administration and taxation that be-came a model for later Indian kingdoms.[49][50] Under theGuptas, a renewed Hinduism based on devotion ratherthan the management of ritual began to assert itself.[51]The renewal was reected in a owering of sculptureand architecture, which found patrons among an urbanelite.[50] Classical Sanskrit literature owered as well, andIndian science, astronomy, medicine, and mathematicsmade signicant advances.[50]

2.2 Medieval IndiaThe Indian early medieval age, 600 CE to 1200 CE, isdened by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity.[52]When Harsha of Kannauj, who ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647 CE, attempted to expandsouthwards, he was defeated by the Chalukya ruler ofthe Deccan.[53] When his successor attempted to expandeastwards, he was defeated by the Pala king of Bengal.[53]When the Chalukyas attempted to expand southwards,they were defeated by the Pallavas from farther south,who in turn were opposed by the Pandyas and the Cholasfrom still farther south.[53] No ruler of this period wasable to create an empire and consistently control landsmuch beyond his core region.[52] During this time, pas-toral peoples whose land had been cleared to make wayfor the growing agricultural economy were accommo-dated within caste society, as were new non-traditionalruling classes.[54] The caste system consequently beganto show regional dierences.[54]

In the 6th and 7th centuries, the rst devotional hymnswere created in the Tamil language.[55] They were im-itated all over India and led to both the resurgenceof Hinduism and the development of all modern lan-guages of the subcontinent.[55] Indian royalty, big andsmall, and the temples they patronised, drew citizens ingreat numbers to the capital cities, which became eco-nomic hubs as well.[56] Temple towns of various sizes

2.3 Early modern India 3

The granite tower of Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur wascompleted in 1010 CE by Raja Raja Chola I.

began to appear everywhere as India underwent anotherurbanisation.[56] By the 8th and 9th centuries, the ef-fects were felt in South-East Asia, as South Indian cul-ture and political systems were exported to lands thatbecame part of modern-day Myanmar, Thailand, Laos,Cambodia, Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia, and Java.[57]Indian merchants, scholars, and sometimes armies wereinvolved in this transmission; South-East Asians took theinitiative as well, with many sojourning in Indian semi-naries and translating Buddhist and Hindu texts into theirlanguages.[57]

After the 10th century, Muslim Central Asian nomadicclans, using swift-horse cavalry and raising vast armiesunited by ethnicity and religion, repeatedly overran SouthAsias north-western plains, leading eventually to the es-tablishment of the Islamic Delhi Sultanate in 1206.[58]The sultanate was to control much of North India, andto make many forays into South India. Although atrst disruptive for the Indian elites, the sultanate largelyleft its vast non-Muslim subject population to its ownlaws and customs.[59][60] By repeatedly repulsing Mongolraiders in the 13th century, the sultanate saved India fromthe devastation visited on West and Central Asia, set-ting the scene for centuries of migration of eeing sol-diers, learned men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisansfrom that region into the subcontinent, thereby creatinga syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.[61][62] Thesultanates raiding and weakening of the regional king-doms of South India paved the way for the indigenousVijayanagara Empire.[63] Embracing a strong Shaivite

tradition and building upon the military technology of thesultanate, the empire came to control much of peninsu-lar India,[64] and was to inuence South Indian society forlong afterwards.[63]

2.3 Early modern India

Writing the will and testament of the Mughal king court in Per-sian, 15901595

In the early 16th century, northern India, being then un-der mainly Muslim rulers,[65] fell again to the superiormobility and repower of a new generation of CentralAsian warriors.[66] The resulting Mughal Empire did notstamp out the local societies it came to rule, but ratherbalanced and pacied them through new administrativepractices[67][68] and diverse and inclusive ruling elites,[69]leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniformrule.[70] Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity, es-pecially under Akbar, the Mughals united their far-ungrealms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianisedculture, to an emperor who had near-divine status.[69] TheMughal states economic policies, deriving most revenuesfrom agriculture[71] and mandating that taxes be paid inthe well-regulated silver currency,[72] caused peasants and

4 2 HISTORY

artisans to enter larger markets.[70] The relative peacemaintained by the empire during much of the 17th cen-tury was a factor in Indias economic expansion,[70] result-ing in greater patronage of painting, literary forms, tex-tiles, and architecture.[73] Newly coherent social groupsin northern and western India, such as the Marathas, theRajputs, and the Sikhs, gained military and governingambitions during Mughal rule, which, through collabora-tion or adversity, gave them both recognition and militaryexperience.[74] Expanding commerce during Mughal rulegave rise to new Indian commercial and political elitesalong the coasts of southern and eastern India.[74] As theempire disintegrated, many among these elites were ableto seek and control their own aairs.[75] The single mostimportant power that emerged in the early modern pe-riod was the Maratha confederacy.[76]

By the early 18th century, with the lines betweencommercial and political dominance being increasinglyblurred, a number of European trading companies, in-cluding the English East India Company, had establishedcoastal outposts.[77][78] The East India Companys controlof the seas, greater resources, and more advanced mili-tary training and technology led it to increasingly ex itsmilitary muscle and caused it to become attractive to aportion of the Indian elite; both these factors were cru-cial in allowing the Company to gain control over theBengal region by 1765 and sideline the other Europeancompanies.[79][77][80][81] Its further access to the riches ofBengal and the subsequent increased strength and size ofits army enabled it to annex or subdue most of India bythe 1820s.[82] India was then no longer exporting man-ufactured goods as it long had, but was instead supply-ing the British empire with raw materials, and many his-torians consider this to be the onset of Indias colonialperiod.[77] By this time, with its economic power severelycurtailed by the British parliament and itself eectivelymade an arm of British administration, the Company be-gan to more consciously enter non-economic arenas suchas education, social reform, and culture.[83]

2.4 Modern India

Historians consider Indias modern age to have begunsometime between 1848 and 1885. The appointmentin 1848 of Lord Dalhousie as Governor General of theEast India Company set the stage for changes essen-tial to a modern state. These included the consolida-tion and demarcation of sovereignty, the surveillance ofthe population, and the education of citizens. Techno-logical changesamong them, railways, canals, and thetelegraphwere introduced not long after their introduc-tion in Europe.[84][85][86][87] However, disaection withthe Company also grew during this time, and set o theIndian Rebellion of 1857. Fed by diverse resentmentsand perceptions, including invasive British-style social re-forms, harsh land taxes, and summary treatment of somerich landowners and princes, the rebellion rocked many

The British Indian Empire, from the 1909 edition of The Impe-rial Gazetteer of India. Areas directly governed by the Britishare shaded pink; the princely states under British suzerainty arein yellow.

regions of northern and central India and shook the foun-dations of Company rule.[88][89] Although the rebellionwas suppressed by 1858, it led to the dissolution of theEast India Company and to the direct administration ofIndia by the British government. Proclaiming a unitarystate and a gradual but limited British-style parliamentarysystem, the new rulers also protected princes and landedgentry as a feudal safeguard against future unrest.[90][91]In the decades following, public life gradually emergedall over India, leading eventually to the founding of theIndian National Congress in 1885.[92][93][94][95]

Jawaharlal Nehru (left) became Indias rst prime minister in1947. Mahatma Gandhi (right) led the independence movement.

The rush of technology and the commercialisation ofagriculture in the second half of the 19th century wasmarked by economic setbacksmany small farmers be-came dependent on the whims of far-away markets.[96]There was an increase in the number of large-scalefamines,[97] and, despite the risks of infrastructure devel-opment borne by Indian taxpayers, little industrial em-ployment was generated for Indians.[98] There were alsosalutary eects: commercial cropping, especially in the

5newly canalled Punjab, led to increased food produc-tion for internal consumption.[99] The railway networkprovided critical famine relief,[100] notably reduced thecost of moving goods,[100] and helped nascent Indian-owned industry.[99] After World War I, in which someone million Indians served,[101] a new period began. Itwas marked by British reforms but also repressive leg-islation, by more strident Indian calls for self-rule, andby the beginnings of a non-violent movement of non-cooperation, of which Mohandas Karamchand Gandhiwould become the leader and enduring symbol.[102] Dur-ing the 1930s, slow legislative reform was enacted bythe British; the Indian National Congress won victoriesin the resulting elections.[103] The next decade was be-set with crises: Indian participation in World War II, theCongresss nal push for non-cooperation, and an upsurgeof Muslim nationalism. All were capped by the advent ofindependence in 1947, but tempered by the partition ofIndia into two states: India and Pakistan.[104]

Vital to Indias self-image as an independent nation wasits constitution, completed in 1950, which put in placea secular and democratic republic.[105] In the 60 yearssince, India has had a mixed record of successes andfailures.[106] It has remained a democracy with civil lib-erties, an active Supreme Court, and a largely inde-pendent press.[106] Economic liberalisation, which wasbegun in the 1990s, has created a large urban middleclass, transformed India into one of the worlds fastest-growing economies,[107] and increased its geopoliticalclout. Indian movies, music, and spiritual teachingsplay an increasing role in global culture.[106] Yet, In-dia is also shaped by seemingly unyielding poverty, bothrural and urban;[106] by religious and caste-related vio-lence;[108] by Maoist-inspired Naxalite insurgencies;[109]and by separatism in Jammu and Kashmir and in North-east India.[110] It has unresolved territorial disputes withChina,[111] andwith Pakistan.[111] The IndiaPakistan nu-clear rivalry came to a head in 1998.[112] Indias sustaineddemocratic freedoms are unique among the worlds newnations; however, in spite of its recent economic suc-cesses, freedom from want for its disadvantaged popu-lation remains a goal yet to be achieved.[113]

3 GeographyMain article: Geography of IndiaSee also: Geology of IndiaIndia comprises the bulk of the Indian subcontinent, ly-ing atop the Indian tectonic plate, and part of the Indo-Australian Plate.[114] Indias dening geological processesbegan 75 million years ago when the Indian plate, thenpart of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began anorth-eastward drift caused by seaoor spreading to itssouth-west, and later, south and south-east.[114] Simul-taneously, the vast Tethyn oceanic crust, to its north-east, began to subduct under the Eurasian plate.[114]

A topographic map of India

These dual processes, driven by convection in the Earthsmantle, both created the Indian Ocean and caused theIndian continental crust eventually to under-thrust Eura-sia and to uplift the Himalayas.[114] Immediately south ofthe emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vasttrough that rapidly lled with river-borne sediment[115]and now constitutes the Indo-Gangetic Plain.[116] Cut ofrom the plain by the ancient Aravalli Range lies the TharDesert.[117]

The original Indian plate survives as peninsular India, theoldest and geologically most stable part of India. It ex-tends as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges incentral India. These parallel chains run from the Ara-bian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-richChota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east.[118] Tothe south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the DeccanPlateau, is anked on the west and east by coastal rangesknown as the Western and Eastern Ghats;[119] the plateaucontains the countrys oldest rock formations, some overone billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, Indialies to the north of the equator between 6 44' and 3530' north latitude[lower-alpha 5] and 68 7' and 97 25' eastlongitude.[120]

Indias coastline measures 7,517 kilometres (4,700 mi)in length; of this distance, 5,423 kilometres (3,400 mi)belong to peninsular India and 2,094 kilometres (1,300mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep islandchains.[121] According to the Indian naval hydrographiccharts, the mainland coastline consists of the following:43% sandy beaches; 11% rocky shores, including clis;and 46% mudats or marshy shores.[121]

Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially owthrough India include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra,both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal.[122] Impor-tant tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna andthe Kosi; the latters extremely low gradient often leads

6 4 BIODIVERSITY

The Kedar Range of the Greater Himalayas rises behindKedarnath Temple (Indian state of Uttarakhand), which is oneof the twelve jyotirlinga shrines.

to severe oods and course changes.[123] Major peninsu-lar rivers, whose steeper gradients prevent their watersfrom ooding, include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, theKaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bayof Bengal;[124] and the Narmada and the Tapti, whichdrain into the Arabian Sea.[125] Coastal features includethe marshy Rann of Kutch of western India and the allu-vial Sundarbans delta of eastern India; the latter is sharedwith Bangladesh.[126] India has two archipelagos: theLakshadweep, coral atolls o Indias south-western coast;and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chainin the Andaman Sea.[127]

The Indian climate is strongly inuenced by the Hi-malayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive theeconomically and culturally pivotal summer and wintermonsoons.[128] TheHimalayas prevent cold Central Asiankatabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk ofthe Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations atsimilar latitudes.[129][130] The Thar Desert plays a crucialrole in attracting the moisture-laden south-west summermonsoon winds that, between June and October, providethe majority of Indias rainfall.[128] Four major climaticgroupings predominate in India: tropical wet, tropicaldry, subtropical humid, and montane.[131]

4 BiodiversityMain article: Wildlife of IndiaIndia lies within the Indomalaya ecozone and containsthree biodiversity hotspots.[133] One of 17 megadiversecountries, it hosts 8.6% of all mammalian, 13.7% ofall avian, 7.9% of all reptilian, 6% of all amphibian,12.2% of all piscine, and 6.0% of all owering plantspecies.[134][135] Endemism is high among plants, 33%,and among ecoregions such as the shola forests.[136] Habi-tat ranges from the tropical rainforest of the AndamanIslands, Western Ghats, and North-East India to theconiferous forest of the Himalaya. Between these ex-tremes lie the moist deciduous sal forest of eastern In-

The lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) is the Indian national ower.Hindus and Buddhists regard it as a sacred symbol ofenlightenment.[132]

dia; the dry deciduous teak forest of central and southernIndia; and the babul-dominated thorn forest of the cen-tral Deccan and western Gangetic plain.[137] Under 12%of Indias landmass bears thick jungle.[138] The medici-nal neem, widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies, isa key Indian tree. The luxuriant pipal g tree, shown onthe seals of Mohenjo-daro, shaded Gautama Buddha ashe sought enlightenment.Many Indian species descend from taxa originating inGondwana, from which the Indian plate separated morethan 105 million years before present.[139] Peninsular In-dias subsequent movement towards and collision with theLaurasian landmass set o a mass exchange of species.Epochal volcanism and climatic changes 20 millionyears ago forced a mass extinction.[140] Mammals thenentered India from Asia through two zoogeographicalpasses anking the rising Himalaya.[137] Thus, while45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians are en-demic, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birdsare.[135] Among them are the Nilgiri leaf monkey andBeddomes toad of the Western Ghats. India contains172 IUCN-designated threatened animal species, or 2.9%of endangered forms.[141] These include the Asiatic lion,the Bengal tiger, and the Indian White-rumped vulture,which, by ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-laced cat-tle, nearly went extinct.The pervasive and ecologically devastating human en-croachment of recent decades has critically endangeredIndian wildlife. In response the system of national parksand protected areas, rst established in 1935, was sub-stantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the WildlifeProtection Act[142] and Project Tiger to safeguard cru-cial wilderness; the Forest Conservation Act was enactedin 1980 and amendments added in 1988.[143] India hostsmore than ve hundred wildlife sanctuaries and thirteenbiosphere reserves,[144] four of which are part of theWorld Network of Biosphere Reserves; twenty-ve wet-lands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.[145]

5.1 Government 7

5 PoliticsMain article: Politics of IndiaIndia is the worlds most populous democracy.[146] A

A parliamentary joint session being held in the Sansad Bhavan.

The Rashtrapati Bhavan is the ocial residence of the presidentof India.

parliamentary republic with a multi-party system,[147] ithas six recognised national parties, including the IndianNational Congress and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP),and more than 40 regional parties.[148] The Congress isconsidered centre-left or liberal in Indian political cul-ture, and the BJP centre-right or conservative. For mostof the period between 1950when India rst became arepublicand the late 1980s, the Congress held a major-ity in the parliament. Since then, however, it has increas-ingly shared the political stage with the BJP,[149] as wellas with powerful regional parties which have often forcedthe creation of multi-party coalitions at the centre.[150]

In the Republic of Indias rst three general elections,in 1951, 1957, and 1962, the Jawaharlal Nehru-ledCongress won easy victories. On Nehrus death in 1964,Lal Bahadur Shastri briey became prime minister; hewas succeeded, after his own unexpected death in 1966,by Indira Gandhi, who went on to lead the Congress toelection victories in 1967 and 1971. Following publicdiscontent with the state of emergency she declared in1975, the Congress was voted out of power in 1977;the then-new Janata Party, which had opposed the emer-

gency, was voted in. Its government lasted just over threeyears. Voted back into power in 1980, the Congress sawa change in leadership in 1984, when Indira Gandhi wasassassinated; she was succeeded by her son Rajiv Gandhi,who won an easy victory in the general elections later thatyear. The Congress was voted out again in 1989 when aNational Front coalition, led by the newly formed JanataDal in alliance with the Left Front, won the elections; thatgovernment too proved relatively short-lived: it lasted justunder two years.[151] Elections were held again in 1991;no party won an absolute majority. But the Congress, asthe largest single party, was able to form a minority gov-ernment led by P. V. Narasimha Rao.[152]

A two-year period of political turmoil followed the gen-eral election of 1996. Several short-lived alliances sharedpower at the centre. The BJP formed a governmentbriey in 1996; it was followed by two comparativelylong-lasting United Front coalitions, which depended onexternal support. In 1998, the BJP was able to form asuccessful coalition, the National Democratic Alliance(NDA). Led by Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the NDA becamethe rst non-Congress, coalition government to completea ve-year term.[153] In the 2004 Indian general elections,again no party won an absolute majority, but the Congressemerged as the largest single party, forming another suc-cessful coalition: the United Progressive Alliance (UPA).It had the support of left-leaning parties andMPs who op-posed the BJP. The UPA returned to power in the 2009general election with increased numbers, and it no longerrequired external support from Indias communist par-ties.[154] That year, Manmohan Singh became the rstprime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru in 1957 and 1962to be re-elected to a consecutive ve-year term.[155] In the2014 general election, Bharatiya Janata Party became therst political party since 1984 to win a majority and gov-ern without the support of other parties.[156]

5.1 GovernmentMain article: Government of IndiaSee also: Elections in India

India is a federation with a parliamentary system gov-erned under the Constitution of India, which serves asthe countrys supreme legal document. It is a constitu-tional republic and representative democracy, in which"majority rule is tempered by minority rights protectedby law". Federalism in India denes the power distri-bution between the federal government and the states.The government abides by constitutional checks and bal-ances. The Constitution of India, which came into eecton 26 January 1950,[157] states in its preamble that Indiais a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic.[158]Indias form of government, traditionally described asquasi-federal with a strong centre and weak states,[159]has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as aresult of political, economic, and social changes.[160][161]

8 5 POLITICS

The federal government comprises three branches:

Executive: The President of India is the head ofstate[163] and is elected indirectly by a nationalelectoral college[164] for a ve-year term.[165] ThePrime Minister of India is the head of govern-ment and exercises most executive power.[166] Ap-pointed by the president,[167] the prime minister isby convention supported by the party or politicalalliance holding the majority of seats in the lowerhouse of parliament.[166] The executive branch ofthe Indian government consists of the president, thevice-president, and the Council of Ministersthecabinet being its executive committeeheaded bythe prime minister. Any minister holding a port-folio must be a member of one of the houses ofparliament.[163] In the Indian parliamentary system,the executive is subordinate to the legislature; theprime minister and his council are directly respon-sible to the lower house of the parliament.[168]

Legislative: The legislature of India is the bicameralparliament. It operates under a Westminster-style parliamentary system and comprises the upperhouse called the Rajya Sabha (Council of States)and the lower called the Lok Sabha (House ofthe People).[169] The Rajya Sabha is a permanentbody that has 245 members who serve in stag-gered six-year terms.[170] Most are elected indi-rectly by the state and territorial legislatures in num-bers proportional to their states share of the na-tional population.[167] All but two of the Lok Sabhas545 members are directly elected by popular vote;they represent individual constituencies via ve-yearterms.[171] The remaining two members are nomi-nated by the president from among the Anglo-Indiancommunity, in case the president decides that theyare not adequately represented.[172]

Judicial: India has a unitary three-tier independentjudiciary[173] that comprises the Supreme Court,headed by the Chief Justice of India, 24 HighCourts, and a large number of trial courts.[173] TheSupreme Court has original jurisdiction over casesinvolving fundamental rights and over disputes be-tween states and the centre; it has appellate juris-diction over the High Courts.[174] It has the powerboth to declare the law and to strike down unionor state laws which contravene the constitution.[175]The Supreme Court is also the ultimate interpreterof the constitution.[176]

5.2 Subdivisions

A clickable map of the 29 states and 7 union territoriesof IndiaMain article: Administrative divisions of India

See also: Political integration of India

India is a federation composed of 29 states and 7 unionterritories.[177] All states, as well as the union territo-ries of Puducherry and the National Capital Territory ofDelhi, have elected legislatures and governments, bothpatterned on the Westminster model. The remaining veunion territories are directly ruled by the centre throughappointed administrators. In 1956, under the States Re-organisation Act, states were reorganised on a linguisticbasis.[178] Since then, their structure has remained largelyunchanged. Each state or union territory is further di-vided into administrative districts. The districts in turnare further divided into tehsils and ultimately into vil-lages.States

1. Andhra Pradesh2. Arunachal Pradesh3. Assam4. Bihar5. Chhattisgarh6. Goa7. Gujarat8. Haryana9. Himachal Pradesh

10. Jammu and Kashmir11. Jharkhand12. Karnataka13. Kerala14. Madhya Pradesh15. Maharashtra16. Manipur17. Meghalaya18. Mizoram19. Nagaland20. Odisha21. Punjab22. Rajasthan23. Sikkim24. Tamil Nadu25. Telangana

926. Tripura

27. Uttar Pradesh

28. Uttarakhand

29. West Bengal

Union territories

1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands

2. Chandigarh

3. Dadra and Nagar Haveli

4. Daman and Diu

5. Lakshadweep

6. National Capital Territory of Delhi

7. Puducherry

6 Foreign relations and militaryMain articles: Foreign relations of India and IndianArmed ForcesSince its independence in 1947, India has maintained

Narendra Modi meets Vladimir Putin at the 6th BRICS summit.India and Russia share extensive economic, defence, and tech-nological ties.

cordial relations with most nations. In the 1950s, itstrongly supported decolonisation in Africa and Asia andplayed a lead role in the Non-Aligned Movement.[179]In the late 1980s, the Indian military twice intervenedabroad at the invitation of neighbouring countries: apeace-keeping operation in Sri Lanka between 1987 and1990; and an armed intervention to prevent a coup d'tatattempt in Maldives. India has tense relations with neigh-bouring Pakistan; the two nations have gone to war fourtimes: in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999. Three of thesewars were fought over the disputed territory of Kashmir,

while the fourth, the 1971 war, followed from Indias sup-port for the independence of Bangladesh.[180] After wag-ing the 1962 Sino-IndianWar and the 1965 war with Pak-istan, India pursued close military and economic ties withthe Soviet Union; by the late 1960s, the Soviet Union wasits largest arms supplier.[181]

Aside from ongoing strategic relations with Russia, In-dia has wide-ranging defence relations with Israel andFrance. In recent years, it has played key roles in theSouth Asian Association for Regional Cooperation andthe World Trade Organisation. The nation has provided100,000 military and police personnel to serve in 35 UNpeacekeeping operations across four continents. It partic-ipates in the East Asia Summit, the G8+5, and other mul-tilateral forums.[182] India has close economic ties withSouth America,[183] Asia, and Africa; it pursues a LookEast policy that seeks to strengthen partnerships withthe ASEAN nations, Japan, and South Korea that revolvearound many issues, but especially those involving eco-nomic investment and regional security.[184][185]

INS Vikramaditya, the Indian Navys biggest warship.

Chinas nuclear test of 1964, as well as its repeatedthreats to intervene in support of Pakistan in the 1965war, convinced India to develop nuclear weapons.[186] In-dia conducted its rst nuclear weapons test in 1974 andcarried out further underground testing in 1998. De-spite criticism and military sanctions, India has signedneither the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty northe Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, considering bothto be awed and discriminatory.[187] India maintains a"no rst use" nuclear policy and is developing a nucleartriad capability as a part of its "minimum credible deter-rence" doctrine.[188][189] It is developing a ballistic mis-sile defence shield and, in collaboration with Russia, afth-generation ghter jet.[190] Other indigenous mili-tary projects involve the design and implementation ofVikrant-class aircraft carriers and Arihant-class nuclearsubmarines.[190]

Since the end of the Cold War, India has increased itseconomic, strategic, and military cooperation with theUnited States and the European Union.[191] In 2008, acivilian nuclear agreement was signed between India andthe United States. Although India possessed nuclear

10 7 ECONOMY

weapons at the time and was not party to the NuclearNon-Proliferation Treaty, it received waivers from theInternational Atomic Energy Agency and the NuclearSuppliers Group, ending earlier restrictions on Indias nu-clear technology and commerce. As a consequence, Indiabecame the sixth de facto nuclear weapons state.[192] In-dia subsequently signed cooperation agreements involv-ing civilian nuclear energy with Russia,[193] France,[194]the United Kingdom,[195] and Canada.[196]

The President of India is the supreme commander ofthe nations armed forces; with 1.325 million activetroops, they compose the worlds third-largest mili-tary.[197] It comprises the Indian Army, the Indian Navy,and the Indian Air Force; auxiliary organisations includethe Strategic Forces Command and three paramilitarygroups: the Assam Ries, the Special Frontier Force,and the Indian Coast Guard.[198] The ocial Indiandefence budget for 2011 was US$36.03 billion, or 1.83%of GDP.[199] For the scal year spanning 20122013,US$40.44 billion was budgeted.[200] According to a 2008SIPRI report, Indias annual military expenditure in termsof purchasing power stood at US$72.7 billion,[201] In2011, the annual defence budget increased by 11.6%,[202]although this does not include funds that reach the mil-itary through other branches of government.[203] As of2012, India is the worlds largest arms importer; between2007 and 2011, it accounted for 10% of funds spenton international arms purchases.[204] Much of the mili-tary expenditure was focused on defence against Pakistanand countering growing Chinese inuence in the IndianOcean.[202]

7 EconomyMain article: Economy of IndiaSee also: Economic history of India, Economic develop-ment in India, Tourism in India and Transport in IndiaAccording to the International Monetary Fund (IMF),

Indian agriculture dates from the period 7,0006,000 BCE,[205]employs most of the national workforce, and is second in farmoutput worldwide. Above, a farmer works an ox-drawn plow inKadmati, West Bengal.

as of 2014, the Indian economy is nominally worth

US$2.047 trillion; it is the eleventh-largest economyby market exchange rates, and is, at US$7.277 tril-lion, the third-largest by purchasing power parity, orPPP.[9] With its average annual GDP growth rate of 5.8%over the past two decades, and reaching 6.1% during201112,[206] India is one of the worlds fastest-growingeconomies.[207] However, the country ranks 140th in theworld in nominal GDP per capita and 129th in GDP percapita at PPP.[208] Until 1991, all Indian governmentsfollowed protectionist policies that were inuenced bysocialist economics. Widespread state intervention andregulation largely walled the economy o from the out-side world. An acute balance of payments crisis in 1991forced the nation to liberalise its economy;[209] since thenit has slowly moved towards a free-market system[210][211]by emphasising both foreign trade and direct investmentinows.[212] Indias recent economic model is largelycapitalist.[211] India has been a member of WTO since1 January 1995.[213]

The 486.6-million worker Indian labour force is theworlds second-largest, as of 2011.[198] The service sec-tor makes up 55.6% of GDP, the industrial sector26.3% and the agricultural sector 18.1%. Major agricul-tural products include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute,tea, sugarcane, and potatoes.[177] Major industries in-clude textiles, telecommunications, chemicals, pharma-ceuticals, biotechnology, food processing, steel, trans-port equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machin-ery, and software.[177] In 2006, the share of externaltrade in Indias GDP stood at 24%, up from 6% in1985.[210] In 2008, Indias share of world trade was1.68%;[214] In 2011, India was the worlds tenth-largestimporter and the nineteenth-largest exporter.[215] Ma-jor exports include petroleum products, textile goods,jewellery, software, engineering goods, chemicals, andleather manufactures.[177] Major imports include crudeoil, machinery, gems, fertiliser, and chemicals.[177] Be-tween 2001 and 2011, the contribution of petrochemicaland engineering goods to total exports grew from 14% to42%.[216]

Averaging an economic growth rate of 7.5% for severalyears prior to 2007,[210] India has more than doubledits hourly wage rates during the rst decade of the 21stcentury.[217] Some 431 million Indians have left povertysince 1985; Indias middle classes are projected to num-ber around 580million by 2030.[218] Though ranking 51stin global competitiveness, India ranks 17th in nancialmarket sophistication, 24th in the banking sector, 44thin business sophistication, and 39th in innovation, aheadof several advanced economies, as of 2010.[219] With 7of the worlds top 15 information technology outsourc-ing companies based in India, the country is viewed asthe second-most favourable outsourcing destination afterthe United States, as of 2009.[220] Indias consumer mar-ket, currently the worlds eleventh-largest, is expected tobecome fth-largest by 2030.[218]

Indias telecommunication industry, the worlds fastest-

11

growing, added 227 million subscribers during the period201011,[221] and after the rst quarter of 2013, Indiasurpassed Japan to become the third largest smartphonemarket in the world after China and the U.S.[222]

Power Loom used inside a house in a village near Salem, TamilNadu. Power loom accounts for more than 60% of textile pro-duction in India.

Its automotive industry, the worlds second fastest grow-ing, increased domestic sales by 26% during 200910,[223] and exports by 36% during 200809.[224] Powercapacity is 250 gigawatts, of which 8% is renewable. Atthe end of 2011, Indian IT Industry employed 2.8 millionprofessionals, generated revenues close to US$100 billionequalling 7.5% of Indian GDP and contributed 26% ofIndias merchandise exports.[225]

The Pharmaceutical industry in India is among the signif-icant emerging markets for global pharma industry. TheIndian pharmaceutical market is expected to reach $48.5billion by 2020. Indias R & D spending constitutes 60%of Biopharmaceutical industry.[226][227] India is amongthe top 12 Biotech destinations of the world.[228] [229] TheIndian biotech industry grew by 15.1% in 201213, in-creasing its revenues from 204.4 Billion INR (Indian Ru-pees) to 235.24 Billion INR (3.94 B US$ - exchange rateJune 2013: 1 US$ approx. 60 INR)[230] Although hardly2% of Indians pay income taxes.[231]

Despite impressive economic growth during recentdecades, India continues to face socio-economic chal-lenges. India contains the largest concentration of peo-ple living below the World Banks international povertyline of US$1.25 per day,[232] the proportion having de-creased from 60% in 1981 to 42% in 2005, and 25% in2011[233] 30.7% of Indias children under the age of veare underweight,[234] half the children under ve suerfrom chronic malnutrition, and in the states of MadhyaPradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Haryana,Jharkhand, Karnataka, and Uttar Pradesh, which ac-count for 50.04% of Indias population, 70% of the chil-dren between the ages of six months and 59 months areanaemic.[235] The Mid-Day Meal Scheme attempts tolower these rates.[236] Since 1991, economic inequalitybetween Indias states has consistently grown: the per-

capita net state domestic product of the richest states in2007 was 3.2 times that of the poorest.[237] Corruptionin India is perceived to have increased signicantly,[238]with one report estimating the illegal capital ows sinceindependence to be US$462 billion.[239]

Driven by growth, Indias nominal GDP per capita hassteadily increased from US$329 in 1991, when economicliberalisation began, to US$1,265 in 2010, and is es-timated to increase to US$2,110 by 2016; however, ithas remained lower than those of other Asian developingcountries such as Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Philippines,Sri Lanka, and Thailand, and is expected to remain so inthe near future. While it is currently higher than Pakistan,Nepal, Bangladesh and others.[240]

According to a 2011 PricewaterhouseCoopers report, In-dias GDP at purchasing power parity could overtake thatof the United States by 2045.[241] During the next fourdecades, Indian GDP is expected to grow at an annu-alised average of 8%, making it potentially the worldsfastest-growing major economy until 2050.[241] The re-port highlights key growth factors: a young and rapidlygrowing working-age population; growth in the manufac-turing sector because of rising education and engineeringskill levels; and sustained growth of the consumer marketdriven by a rapidly growing middle class.[241] The WorldBank cautions that, for India to achieve its economic po-tential, it must continue to focus on public sector reform,transport infrastructure, agricultural and rural develop-ment, removal of labour regulations, education, energysecurity, and public health and nutrition.[242]

Citing persistent ination pressures, weak public nances,limited progress on scal consolidation and ineective-ness of the government, rating agency Fitch revisedIndias Outlook to Negative from Stable on 18 June2012.[243] Another credit rating agency S&P had warnedpreviously that a slowing GDP growth and political road-blocks to economic policy-making could put India at therisk of losing its investment grade rating.[244] However,Moody did not revise its outlook on India keeping itstable,[245] but termed the national government as thesingle biggest drag on business activity.[246]

8 Demographics

Main article: Demographics of IndiaWith 1,210,193,422 residents reported in the 2011 pro-visional census,[8] India is the worlds second-most pop-ulous country. Its population grew at 1.76% per an-num during 20012011,[8] down from 2.13% per an-num in the previous decade (19912001).[247] The hu-man sex ratio, according to the 2011 census, is 940 fe-males per 1,000 males.[8] The median age was 24.9 inthe 2001 census.[198] The rst post-colonial census, con-ducted in 1951, counted 361.1 million people.[248] Med-ical advances made in the last 50 years as well as in-

12 9 CULTURE

A population density and Indian Railways connectivity map. Thealready densely settled Indo-Gangetic Plain is the main driver ofIndian population growth.

creased agricultural productivity brought about by the"Green Revolution" have caused Indias population togrow rapidly.[249] India continues to face several publichealth-related challenges.[250][251] Life expectancy in In-dia is at 68 years with life expectancy for women be-ing 69.6 years and for men being 67.3.[252] There arearound 50 physicians per 100,000 Indians.[253] The num-ber of Indians living in urban areas has grown by 31.2%between 1991 and 2001.[254] Yet, in 2001, over 70%lived in rural areas.[255][256] According to the 2001 cen-sus, there are 27 million-plus cities in India;[254] amongthem Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore,Hyderabad, Ahmedabad and Pune are the most popu-lous metropolitan areas. The literacy rate in 2011 was74.04%: 65.46% among females and 82.14% amongmales.[8] Kerala is the most literate state with 95.5%literacy;[257] while Bihar the least with 67.8%.[258]

A handicraft seller in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh

India is home to two major language families: Indo-Aryan (spoken by about 74% of the population) and

Dravidian (24%). Other languages spoken in India comefrom the Austroasiatic and Tibeto-Burman language fam-ilies. India has no national language.[259] Hindi, withthe largest number of speakers, is the ocial languageof the government.[260][261] English is used extensivelyin business and administration and has the status ofa subsidiary ocial language";[262] it is important ineducation, especially as a medium of higher education.Each state and union territory has one or more ociallanguages, and the constitution recognises in particular21 scheduled languages. The Constitution of Indiarecognises 212 scheduled tribal groups which togetherconstitute about 7.5% of the countrys population.[263]The 2001 census reported that Hinduism, with over 800million adherents (80.5% of the population), was thelargest religion in India; it is followed by Islam (13.4%),Christianity (2.3%), Sikhism (1.9%), Buddhism (0.8%),Jainism (0.4%), Judaism, Zoroastrianism, and the Bah'Faith.[264] India has the worlds largest Hindu, Sikh, Jain,Zoroastrian, and Bah' populations, and has the third-largest Muslim population and the largest Muslim popu-lation for a non-Muslim majority country.[265][266]

9 CultureMain article: Culture of IndiaIndian cultural history spans more than 4,500 years.[267]During the Vedic period (c. 1700 500 BCE), the foun-dations of Hindu philosophy, mythology, theology andliterature were laid, and many beliefs and practices whichstill exist today, such as dhrma, krma, yga, andmoka,were established.[16] India is notable for its religious di-versity, with Hinduism, Sikhism, Islam, Christianity, andJainism among the nations major religions.[268] The pre-dominant religion, Hinduism, has been shaped by var-ious historical schools of thought, including those ofthe Upanishads,[269] the Yoga Sutras, the Bhakti move-ment,[268] and by Buddhist philosophy.[270]

9.1 Art and architecture

Much of Indian architecture, including the Taj Mahal,other works of Mughal architecture, and South Indianarchitecture, blends ancient local traditions with im-ported styles.[271] Vernacular architecture is also highlyregional in it avours. Vastu shastra, literally sci-ence of construction or architecture and ascribed toMamuni Mayan,[272] explores how the laws of natureaect human dwellings;[273] it employs precise geome-try and directional alignments to reect perceived cos-mic constructs.[274] As applied in Hindu temple archi-tecture, it is inuenced by the Shilpa Shastras, a seriesof foundational texts whose basic mythological form isthe Vastu-Purusha mandala, a square that embodied the"absolute".[275] The Taj Mahal, built in Agra between1631 and 1648 by orders of Emperor Shah Jahan inmem-

9.3 Performing arts 13

A sculpture fashioned in the Gandharan tradition depicting Gau-tama Buddha, founder of Buddhism, at the Tokyo National Mu-seum

ory of his wife, has been described in the UNESCOWorld Heritage List as the jewel of Muslim art in In-dia and one of the universally admired masterpieces ofthe worlds heritage.[276] Indo-Saracenic Revival archi-tecture, developed by the British in the late 19th century,drew on Indo-Islamic architecture.[277]

9.2 Literature

The earliest literary writings in India, composed be-tween 1400 BCE and 1200 CE, were in the Sanskritlanguage.[278][279] Prominent works of this Sanskrit lit-erature include epics such as the Mahbhrata and theRamayana, the dramas of Klidsa such as the Abhij-nakuntalam (The Recognition of akuntal), and poetrysuch as the Mahkvya.[280][281][282] Kamasutra, the fa-mous book about sexual intercourse also originated inIndia. Developed between 600 BCE and 300 CE inSouth India, the Sangam literature, consisting of 2,381poems, is regarded as a predecessor of Tamil litera-ture.[283][284][285][286] From the 14th to the 18th centuries,Indias literary traditions went through a period of dras-tic change because of the emergence of devotional po-

ets such as Kabr, Tulsds, and Guru Nnak. This pe-riod was characterised by a varied and wide spectrumof thought and expression; as a consequence, medievalIndian literary works diered signicantly from clas-sical traditions.[287] In the 19th century, Indian writerstook a new interest in social questions and psychologi-cal descriptions. In the 20th century, Indian literaturewas inuenced by the works of Bengali poet and novelistRabindranath Tagore.[288]

9.3 Performing arts

Rukmini Devi Arundale, one of the foremost revivalists ofbharatnatyam dance in the 20th century, performs at a concert.

Indian music ranges over various traditions and regionalstyles. Classical music encompasses two genres andtheir various folk oshoots: the northern Hindustaniand southern Carnatic schools.[289] Regionalised popularforms include lmi and folk music; the syncretic traditionof the bauls is a well-known form of the latter. Indiandance also features diverse folk and classical forms.Among the better-known folk dances are the bhangra ofPunjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of Odisha, WestBengal and Jharkhand, garba and dandiya of Gujarat,ghoomar of Rajasthan, and the lavani of Maharashtra.Eight dance forms, manywith narrative forms andmytho-logical elements, have been accorded classical dancestatus by Indias National Academy of Music, Dance,and Drama. These are: bharatanatyam of the stateof Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali andmohiniyattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh,

14 9 CULTURE

manipuri ofManipur, odissi of Odisha, and the sattriya ofAssam.[290] Theatre in India melds music, dance, and im-provised or written dialogue.[291] Often based on Hindumythology, but also borrowing from medieval romancesor social and political events, Indian theatre includes thebhavai of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal, the nautankiand ramlila of North India, tamasha of Maharashtra,burrakatha ofAndhra Pradesh, terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu,and the yakshagana of Karnataka.[292]

9.4 Motion pictures

The Indian lm industry produces the worlds most-watched cinema.[293] Established regional cinematic tra-ditions exist in the Assamese, Bengali, Hindi, Kannada,Malayalam, Punjabi, Gujarati, Marathi, Oriya, Tamil,and Telugu languages.[294] South Indian cinema attractsmore than 75% of national lm revenue.[295] Televi-sion broadcasting began in India in 1959 as a state-runmedium of communication, and had slow expansion formore than two decades.[296] The state monopoly on tele-vision broadcast ended in the 1990s and, since then, satel-lite channels have increasingly shaped popular culture ofIndian society.[297] Today, television is the most penetra-tive media in India; industry estimates indicate that as of2012 there are over 554 million TV consumers, 462 mil-lion with satellite and/or cable connections, compared toother forms of mass media such as press (350 million),radio (156 million) or internet (37 million).[298]

9.5 Society

Tourists from North-East India, wrapped in sarongs and shawls,visit the Taj Mahal.

Traditional Indian society is sometimes dened by socialhierarchy. The Indian caste system embodies much ofthe social stratication and many of the social restric-tions found in the Indian subcontinent. Social classes aredened by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups,often termed as jtis, or castes.[299] India declared un-

touchability to be illegal[300] in 1947 and has since en-acted other anti-discriminatory laws and social welfareinitiatives. At the workplace in urban India and in in-ternational or leading Indian companies, the caste relatedidentication has pretty much lost its importance.[301][302]Family values are important in the Indian tradition, andmulti-generational patriarchal joint families have beenthe norm in India, though nuclear families are becom-ing common in urban areas.[303] An overwhelming ma-jority of Indians, with their consent, have their marriagesarranged by their parents or other family members.[304]Marriage is thought to be for life,[304] and the divorce rateis extremely low.[305] Child marriages are common, espe-cially in rural areas; many women in India wed beforereaching 18, which is their legal marriageable age.[306]Female infanticide in India and female foeticide in In-dia have caused a discrepancy in the sex ratio, as of 2005it was estimated that there were 50 million more malesthan females in the nation.[307][308] However the recentreport from 2011 shown improvement among the gen-der ratio.[309] The payment of Dowry, although illegal, re-mains widespread across class lines.[310] Deaths resultingfrom dowry, mostly from bride burning, is on the rise.[311]

Many Indian festivals are religious in origin; among themare Chhath, Christmas, Diwali, Durga Puja, Bakr-Id, Eidul-Fitr, Ganesh Chaturthi, Holi, Makar Sankranti or Ut-tarayan, Navratri, Thai Pongal, and Vaisakhi. India hasthree national holidays which are observed in all statesand union territories: Republic Day, Independence Day,and Gandhi Jayanti. Other sets of holidays, varying be-tween nine and twelve, are ocially observed in individ-ual states.Throughout India, many people practice customs andreligious rituals, such as "Saskra, which is a seriesof personal sacraments and rites conducted at variousstages throughout life.[312]

9.6 Clothing

Main article: Clothing in India

Cotton was domesticated in India by 4000 B.C.E. Tra-ditional Indian dress varies in colour and style across re-gions and depends on various factors, including climateand faith. Popular styles of dress include draped gar-ments such as the sari for women and the dhoti or lungifor men. Stitched clothes, such as the shalwar kameezfor women and kurtapyjama combinations or European-style trousers and shirts formen, are also popular.[313] Useof delicate jewellery, modelled on real owers worn in an-cient India, is part of a tradition dating back some 5,000years; gemstones are also worn in India as talismans.[314]

9.7 Sport 15

9.7 SportMain article: Sport in IndiaIn India, several traditional indigenous sports remain

Indian hockey team, captained by Dhyan Chand (standing sec-ond from left), after winning the nals at the 1936 SummerOlympicstheir third of six consecutive Olympic golds.

fairly popular, such as kabaddi, kho kho, pehlwani andgilli-danda. Some of the earliest forms of Asian martialarts, such as kalarippayattu,musti yuddha, silambam, andmarma adi, originated in India. Chess, commonly heldto have originated in India as chaturaga, is regainingwidespread popularity with the rise in the number of In-dian grandmasters.[315][316] Pachisi, fromwhich parcheesiderives, was played on a giant marble court by Akbar.[317]

Indian chess grandmaster and former world championVishwanathan Anand competes at a chess tournament in 2005.Chess is commonly believed to have originated in India in the5th century.

The improved results garnered by the Indian Davis Cupteam and other Indian tennis players in the early 2010shave made tennis increasingly popular in the country.[318]India has a comparatively strong presence in shootingsports, and has won several medals at the Olympics,the World Shooting Championships, and the Common-wealth Games.[319][320] Other sports in which Indians

have succeeded internationally include badminton,[321]boxing,[322] and wrestling.[323] Football is popular inWestBengal, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and the north-easternstates.[324]

Field hockey in India is administered by Hockey India.The Indian national hockey team won the 1975 HockeyWorld Cup and have, as of 2012, taken eight gold, one sil-ver, and two bronzeOlympicmedals, making it the sportsmost successful team in the Olympics.

In a career of twenty four-year span, Sachin Tendulkar has cre-ated almost all batting records, including most runs in both testsand ODIs and most number of centuries in both tests and ODIs,thus making him the most successful cricketer ever.

India has also played a major role in popularising cricket.Thus, cricket is, by far, the most popular sport of In-dia. The Indian national cricket team won the 1983and 2011 Cricket World Cup events, the 2007 ICCWorld Twenty20, shared the 2002 ICC Champions Tro-phy with Sri Lanka, and won 2013 ICC Champions Tro-phy. Cricket in India is administered by the Board ofControl for Cricket in India (BCCI); the Ranji Trophy,the Duleep Trophy, the Deodhar Trophy, the Irani Tro-phy, and the NKP Salve Challenger Trophy are domesticcompetitions. The BCCI is also responsible for conduct-ing an annual Twenty20 competition known as the IndianPremier League.India has hosted or co-hosted several international sport-ing events: the 1951 and 1982 Asian Games; the 1987,1996, and 2011 Cricket World Cup tournaments; the2003 Afro-Asian Games; the 2006 ICC Champions Tro-phy; the 2010 Hockey World Cup; and the 2010 Com-monwealth Games. Major international sporting eventsheld annually in India include the Chennai Open, theMumbai Marathon, the Delhi Half Marathon, and theIndian Masters. The rst Indian Grand Prix featured inlate 2011.[325]

India has traditionally been the dominant country at theSouth Asian Games. An example of this dominance isthe basketball competition where Team India won threeout of four tournaments to date.[326] The Rajiv GandhiKhel Ratna and the Arjuna Award are the highest formsof government recognition for athletic achievement; theDronacharya Award is awarded for excellence in coach-

16 12 REFERENCES

ing.

10 See also Outline of India States of India

11 Notes[1] "[...] Jana Gana Mana is the National Anthem of In-

dia, subject to such alterations in the words as the Gov-ernment may authorise as occasion arises; and the songVande Mataram, which has played a historic part in thestruggle for Indian freedom, shall be honoured equallywith Jana Gana Mana and shall have equal status withit. (Constituent Assembly of India 1950).

[2] The countrys exact size is subject to debate because someborders are disputed. The Indian government lists the totalarea as 3,287,260 km2 (1,269,220 sq mi) and the totalland area as 3,060,500 km2 (1,181,700 sq mi); the UnitedNations lists the total area as 3,287,263 km2 (1,269,219sq mi) and total land area as 2,973,190 km2 (1,147,960sq mi). (Library of Congress 2004).

[3] See also: Ocial names of India

[4] The Government of India regards Afghanistan as a bor-dering country, as it considers all of Kashmir to be partof India. However, this is disputed, and the region bor-dering Afghanistan is administered by Pakistan. Source:Ministry of Home Aairs (Department of Border Man-agement)" (DOC). Retrieved 1 September 2008..

[5] The northernmost point under Indian control is the dis-puted Siachen Glacier in Jammu and Kashmir; however,the Government of India regards the entire region of theformer princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, includingthe Northern Areas administered by Pakistan, to be itsterritory. It therefore assigns the longitude 37 6' to itsnorthernmost point.

12 References[1] National Informatics Centre 2005.

[2] Wolpert 2003, p. 1.

[3] National Symbols | National Portal of India. In-dia.gov.in. Retrieved 6 July 2013.

[4] Prole | National Portal of India. India.gov.in. Re-trieved 23 August 2013.

[5] Eighth Schedule. Retrieved 1 July 2013.

[6] Justice HL Dattu sworn in as chief justice of SupremeCourt. IANS. Times of India. Retrieved 29 September2014.

[7] Prole | National Portal of India

[8] Ministry of Home Aairs 2011.

[9] Report for Selected Countries and Subjects. WorldEconomic Outlook Database, International MonetaryFund. October 2014. Retrieved 1 November 2014.

[10] Gini Index. World Bank. Retrieved 2 March 2011.

[11] Human Development Report 2014 Summary. TheUnited Nations. Retrieved 24 July 2014.

[12] Dunlop illustrated encyclopedia of facts, p. 91, by Nor-ris McWhirter, Ross McWhirter

[13] Stein 1998, pp. 1617.

[14] Gross domestic product, current prices in US dollars, Oct2013. Retrieved 31 October 2013.

[15] Oxford English Dictionary.

[16] Kuiper 2010, p. 86.

[17] Ministry of Law and Justice 2008.

[18] Kaye 1997, pp. 639640.

[19] Encyclopdia Britannica.

[20] Petraglia, Allchin & 2007, p. 6.

[21] Singh 2009, pp. 8993.

[22] Possehl 2003, pp. 2425.

[23] Kulke & Rothermund 2004, pp. 2123.

[24] Singh 2009, p. 181.

[25] Possehl 2003, p. 2.

[26] Singh 2009, p. 255.

[27] Singh 2009, pp. 186187.

[28] Witzel 2003, pp. 6869.

[29] Kulke & Rothermund 2004, p. 31.

[30] Stein 2010, p. 47.


[32] Singh 2009, p. 200.

[33] Singh 2009, pp. 250251.

[34] Singh 2009, pp. 260-265.



[37] Stein 1998, p. 21.

[38] Stein 1998, pp. 6768.

[39] Singh 2009, pp. 312313.

[40] Singh 2009, p. 300.

[41] Singh 2009, p. 319.

17

[42] Stein 1998, pp. 7879.


[44] Singh 2009, p. 367.


[46] Stein 1998, pp. 8990.

[47] Singh 2009, pp. 408415.

[48] Stein 1998, pp. 9295.


[50] Singh 2009, p. 545.

[51] Stein 1998, pp. 9899.

[52] Stein 1998, p. 132.

[53] Stein 1998, pp. 119120.

[54] Stein 1998, pp. 121122.

[55] Stein 1998, p. 123.

[56] Stein 1998, p. 124.

[57] Stein 1998, pp. 127128.

[58] Ludden 2002, p. 68.

[59] Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 47.

[60] Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 6.

[61] Ludden 2002, p. 67.

[62] Asher & Talbot 2008, pp. 5051.

[63] Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 53.


[65] Robb 2001, p. 80.

[66] Stein 1998, p. 164.

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Curry,

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