"indians": misrepresentation of cherokee history in north carolina educational texts

7/26/2019 "Indians": Misrepresentation of Cherokee history in North Carolina educational texts

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George Dylan Boan

“Indians”Misrepresentation of Cherokee history inNorth Carolina educational texts



George Dylan Boan HIS 4100 1

“From the moment they were branded “Indians,” they lost their identity.”1he term

“Indian” has be!ome !ommon"la!e in the #nited States as synonymo$s with %ati&e 'meri!an,

yet !arries inherent stereoty"es that disting$ish the (ormer (rom the latter. he $se o( stereoty"es

and mis!on!e"tions are not $ni)$e to the "resentation o( %ati&e 'meri!ans, b$t rather, ha&e been

$sed time and again to mold &ery !are($l "ortraits o( all minorities thro$gho$t 'meri!an history.

hese !ari!at$res be!ome embedded in the minds o( the masses thro$gh ed$!ation and mass

media. *hite !ontem"orary 'meri!a en+oys the l$$ry o( belie&ing they ha&e somehow

trans!ended s$!h ba!-ward thin-ing yet news stories !ontin$e to s$r(a!e re&ealing dee"ly held

belie(s that ha&e been (ostered by histori!al mised$!ation. he iss$e at the heart o( the debate o(

histori!al in!l$sion and e!l$sion is the "lain (a!t that the dominant gro$" in 'meri!a, ha&ing

been the *hite ma+ority (or most o( 'meri!as history, !ontrols and "rod$!es instr$!tional

material that hel"s bolster the stat$s )$o in ways whi!h "resent inter"retation as nat$ral (a!t.

/robably the most "rominent eam"le o( this trend was the '(ri!an 'meri!an str$ggle (or

in!l$sion in ed$!ational materials, whi!h "rior to the re(orms o( the 10s and beyond, only

mentioned '(ri!an 'meri!ans in the most derogatory o( terms, while whitewashing or

!om"letely a&oiding the histori!al in+$sti!es that had be(allen them. his 2$ro!entri! molding o(

ed$!ational materials was not an a!!ident and the same "rin!i"le !an be a""lied to all 'meri!ans

who la!- a white !om"leion.

3ne "arti!$lar segment o( the 'meri!an "o"$la!e, the hero-ee, ha&e end$red many o(

'meri!as greatest in+$sti!es and has eem"li(ied resilien!e. he hero-ee "eo"le were on!e one

o( the most "ower($l tribes in all o( %orth 'meri!a. hey "ossessed &ast territory along the 2ast

oast and s$""orted an enormo$s "o"$lation. he arri&al o( the *hite man, beginning with

1 2$gene F. /ro&en5o 6r., 'nnis %. Sha&er, and 7an$el Bello, eds, The Textbook As Discourse:

Sociocultural Dimensions of American Schoolbooks 8%ew 9or-: ;o$tledge, <011=, 10.



George Dylan Boan HIS 4100 <

Hernando De Soto, mar-ed the beginning o( their de!line. ime and again the hero-ee

attem"ted to wor- with *hite settlers, s$""orting them in times o( war, "ro&iding the sta"les o(

li(e when they were s"arse, and allowing the grad$al en!roa!hment o( settlers onto their lands.

Instan!es o( hero-ee &iolen!e dire!ted at *hite settlers were almost always rea!tionary rather

than "reem"ti&e. ;egardless o( the &ario$s ta!ti!s o( di"loma!y em"loyed by the hero-ee, the

*hite man was relentless in his attem"ts to dis"la!e, rob, and eterminate them. hese e((orts

!$lminated in one o( the dar-est de!ades in 'meri!an history, the "eriod (rom 1>?0, in whi!h the

Indian ;emo&al '!t was "assed, to the year 1>?>, in whi!h the hero-ee rea!hed the end o( the

rail o( ears.

he history o( the hero-ee leading $" to and (ollowing that tra$mati! e"erien!e has

been one o( !ontentio$s debate. hro$gh analysis o( instr$!tional materials in!l$ding re(eren!e

boo-s, tetboo-s, and wor-boo-s abo$t %orth arolina history, many themes arise that gi&e

insight into !ontem"orary !on!e"tions o( the hero-ee "eo"le. Histori!al tets o( the twentieth

and twenty@(irst !ent$ries in %orth arolina ha&e "ortrayed the hero-ee "eo"le as histori!al

arti(a!ts rather than im"ly their eisten!e in !ontem"orary 'meri!a. Histori!al !on!l$sions based

$"on misinter"retations o( "rior a$thors and !ommon myth, regarding the hero-ee, ha&e been

"resented as (a!t. 7ost glaringly, a 2$ro!entri! &iew o( hero-ee history de(ines these tets and

writers ha&e (ailed to share a$thority with the hero-ee in regard to their own history,

"arti!$larly in the instan!e o( the rail o( ears.

In order to $nderstand how the history o( the hero-ee "eo"le (alls into the 'meri!an

narrati&e, their history "rior to *hite !onta!t and (ollowing *hite !onta!t m$st be addressed.

'nthro"ologists tra!e the hero-ee and their an!estors to ha&ing li&ed in the mo$ntains o( %orth



George Dylan Boan HIS 4100 ?

arolina sin!e the end o( the last i!e age, ro$ghly aro$nd 10,000 B.< 2&en o&er one tho$sand

years ago, the hero-ee "eo"le had beg$n to de&elo" their own distin!t !$lt$re, !alling

themsel&es the 'ni@9&wiya, or the “/rin!i"al /eo"le.”? his so!iety was matriar!hal, whi!h

identi(ied !lans and "assed land thro$gh the women o( the tribe.4 orn, beans, and s)$ash, whi!h

the hero-ee !alled the “three sisters,” were the sta"les o( their agri!$lt$re, with (arms being

!omm$nal that were nearby hero-ee towns. hro$gh dee" s"irit$ality, !eremony, and !$stom,

the hero-ee maintained balan!e in all as"e!ts o( their li(e.A his balan!e was maintained (or

!ent$ries, a balan!e whi!h wo$ld disr$"ted $"on !onta!t with 2$ro"eans.

In 140 'D, Hernando De Sotos e"edition led to the (irst *hite !onta!t with the hero-ee

"eo"le. 1A0 wo$ld "ro&e to be a mon$mental year (or the hero-ee, who remained a "ower($l

nation (ollowing De Sotos arri&al and de"art$re, as the 2nglish settled in Cirginia.> %on@nati&e

disease e"idemi!s "ro&ed to be what !o$ld be !onsidered the greatest im"a!t o( this new

!ohabitation, with estimates that as m$!h as "er!ent o( the hero-ee "o"$lation died o( the

< %ational /ar- Ser&i!e, “'n 'n!ient /eo"le,” Blue Ridge National Heritage Area,

htt":www.bl$eridgeheritage.!omheritage!hero-ee!hero-ee@historyan@an!ient@"eo"le.

? Ibid.

4 Ibid.

Ibid.

A Ibid.

7$se$m o( the hero-ee Indian, “Im"ortant Dates in hero-ee History,” Museum of the

Cherokee ndian, htt"s:www.!hero-eem$se$m.orged$!ation@in(o.htm.

> 6ames B. 7inahan, !thnic "rou#s of the Americas: An !nc$clo#edia 8Santa Barbara,

ali(ornia: 'B@EI3, <01?=, Google eBoo-, >A.




e"idemi!s that ens$ed between 1A0 and 1. In 1A>4, the hero-ee made their (irst treaty

with 2nglish traders in So$th arolina, mar-ing a "ro(o$nd shi(t as !a"italism entered traditional

egalitarian hero-ee so!iety.10

In 1<1, a treaty with So$th arolina was the (irst o( the long series o( land !essions that

wo$ld !lima with hero-ee remo&al.11 ' small"o e"idemi! in 1?> de!imated the hero-ee,

-illing hal( their "o"$lation.1< 1 res$lted in a se!ond ro$nd o( land !essions to So$th

arolina, while the Battle o( aliwa, in whi!h the hero-ee de(eated the ree-s, hel"ed the

hero-ee regain lands in northwest Georgia rea!hing as (ar so$th as 2towah. 1? 'nother small"o

e"idemi! again de&astated the hero-ee between 1 and 1A0, (ollowed by the ens$ing

'nglo@hero-ee *ar, a s$bset o( the Fren!h and Indian *ar this war res$lted in the loss o( the

Eower owns in So$th arolina as well as destr$!tion o( the 7iddle owns in %orth arolina.14

In 1A<, the hero-ee !on&in!ed Henry imberla-e to ta-e a delegation with him to

Eondon to meet ing George III, res$lting in the ing Georges /ro!lamation o( 1A? whi!h

(orbade !olonial e"ansion beyond the Bl$e ;idge.1 *hile initially !onsidered a s$!!ess (or the

hero-ee, it a!t$ally led to e&en more land !essions in 1A>, 10, 1<, 1?, 1, and the

Ibid.

10 Ibid.

11 7$se$m o( the hero-ee Indian, “Im"ortant Dates in hero-ee History,” Museum of the


1< Ibid.

1? Ibid.

14 Ibid.

1 homas indig, “/ro!lamation o( 1A?,” %Shistor$&org ,

htt":www.$shistory.orgde!larationrelated"ro!A?.htm.



George Dylan Boan HIS 4100

'meri!an ;e&ol$tion, in whi!h the hero-ee sided with the British, bro$ght land !essions in

So$th arolina, Georgia, Cirginia, and %orth arolina in 1 8re(er to '""endi ? (or all land

!essions $" to ;emo&al=.1A he reaty o( Ho"ewell in 1>, the (irst between the hero-ee

%ation and the newly (ormed #nited States, "ledged "ea!e($l relations.1

'!!ording to historian im 'lan Garrison, shortly therea(ter “#.S. o((i!ials began to $rge the

hero-ees to abandon h$nting and their traditional ways o( li(e and to instead learn how to li&e,

worshi", and (arm li-e hristian 'meri!an yeomen. 7any hero-ees embra!ed this !i&ili5ation

"rogram. he hero-ees established a !o$rt system, (ormally abandoned the law o( blood

re&enge, and ado"ted a re"$bli!an go&ernment.”

1>

Here it seemed there was ho"e (or

!oeisten!e. In 1>00, 7ora&ian missionaries arri&ed to ($rther the "ro!ess o( hero-ee

hristiani5ation, and they wo$ld soon be (ollowed by /resbyterians, Ba"tists, and 7ethodists.1

wo years later, a !om"a!t between the state o( Georgia and /resident homas 6e((erson

"romised remo&al o( all “Indians” (rom the So$theast as soon as !o$ld be a!!om"lished the

(ollowing year, 6e((erson !om"leted the Eo$isiana /$r!hase, ma-ing s$!h remo&al (easible.<0

1>0> was the year o( the (irst written hero-ee laws, (ormali5ing their "oli!e@(ree state as well as

1A 7$se$m o( the hero-ee Indian, “Im"ortant Dates in hero-ee History,” Museum of the


1 'rnold r$"at, “;e"resenting hero-ee Dis"ossession,” Studies in American ndian

'iteratures 1, no. 1 8S"ring <00=: 1>.

1> im 'lan Garrison, “hero-ee ;emo&al,” Ne( "eorgia !nc$clo#edia, 0 Se"tember <014,

*eb. htt":www.georgiaen!y!lo"edia.orgarti!leshistory@ar!haeology!hero-ee@remo&al.

1 r$"at, “;e"resenting hero-ee,” 1>.

<0 7$se$m o( the hero-ee Indian, “Im"ortant Dates in hero-ee History,” Museum of the




George Dylan Boan HIS 4100 A

a""ro&ing "atrilineal inheritan!e, re&ersing a tho$sand year !$stom, no do$bt owing to

“!i&ili5ation” "rograms.<1

Between 1>0> and 1>10, the (irst ma+or westward migration o( hero-ee "eo"le

o!!$rred, with some mo&ing to 'r-ansas.<< he ree- *ar too- "la!e (rom 1>1? to 1>14, in

whi!h hero-ee warriors hel"ed Federal troo"s win the Battle o( Horseshoe Bend against the

hostile ree-s.<? D$ring that battle, a hero-ee hie( by the name o( s$n$la Host+i, also

-nown as 6$nal$s-a, sa&ed ($t$re "resident 'ndrew 6a!-sons li(e, the same "resident who

wo$ld wor- &igoro$sly to rid the eastern #nited States o( 6$nal$s-a and his "eo"le.<4 6$nal$s-a

is later said “to ha&e regretted his bra&ery.”

<

he net (ew years wo$ld determine who wo$ld stay and who wo$ld go among the hero-ee

$"on remo&al. he hero-ee made another ro$nd o( land !essions in 1>1A that in!l$ded territory

in So$th arolina, 'labama and 7ississi""i.<A he three years to (ollow ens$red that some

hero-ee wo$ld ne&er be s$""lanted (rom the lands the tribe had !alled home (or tho$sands o(

years, while (a!ing the grim reality o( what was !oming. 't that time, a man who is !onsidered to

be one o( the last great hero-ee !hie(s, 9onag$s-a or “Drowning Bear,” was wor-ing to -ee"

his "eo"le in %orth arolina, as mo$nting migrations o( tribes (rom a!ross the eastern #nited

<1 Ibid.

<< r$"at, “;e"resenting hero-ee,” 1>.

<? Ibid.

<4 Federal *riters /ro+e!t o( %orth arolina, *or- /ro+e!ts 'dministration, North Carolina: A

"uide to the )ld North State 8ha"el Hill: he #ni&ersity o( %orth arolina /ress, 1?=, 4.

< Ibid.

<A 7$se$m o( the hero-ee Indian, “Im"ortant Dates in hero-ee History,” Museum of the





States mo&ed westward. 9ears "rior, 9onag$s-a had ado"ted a *hite (rontier trader, *illiam

Holland homas, who wo$ld ad&o!ate on behal( o( 9onag$s-a and his "eo"le in the treaties o(

1>1 and 1>1.< he reaty o( 1>1 !onsolidated the reaty o( 1>1, whi!h had granted

hero-ee lands in Georgia, ennessee, and 'labama in e!hange (or hero-ee land in 'r-ansas,

into a bigger "a!-age in 1>1 (or the remainder o( hero-ee territory in 'labama, ennessee,

%orth arolina, and Georgia, 9onag$s-a and the heads o( a""roimately 0 (amilies, along with

other names (rom the reaty o( 1>1, wo$ld retain indi&id$al reser&ations on !eded land.<>

9onag$s-a and his (ollowers had one s"e!ial !la$se, in whi!h they o((i!ially withdrew (rom the

hero-ee %ation and be!ame !iti5ens o( %orth arolina, with ea!h head o( ho$sehold re!ei&ing

a A40 a!re reser&ation lo!ated at the !on(l$en!e o( the 3!onal$(tee and $!-asegee ri&ers. < In

the 1><0s, land s"e!$lators, with the hel" o( al!ohol, swindled many 3!onal$(tee hero-ee o$t

o( their land, b$t those who remained be!ame the origins o( the modern@day 2astern Band o(

hero-ee Indians.?0

he ens$ing two de!ades wo$ld be!ome the hero-ees biggest str$ggle, (ending o(( the #nited

States and its "eo"le, who gra&itated to the area li-e &$lt$res to a !ar!ass. 3ne hero-ee in

"arti!$lar "ro&ided the tribe with its best line o( de(ense, the written word. Se)$oyah, -nown to

*hites as George G$ess, in&ented the hero-ee syllabary in 1><0, whi!h $sed s"o-en syllables

< roy E. i!-ler, “9onag$s-a 81A0@1>?=,” North Carolina Histor$ *ro+ect , *eb,

htt":www.north!arolinahistory.org!ommentary1<0entry.

<> Ibid.,7$se$m o( the hero-ee Indian, “Im"ortant Dates in hero-ee History,” Museum of the Cherokee ndian, htt"s:www.!hero-eem$se$m.orged$!ation@in(o.htm,

#nited States, “reat with the hero-ee, 1>1,” Febr$ary <, 1>1, Statutes at 'arge of the %nited States

of America , Stat$te 1.

< i!-ler, “9onag$s-a,” *eb.

?0 Ibid.



George Dylan Boan HIS 4100 >

as the basis (or its al"habet, and introd$!ed it to the ribal o$n!il in 1><1 where it was

$nanimo$sly ado"ted.?1 *ithin a year, nearly e&ery hero-ee was literate, a rate (ar s$r"assing

the s$rro$nding *hite 'meri!ans.?< In the 1><0s, those hero-ee that had re!ei&ed land !laims

in the reaty o( 1>1 (o$nd themsel&es in a state that was selling their land to *hites in 1><1, a

“white man named 6ose"h *el!h bo$ght < a!res” o( a hero-ee named 2$!hellas land “in a

state sale.”?? 2$!hella s$ed, a !ase whi!h wor-ed its way $" to the %orth arolina S$"reme

o$rt as !uchella ,s& -elch, and he won, one o( the (ew times the !o$rt system $"held hero-ee

rights, and set a legal "re!eden!e (or similar instan!es to !ome.?4 In another attem"t to $se the

!o$rt system to their (a&or, the hero-ee wrote a !onstit$tion in 1>< in whi!h they !laimed

so&ereignty o&er their lands.? In 1><>, the Cherokee *hoenix, a news"a"er based on the

syllabary, began "rinting.?A hat same year, 'ndrew 6a!-son was ele!ted "resident, and

?1 ed *alley, “Se)$oyah 8!a. 10@!a. 1>40=,” Ne( "eorgia !nc$clo#edia, 0A '$g$st <014,

*eb, htt":www.georgiaen!y!lo"edia.orgarti!leshistory@ar!haeologyse)$oyah@!a@10@!a@

1>40.

?< 7$se$m o( the hero-ee Indian, “Im"ortant Dates in hero-ee History,” Museum of the


?? arolyn Sa-ows-i, Touring the -estern North Carolina Backroads 8*inston Salem, %orth

arolina: 6ohn F. Blair, <011=, Google eBoo-, A.

?4 Ibid., A@A>.

? 7$se$m o( the hero-ee Indian, “Im"ortant Dates in hero-ee History,” Museum of the


?A r$"at, “;e"resenting hero-ee,” 1>.




regardless o( the hero-ee who sa&ed his li(e, 6a!-son began "$shing (or remo&al $nder the

"rin!i"les o( “7ani(est Destiny”.?

he moment 'ndrew 6a!-son made the *hite Ho$se his home, *hite "eo"le began to ma-e

hero-ee land their home. 1>?0 "ro&ed to be a de&astating year (or the hero-ee. Georgia

re($sed to a!-nowledge the so&ereignty o( the hero-ee "eo"le, (or!ing them to swear allegian!e

to the state, while at the same time the Indian ;emo&al '!t "assed thro$gh ongress by a slim

margin, granting 6a!-son the "ower “to enter into treaties with the 2astern Indians that wo$ld

"ro&ide (or their “remo&al” west o( the 7ississi""i”.?> he !ombination o( these (or!es "rom"ted

the hero-ee to s$e the state o( Georgia, de(ining themsel&es as a “domesti!, de"endent

nation”.? he !ase, -orcester ,s& "eorgia. went all the way to the #nited States S$"reme o$rt

where the +$sti!es $"held hero-ee so&ereignty.40 #n(ort$nately (or the hero-ee, 6a!-son

"ro!eeded to be the only "resident in the #nited States history to de(y a S$"reme o$rt r$ling,

!hoosing to allow Georgia to hold a land lottery in whi!h hero-ee lands were distrib$ted to

*hites.41

In 1>?4, Georgia !on(is!ated the Cherokee *hoenix and its reso$r!es, de!laring it

s$b&ersi&e to the state.4< he (ollowing year, a (a!tion o( hero-ee led by the ;idge (amily,



?> r$"at, 1>.



40 Ibid.

41 Ibid.

4< Ibid.




"ossibly the wealthiest o( the hero-ee, "ro!eeded to sign the reaty o( %ew 2!hota witho$t

tribal a$thori5ation, whi!h "ledged that the hero-ee wo$ld “remo&e west o( the 7ississi""i by

7ay o( 1>?>”, belie&ing resistan!e had be!ome ($tile.4? he Senate rati(ied the reaty o( %ew

2!hota in 1>?A and in 1>?, “a "arty o( 4AA wealthy hero-ee” began the +o$rney west, while

the &ast ma+ority o( hero-ee !hose to remain.44 his deal e((e!ti&ely be!ame a death warrant (or

most o( the signees o( that (ra$d$lent treaty, as the hero-ee %ation o$n!il had "re&io$sly

"assed a law “!alling (or the death o( anyone agreeing to gi&e $" tribal land,” a senten!e that

wo$ld be !arried o$t $"on arri&al to the Indian erritory.4 hie( 6ohn ;oss, son o( a white trader

and a hero-ee mother, and residing /rin!i"al hie( o( the hero-ee, re($sed to go down

witho$t a (ight, a""ealing to ongress that the treaty was in&alid, a "etition that garnered o&er

1,000 &otes@@ nearly e&ery hero-ee "erson east o( the 7ississi""i.4A

;egardless, in 1>?> Federal troo"s showed $" at hero-ee doorste"s to !ommen!e the

remo&al. 3n 7ay <?, 1>?>, (ederal troo"s $nder the !ommand o( General *in(ield S!ott began

to (or!ibly ro$nd $" the hero-ees, dri&ing hero-ee "eo"le, men, women, and !hildren, into

4? r$"at, 1>.

44 Ibid., 1.

4 hero-ee %ation $lt$ral ;eso$r!e enter, “' Brie( History o( the rail o( ears,” Cherokee

Nation,

htt":www.!hero-ee.org'bo$the%ationHistoryrailo(ears'Brie(Historyo(therailo(ears.

as".

4A 6ohn ;oss, “Eetter (rom hie( 6ohn ;oss, o the Senate and Ho$se o( ;e"resentati&es”

8Se"tember <>, 1>?A= in The *a#ers of Chief /ohn Ross. 0ol& 1. 123451267, ed. Gary 2. 7o$lton

8%orman, 3: #ni&ersity o( 3-lahoma /ress, 1>=, *eb,

htt":www."bs.orgwgbhaia"art44h?0>?t.html.




sto!-ades at bayonet "oint, !onditions similar to the !on!entration !am"s em"loyed $nder the

hird ;ei!h.4 In 6$ne, General S!ott sent the (irst deta!hment o( hero-ee on their way west,

b$t the intense s$mmer heat and dro$ght too- a hea&y toll on the tra&elers, leading 6ohn ;oss to

"ers$ade S!ott into allowing the hero-ee to o&ersee their own remo&al on!e the debilitating

s$mmer "assed.4> D$ring this "eriod, the hero-ee "eo"le were held in the sto!-ades whi!h

)$i!-ly be!ame "ig"ens.

3n 3!tober 1, the (irst gro$" $nder hero-ee !ontrol de"arted (ollowed by twel&e more

deta!hments in the months o( 3!tober and %o&ember .4 hat winter "ro&ed +$st as bitter as the

s$mmer, with (ro5en ri&ers and snow@!o&ered lands!a"es slowing tra&el to snails "a!e

e"os$re, h$nger, and disease res$lted in the death o( (o$r to eight tho$sand hero-ee on what

be!ame the “rail o( ears.”0 he lega!y o( this e"isode o( ethni! !leansing !asts a long, dar-

shadow o&er the in+$sti!es "er"etrated $"on the hero-ee by the #nited States.

In 1>4?, *illiam Holland homas, ado"ted son o( hie( 9onag$s-a, began "$r!hasing land (or

the hero-ee who remained in %orth arolina (ollowing the tragedy that was the rail o( ears,

and "ro!eeded to hold the deeds !olle!ti&ely.1 *hen the i&il *ar er$"ted, the hero-ee !hose

to (ight (or %orth arolina and the on(edera!y.< In the wa-e o( the war, the (ederal go&ernment

re!ogni5ed the new di&isions o( the hero-ee nation in 1>A>, in!l$ding the 2astern Band o(

4 r$"at, 1.

4> Ibid.

4 Ibid.

0 7$se$m o( the hero-ee Indian, “Im"ortant Dates in hero-ee History,” Museum of the


1 Ibid.

< Ibid.



George Dylan Boan HIS 4100 1<

hero-ee Indians.? he renewal o( the hero-ee "eo"le in %orth arolina tr$ly !ommen!ed in

1>A with the (ormation o( the J$alla Bo$ndary, in whi!h the lands "romised in treaties "rior to

remo&al as well as those bo$ght by *illiam Holland homas were se!$red.4 In 1>>, the %orth

arolina legislat$re established the rights o( hero-ees as a !or"oration, granting a !harter o$t o(

whi!h the 2astern Band o( hero-ee Indians was (ormed.

he twentieth !ent$ry "resented the "ossibility o( re+$&enated relations between the

hero-ee and the state o( %orth arolina as well as the (ederal go&ernment. he hero-ee

hosted their (irst (air (or the "$bli! in 114, an e&ent that !ontin$es to this day in hero-ee,

%orth arolina.

A

hero-ee men !hose to ser&e in *orld *ar I $"on ret$rn, &eterans were not

allowed to register to &ote, yet another test o( hero-ee@#nited States relations. In 1?4 the

Great Smo-y 7o$ntains %ational /ar- was established, whi!h ran along the J$alla Bo$ndary,

and $"on a land swa", the Bl$e ;idge /ar-way was established in 140.> hero-ee yet again

answered the !all to d$ty, ser&ing (or the #nited States d$ring *orld *ar II, this time with

&eterans ret$rning with the right to register (or the %orth arolina &ote. he J$alla 'rts and

ra(ts o@o" was established in 14A, !a"itali5ing on the growing to$rist ind$stry in the area,

whi!h also ($eled the o"ening o( the 7$se$m o( the hero-ee Indian in 14>.A0 In 10, the (irst

? Ibid.

4 Ibid.

Ibid.

A Ibid.

Ibid.

> Ibid.

Ibid.

A0 Ibid.



George Dylan Boan HIS 4100 1?

"rod$!tion o( the o$tdoor drama %nto These Hills was "er(ormed on the bo$ndary, based $"on

the myth o( sali, a "rod$!tion that !ontin$es to be "er(ormed.A1

J$alla Ho$sing was established in 1< to "ro&ide the hero-ee "eo"le with low@!ost

loans to be $sed on ho$sing.A< he %ati&e 'meri!an ;eligio$s Freedom '!t, "assed in 1,

g$aranteed members o( all %ati&e 'meri!an tribes religio$s (reedom, in!l$ding the right to

engage in traditional !eremonies.A? he Indian Gaming '!t was "assed by ongress in 1>>,

"ermitting gambling $"on tribal gro$nds.A4 he 10 %ati&e 'meri!an Gra&es and ;e"atriation

'!t was a mon$mental &i!tory (rom %ati&e 'meri!an "eo"les nationwide, not only "rote!ting

the remains o( their an!estors b$t allowing the re"ossession and reb$rial o( those "re&io$sly

eh$med (or &ario$s "$r"oses.A In 1, the 2astern Band o( hero-ee Indians made their (irst

ma+or land "$r!hase in o&er a !ent$ry with the a!)$isition o( the it$wah 7o$nd, (o$nd near

hero-ee, %orth arolina.AA hat same year, the 2astern Band o"ened Harrahs hero-ee Smo-y

7o$ntains asino, whi!h has bro$ght in m$!h needed re&en$e (or the tribe and has "ro&ided

di&idends (or all members o( the 2astern Band.A

'meri!an history has traditionally been in the hands o( wealthy *hite men, who &ery o(ten

bene(ited (rom a ra!ial !aste system im"lemented $"on their arri&al to %orth 'meri!a. 'nglo@

Saon /rotestant men were at the to" o( !i&ili5ed li(e and the %ati&e "eo"les they en!o$ntered

A1 Ibid.

A< Ibid.

A? Ibid.

A4 Ibid.

A Ibid.

AA Ibid.

A Ibid.




were seen as sa&ages. 's 'meri!a grew, "eo"le o( !olor (ell into this "ermanent !aste system as

well. #ntil &ery re!ently, it was these wealthy *hite men who wrote 'meri!as tetboo-s and

designed "$bli! ed$!ation !$rri!$l$m, "la!ing them in a "er(e!t "osition to tell their story

witho$t the intr$sion o( minority sta-eholders.A> It too- !ent$ries (or these sta-eholders &oi!es to

be heard, regardless o( their enormo$s !ontrib$tions to the wel(are o( the #nited States o(

'meri!a.

2$gene F. /ro&en5o 6r., 'nnis %. Sha&er, and 7an$el Bello !reated a !om"endi$m o(

arti!les re&ol&ing aro$nd this iss$e o( trans(erred a$thority in 'meri!an tetboo-s, entitled The

Textbook As Discourse: Sociocultural Dimensions of American Schoolbooks, that "ro&ides

&al$able insight into the to"i!. For more than 00 years, the tetboo- has been the medi$m that

(a!ilitates ed$!ation in the *estern world.A Gi&en that %ati&e 'meri!ans ha&e histori!ally not

had a tradition (o$nded in written lang$age, those !ontrolling tetboo-s wo$ld ha&e had no hard

time writing the hero-ee o$t o( history. he im"ortan!e o( ha&ing a "la!e within the 'meri!an

ed$!ation system !annot be $nderstated. he tetboo-s a$thority and so!io!$lt$ral role leads to

the (a!t that “symboli! re"resentations in the !$rri!$l$m render so!ially !onstr$!ted relations as

nat$ral s$b+e!ti&e inter"retations o( reality and &al$e +$dgments are "ro+e!ted as (a!t.”0

F$rthermore, the sele!ti&e nat$re o( tetboo- in!l$sion and e!l$sion "redis"oses st$dents to

“thin- and a!t in !ertain ways,” o(ten rein(or!ing the stat$s )$o.1 “It is thro$gh their so!ial

st$dies tetboo- that !hildren re!ei&e (ormal and legitimated in(ormation abo$t other !$lt$res

A> 2$gene F. /ro&en5o 6r., 'nnis %. Sha&er, and 7an$el Bello, eds, The Textbook As Discourse:

Sociocultural Dimensions of American Schoolbooks 8%ew 9or-: ;o$tledge, <011=, 1>.

A Ibid., 1>A.

0 Ibid., 1>.

1 Ibid.




and, relatedly, abo$t what is de"i!ted as “their own” history.”< here(ore, it is im"erati&e that

tetboo- writers and "$blishers wor- diligently to a&oid e"li!it and im"li!it bias in their wor-, a

de&elo"ment that has only be!ome a "art o( tetboo- ethi!s within the last 0 years. Similar to

the tetboo- analysis done in The Textbook As Discourse, the b$l- o( e&iden!e "resented in this

"a"er is based on (irst@hand analysis.

'nother "i&otal wor- into $nderstanding the !om"leities o( the 'meri!an narrati&e was

written by 'rnold r$"at, entitled Re#resenting Cherokee Dis#ossession. In the wor-, m$lti"le

"ers"e!ti&es o( the e&ents leading to and d$ring ;emo&al are gi&en (rom both hero-ee and non@

hero-ee writers. Sin!e so (ew hero-ee wrote abo$t their e"erien!es, oral histories ha&e been

the basis o( most writings !laiming a hero-ee "ers"e!ti&e on things. Some hero-ee attem"ted

to "$t a "ositi&e s"in on the e"erien!e, holding on to the ho"e something good m$st ha&e !ome

(rom it. *ilma 7an-iller, /rin!i"al hie( o( the hero-ee %ation (or nearly a de!ade, "resented

the story as nothing less than a “tragedy,” ha&ing also e"erien!ed modern day ;emo&al in the

(orm o( the termination and relo!ation "rograms ena!ted the #nited States in the 10s. %on@

hero-ee writers !reated entirely di((erent stories, mythologi5ing !hara!ters s$!h as sali and

a&oided m$!h o( the br$tality in their narrati&es. his arti!le sheds light the di((i!$lty e&en the

hero-ee themsel&es ha&e in !oming to terms with their histori!al e"erien!e, and how best to

$se that to !reate a better "resent and ($t$re (or themsel&es.

he s!o"e o( analysis in this "a"er in!l$des tets and instr$!tional materials (o!$sed on

the history o( %orth arolina, with the earliest being "$blished in 1>>< and the most re!ent being

"$blished in <00. For the sa-e o( !larity, the (o!$s o( analysis was $"on the hero-ee in

"arti!$lar, rather than the broader s"e!tr$m o( in(ormation "$blished on the %ati&e 'meri!ans, or

as many tets wo$ld ha&e it, “Indians,” as a whole. he way the hero-ee and their history is

< Ibid., 1A?.



George Dylan Boan HIS 4100 1A

"resented "ro&ides a !ase st$dy that re(le!ts more general attit$des towards “Indians” at large,

not only (rom the stand"oint o( writers and "$blishers, b$t also (rom the non@%ati&e 'meri!an

"o"$la!e. Sele!tion o( tets was mostly random, with ea!h re"resenting a di((erent de!ade o(

"$blishing. he *or-s /ro+e!t 'dministration g$ide to %orth arolina is $sed to broaden the

tets to the stand"oint o( the (ederal go&ernment at that time.

It sho$ld also be noted that !ertain a$thors were sele!ted d$e to their "rominen!e in the

(ield o( %orth arolina history. D. 6. *hiteners tetboo- was sele!ted d$e to his esteem in the

(ield o( history ed$!ation. *hitener, a""ointed !hairman o( the so!ial st$dies de"artment at

'""ala!hian State ea!hers ollege in 1?<, was the (irst (a!$lty member hired that "ossessed a

do!torate. “In the net twenty@three years *hitener "robably in(l$en!ed more history tea!hers

than any other "erson in %orth arolina, (or nearly all ($t$re tea!hers ma+oring in so!ial st$dies

were e"osed to his "o"$lar !lasses.”? H$gh . Ee(lers tet was !hosen d$e to the (a!t that he,

along with 'lbert ;. %ewsome, wrote the %orth arolina history tetboo-s (rom the 140s

thro$gh the 10s. Following the wor- o( these a$thors was *illiam S. /owell, who wrote

tetboo-s (rom the late 10s thro$gh the end o( the twentieth !ent$ry, hen!e the in!l$sion o(

two o( his wor-s. he themes that emerged (rom the analysis o( the tets in this "a"er o!!$rred

nat$rally on!e resear!h into real hero-ee history had been !om"leted and (ormed a baseline (or

!om"arison.

's many tets wo$ld ha&e readers thin-, “that "ortion o( 'meri!a now -nown as the

State o( %orth arolina was on!e inhabited by Indians.”4 *ith regard to %ati&e 'meri!ans in

? 6ones, H. G. “*hitener, Daniel 6ay.” NC*edia. 6an$ary 1, 1A.

htt":n!"edia.orgbiogra"hywhitener@daniel@+ay.

4 6ohn *. 7oore, School Histor$ of North Carolina. 8rom 192 to the *resent Time 8%ew

9or-: 'meri!an Boo- om"any, 1>><=, 1?.




%orth arolina, the narrati&es analy5ed synthesi5e them all into a !ategory !alled “Indians,”

whi!h was o(ten inter!hanged with distin!ti&e tribe names. S$!h obs!$ration hel"s many o( the

a$thors blend the hero-ee into the tribes that ha&e slowly been e"elled (rom %orth arolina

soil. For instan!e, 7ary 2. *ells Student;s )(n Histor$ -ork Book , "$blished in 1<, ne&er

disting$ishes any "arti!$lar tribe when re(eren!ing “Indians” and (ails to mention any “Indians”

(ollowing the ;e&ol$tionary *ar, as i( they all had !eased to eist in %orth arolina. 3n that

same note, D. 6. *hiteners North Carolina Histor$, "$blished in 1>, also ends the hero-ee

narrati&e with the ;e&ol$tionary *ar. 6ohn *. 7oores 1>>< tet does these wor-s one better,

"la!ing all re(eren!es to “Indians” in the siteenth !ent$ry or "rior. *hiteners tet is eerily

similar to 6ohn *. 7oores tet in the sense o( "la!ing the hero-ee into the "ast. Both tets

always $sed the "ast tense in regard to the hero-ee, or “Indians” as a whole. In 7oores tet,

the words “an!ient” and “reli!” are $sed to dri&e home this "oint. 7oore s"ea-s o( the “many

reli!s o( these sa&ages” that !an be (o$nd thro$gho$t the state. 7oore s$ms $" the !ha"ter with

)$estions (or st$dents s$!h as “*hat reli!s o( the Indians are still to be (o$nd in the State” and

“/oint o$t the an!ient homes o( the K,” in whi!h he re(ers to the (i&e "rominent tribes o( %orth

arolina.A

*hile this tet is )$ite old, it "ro&ided a (o$ndation (or writers to (ollow. he $se o( the

"ast tense is "rominent in nearly e&ery tet analy5ed. 2&en *illiam S. /owells Bicentennial

Histor$, "$blished in 1, $ses similar "hrases, with one se!tion re(erring to “he (orbidding

mo$ntains, an!ient home o( the hero-ee Indians.” In D. 6. *hiteners se!tion “S$mmary and

Ibid., 1A.

A Ibid., 1.

*illiam S. /owell, North Carolina: A Bicentennial Histor$ 8%ew 9or-: *. *. %orton L

om"any, In!., 1=, .



George Dylan Boan HIS 4100 1>

on!l$sions,” he ma-es it !lear the distan!e between !ontem"orary readers and the “an!ient”

Indians. “Fi&e tribes made &al$able !ontrib$tions to o$r history. Des"ite the many im"ortant and

interesting !ontrib$tions, the Indians are not an!estors o( many o( $s. he "eo"le o( %orth

arolina today !ame originally (rom Great Britain and 2$ro"e. 3$r -insmen still li&e there.”>

he (a!t that *hitener was ed$!ating history tea!hers a!ross the state, whose st$dents o( that era

are li-ely still ali&e today, wo$ld ha&e made wides"read the idea that “Indians” are lodged in the

"ast rather than "resent in !ontem"orary %orth arolina.

7$!h o( the hero-ee history "resented in the tets analy5ed made ina!!$rate statements

that were either $ns$""orted by e&iden!e or based $"on myth ta-en as (a!t. 3ne o( the most

glaring o( these is the sali myth. 6ames 7ooney, who wrote to hel" "romote to$rism and begin

trans!ribing oral history o( the hero-ee, "$blished M$ths of the Cherokee in 100. In it,

7ooney wrote a sensational ;emo&al story o( how soldiers had ab$sed salis wi(e, and "$shed

sali and his sons to -ill two o( them and wo$nd a third. he army then mo$nted a relentless

sear!h o( the mo$ntains b$t !o$ld not (ind sali and his (amily. he story went on to say that

General *in(ield S!ott had gone to *illiam Holland homas and o((ered a deal, that i( the

hero-ee stowaways in the mo$ntains o( %orth arolina wo$ld t$rn sali and his (amily o&er,

they wo$ld all be "ermitted to stay. sali, learning o( this, s$rrendered along with his sons and

sa!ri(i!ed themsel&es so that their brethren wo$ld be able to remain, th$s (o$nding the 2astern

Band o( the hero-ee Indians.>0 his story was based on myth rather than (a!t, as sali ne&er

> Daniel 6ay *hitener, North Carolina Histor$ 83-lahoma ity: Harlow /$blishing

or"oration, 1>=, 14.

'ndrew Denson, “Gatlinb$rgMs hero-ee 7on$ment: /$bli! 7emory in the Shadow o( a %ational

/ar-,” A##alachian /ournal ?, no. 1< 8Fall <00*inter <010=: ?0.

>0 Ibid., ?0@?1.




mentioned the maltreatment o( his wi(e be(ore his ee!$tion and did not s$rrender b$t rather was

!a"t$red by (ellow hero-ee ho"ing to remain in their an!estral lands many did re!ei&e

eem"tion (rom remo&al and +oined their brethren that had already be!ome %orth arolina

!iti5ens years "rior (ollowing the reaty o( 1>1, se!$ring the land that (ormed the beginnings o(

the J$alla Bo$ndary.>1 7ooney ne&er meant (or his wor- to be the a$thoritati&e &oi!e on

hero-ee history b$t his sali story has led to sali be!oming one o( the most re!ogni5ed (ig$res

in "o"$lar hero-ee history.

*hile some tets mention how debatable the story is, they still go on to assert it as the

origin story (or the 2astern Band o( the hero-ee Indians. *illiam S. /owells 1? tet North

Carolina: A *roud State in )ur Nation did +$st that. '(ter mentioning the !redibility o( the story,

he goes on to say “he remaining "eo"le were "ermitted to stay in %orth arolina. hey were

granted #nited States !iti5enshi", and ea!h (amily re!ei&ed land. his was the origin o( the

J$alla Bo$ndary, or hero-ee Indian reser&ation, still maintained in so$thwestern %orth

arolina today.”>< he other wor- o( /owells analy5ed also asserts this as the origin story o( the

2astern Band o( the hero-ee Indians.>? he *or- /ro+e!ts 'dministration "uide to the )ld

North State also $ses the sali story o( s$rrender as the (o$ndations o( the 2astern Band o( the

hero-ee Indians in two se"arate instan!es.>4 hree o( the tets analy5ed, 7oores 1>>< tet,

>1 Ibid., ?1.

>< *illiam S. /owell, North Carolina: A *roud State in )ur Nation 8Eeington, 7assa!h$setts:

D.. Heath and om"any, 1?=, 1>?.

>? /owell, Bicentennial , 100.

>4 Federal *riters /ro+e!t o( %orth arolina, *or- /ro+e!ts 'dministration, North Carolina: A

"uide to the )ld North State 8ha"el Hill: he #ni&ersity o( %orth arolina /ress, 1?=, ?0,

4.



George Dylan Boan HIS 4100 <0

*ells 1< wor-boo-, and *hiteners 1> tetboo-, ma-e no mention o( hero-ee remo&al

whatsoe&er b$t wo$ld ha&e no do$bt in!or"orated the sali myth as well. his myth was retold

in 1? by Herbert ;a&enel Sass in attem"ts to boost to$rism to the Great Smo-y 7o$ntains

%ational /ar- and be!ame ed$!ational material (or s!hools in no&ille, with Sass !ommenting

it was “one o( the great tr$e stories o( 'meri!a.”> *hile those that remained in the mo$ntains

d$ring the ;emo&al "eriod did hel" to (orm what wo$ld be!ome the 2astern Band o( the

hero-ee Indians, these tets $se a boo- with M$th in the title to "resent histori!al (a!ts, whi!h

are sim"ly ina!!$rate.

3ther (a!t$al ina!!$ra!ies !an be (o$nd regarding the "oli!ies o( land !essions and treaty

ma-ing. In one "ortion o( *hiteners tetboo-, he brings $" settler en!roa!hment onto hero-ee

lands. He !laimed that “not $ntil abo$t the time o( the ;e&ol$tionary *ar did the white settlers

begin to ta-e the hero-ee lands.”>A his is des"ite the (a!t the hero-ee made their (irst land

!ession to So$th arolina in 1<1, and then another to So$th arolina in 1 the /ro!lamation

Eine o( 1A? seems to "ro&ide !lear e&iden!e against *hiteners !laim, as there wo$ld be no

ne!essity (or s$!h a line i( white settlers were not mo&ing onto the land. > he hero-ees also

made (i&e more land !essions be(ore the o$tbrea- o( the ;e&ol$tionary *ar in 1. In regard to

the "eriod o( hero-ee ;emo&al, /owell ma-es an error that in no way sho$ld be (o$nd in a

tetboo- "$blished in 1?. In that tet, when he gets to the s$b+e!t o( remo&al, whi!h is

!ondensed into a tet bo, he s"ea-s o( the reaty o( 1>1 and what that meant, b$t goes on to

say “hen in 1>?, a treaty ended all !laims by %ati&e 'meri!ans to land east o( the 7ississi""i

> Denson, "atlinburg , ?4.

>A *hitener, 1?.

> 7$se$m o( the hero-ee Indian, “Im"ortant Dates in hero-ee History,” Museum of the





;i&er.”>> /owell ma-es no attem"t to !lari(y that the treaty was (ra$d$lent nor that the hero-ee

"eo"le (o$ght it, leading st$dents to belie&e that the hero-ee signed away their rights will($lly

and "ro!eeded into the rail o( ears o( their own a!!ord. /owells $nwillingness to !lari(y the

terms $nder whi!h that treaty was signed ed$!ated a st$dent "o"$la!e that is still yo$ng e&en to

this day, a bl$nder whi!h did the hero-ee "eo"le no (a&ors in trying to re!ti(y the story o( their

"ast.

he most de(ining (a!tor o( all these tets, aside (rom Gary Free5es <00 'and of Contrasts, is

the o&ert ra!ism and 2$ro!entri! "resentations o( history. here are eno$gh eam"les within +$st

those se&en tets to write a "a"er all its own. In 7oores 1>>< tet, he s"ea-s o( a time be(ore

the arri&al o( the 2$ro"eans, when only “red men and wild beasts o( the (orest” !alled 'meri!a

home.> In 7oores o"inion, these “sim"le !hildren o( the hills” "ossessed “traits o( !hara!ter”

that were “as sa&age as their habits,” s$!h as hero-ee men who “disdained to be (o$nd in any

$se($l labor.”0 he hero-ee were “strangers to the sentiments o( honor and +$sti!e,” while the

“siteenth !ent$ry o( the hristian era was one o( the most wonder($l "eriods in the worlds

history,” as “daring na&igators sailed with their shi"s into many regions ne&er be(ore &isited by

!i&ili5ed men.”1 his re&erie (or hristianity and the “!i&ili5ed” ways o( 2$ro"eans s$r(a!ed

again and again as these tets were analy5ed.

In 7ary 2. *ells Histor$ -ork Book , nearly all re(eren!es to “Indians” in&ol&e either the ($r

trade, !on&erting them to hristianity, or their atta!- $"on white settlers, bolstering the ne!essity

>> /owell, A *roud State, 1>?.

> 7oore, School Histor$, 1?.

0 Ibid., 14@1.

1 Ibid., 1@1.



George Dylan Boan HIS 4100 <<

“(or "rote!tion against Indians.”< *hen the *or- /ro+e!ts 'dministration attem"ted to tell the

story o( %ati&e %orth arolinians, the hero-ee were "ortrayed as a s$bmissi&e "o"$lation at the

whim o( whites. D$ring the Fren!h and Indian *ar between Britain and Fran!e, the “Indians”

were +$st “"awns in the hands o( one or the other.”? ' narrati&e s$!h as this one leads readers to

belie&e the hero-ee "ossessed no agen!y. hristianity also has its "la!e in the g$ide, as the

wor- s"ea-s o( !ontem"orary hero-ee and the (a!t that “most o( the hero-ee are members o(

the Ba"tist or 7ethodist !h$r!hes. %e&ertheless, tra!es o( their "agan "ast are e&iden!ed by the

1 or more "ra!ti!ing medi!ine men and women and the s$r&i&al o( !on+$ring so!ieties.”4 he

term “"agan” has an inherently derogatory as"e!t to it when $sed in this !ontet, being "la!ed

against the mainstream o( 'nglo@Saon /rotestants. It wo$ld seem that any as"e!t o( traditional

hero-ee !$lt$re is something to be "hased o$t.

D. 6. *hitener "re(a!es his boo- by o$tright stating he wo$ld not being "resenting history as it

ha""ened b$t rather, “History o$ght to be "atrioti!. Di&isions and !on(li!ts between se!tions, and

e!onomi!, so!ial, and ra!ial gro$"s are related and inter"reted with a re&eren!e (or the "ositi&e

a!hie&ements.” In loo-ing at a ma" o( how %orth arolina was settled 8'""endi 1=, it is !lear

that the hero-ee ha&e no "la!e in the "ositi&e a!hie&ements o( 'meri!a, as they are the only

%ati&e "eo"les listed, with the added attrib$te o( being “hostile.” In *hiteners tet, when white

2$ro"eans arri&ed in 'meri!a, “they bro$ght with them their “way o( li(e,” !alled !$lt$re.”A

< 7ary 2. *ells, Student;s )(n Histor$ -ork Book: Se,enth "rade 8Smith(ield, %. .: *ells L

7edlin, 1<=, ?.

? *or- /ro+e!ts 'dministration, North Carolina, <>.

4 Ibid., 4A.

*hitener, North Carolina Histor$, &i.

A Ibid., .



George Dylan Boan HIS 4100 <?

*ritten in this way, st$dents are led to belie&e that only 2$ro"ean “!i&ili5ed” li(e !onstit$tes

!$lt$re, rather than the a!t$al de(inition o( !$lt$re: “a "arti!$lar so!iety that has its own belie(s,

ways o( li(e, art, et!.,” whi!h the hero-ee most !ertainly did "ossess. S"ea-ing o( the

hero-ee, *hitener noted that “their bodies were as well "ro"ortioned as those o( the white

"eo"le,” whi!h is somehow histori!al (a!t.> *hen en!roa!hing settlers began to threaten the

“Indians” o( %orth arolina, &iolent !on(li!t o(ten o!!$rred as a re"er!$ssion. *hitener "resents

whites as inno!ent &i!tims, with s$!h “senseless” a!ts o( &iolen!e leading to the (iation o( a

belie( “among white "eo"le that the only good Indian was a dead Indian. Sa&age wars res$lted in

whi!h the "ioneers were o(ten as (ier!e and !r$el as the Indians. 'lways the Indians lost in the

end.” his is a !lear distortion o( the realities o( settler@Indian relations, "la!ing “Indians” into

the e&il !ategory and whites the &i!torio$s de(enders o( +$sti!e. *hen s$mming $" these

relations, *hitener went on, “'t (irst they were (riendly with the white "eo"le, b$t soon they

be!ame enemies. heir way o( li&ing !on(li!ted with that o( the white "eo"le. *ars were (o$ght.

he Indians lost be!a$se the white mans reso$r!es and ed$!ation were s$"erior. he white man

was more “!i&ili5ed.””100 his is sheer disregard (or the &aried and many attem"ts %ati&e %orth

arolinians made at di"loma!y and asserts white s$"rema!y.

%early a de!ade later, H$gh . Ee(lers North Carolina: Histor$. "eogra#h$. "o,ernment had

not ad&an!ed by lea"s and bo$nds in regard to the narrati&e o( %ati&e %orth arolinians. “he

mo$ntains rendered one &ery good ser&i!e to the early settlers. hey a!ted as "rote!tion against

7erriam@*ebster, “$lt$re,” !nc$clo#aedia Britannica Com#an$, htt":www.merriam@

webster.!omdi!tionary!$lt$re.

> Ibid., 10.

Ibid., 11@1<.

100 Ibid., 14.




the "ower($l and warli-e Indians, es"e!ially the hero-ee.”101 9et again the hero-ee are

asso!iated with hostility and the white settlers as &i!tims. Ee(ler "ro!eeds with the in!l$sion o( a

)$ote dire!tly in line with 7ani(est Destiny. 't the beginning o( the eighteenth !ent$ry, “a

arolina go&ernor abo$t this time wrote that God had destroyed many Indians to “ma-e room (or

the 2nglish.””10< *hile not a )$ote dire!tly (rom himsel(, he "la!es the eradi!ation o( %ati&e

"o"$lations not at the hands o( whites, b$t rather, done by God himsel(. his dis"la!ement o(

blame (rom whites to the hero-ee "eo"le themsel&es e!hoes the modern day "er!e"tions o( the

warring “Indian” and the idea that %ati&e 'meri!ans had been standing in the way o( "rogress.

'lso o( note is the la!- o( hero-ee "ers"e!ti&e in any o( the tets analy5ed, other than the <00

tet by Free5e. hree o( these tets end the narrati&e be(ore hero-ee ;emo&al e&er e&en

o!!$rred, as i( they were already gone. he tets that do bring $" hero-ee remo&al, aside (rom

the <00 tet, do so in the sim"lest o( terms, sti!-ing to names and dates rather than addressing

the horrors o( ethni! !leansing. *hile some o( the tets do in!l$de re(eren!es to the e"loitati&e

manner o( whites in regard to treaties and illegal a!ts, most o( them a!t as tho$gh that was the

nat$ral order o( things and that whites were somehow in a "osition o( a$thority nonetheless. he

only hero-ee stories in!l$ded in the tets are either old hero-ee legends or mythologi!al

a!!o$nts o( histori!al hero-ee (ig$res that "la!e them in the "ast and do little to bring as"e!ts

o( h$manity to their de"i!tion. 'll o( these (a!tors ha&e led to the !reation o( an 'meri!an "$bli!

that is dis!onne!ted (rom the e"erien!es o( the hero-ee and ignorant o( the dar-er as"e!ts o(

'meri!as "ast.

101 H$gh . Ee(ler, North Carolina: Histor$. "eogra#h$. "o,ernment 8%ew 9or-: Har!o$rt, Bra!e L

*orld, In!., 1AA=, 4A.

10< Ibid., 4.




In order to broaden the !ontet o( how histori!al memory is sha"ed and molded (or

&ario$s "$r"oses, it hel"s to eamine how the hero-ee ha&e had their story told thro$gh

to$rism, !ommemorations, and mon$ments. *ublic ndians. *ri,ate Cherokee: Tourism and

Tradition on Tribal "round , a wor- by hristina . Beard@7oose, eamines the long history o(

to$rism thro$gh the J$alla Bo$ndary, where the hero-ee ;eser&ation is sit$ated. Beard@7oose

(o$nd that the im"a!t o( to$rism $"on the 2astern Band o( hero-ee Indians is two@(old. 3n one

hand, the growth o( to$rism in the area !reated e!onomi! o""ort$nities (or the 2astern Band that

wo$ld not ha&e eisted otherwise, with the !a&eat that most o( the b$siness was dri&en by white

entre"rene$rs rather than hero-ees themsel&es.

10?

3n the other hand, the 2astern Band o(

hero-ee Indians ha&e been "$shed to "lay $" "o"$lar history and its stereoty"es, rather than

a!t$al history. his has led to the !reation o( “!hie(ing,” one o( the biggest draws (or to$rists.

he $se o( hero-ee history by whites (or e!onomi! and "oliti!al gains is also "re&alent o$tside

the Bo$ndary. In the !reation o( the Gatlinb$rg sali mon$ment, no&ille organi5ers o"ened

lines o( !omm$ni!ation with the hero-ee themsel&es in order to bolster to$rism "romotions.

his !ommon interest between white entre"rene$rs in no&ille and the hero-ee "eo"le, both

(rom an e!onomi! stand"oint as well as by "resenting the hero-ee "ast, le(t m$!h room (or

o""ort$nity to brea- new gro$nd in the realm o( "$bli! history regarding the hero-ee.104

Instead, the mon$ment was "la!ed in Gatlinb$rg whi!h had no !onne!tion to the hero-ee "ast,

where the memorial was adorned with the stereoty"i!al “Hollywood Indian” and ins!ribed with a

date that "ro!eeded the sali myth by two years.10 In t$rn, the memorial be!ame a "er"et$ator o(

10? hristina . Beard@7oose, *ublic ndians. *ri,ate Cherokee: Tourism and Tradition on

Tribal "round 8$s!aloosa: #ni&ersity o( 'labama /ress, <00=, >0.

104 Denson, "atlinburg. 40.

10 Ibid.



George Dylan Boan HIS 4100 <A

mised$!ation and "o"$lar history at the e"ense o( histori!al a!!$ra!y. In a similar in!ident,

Georgia reb$ilt the hero-ee !a"ital o( %ew 2!hota and memoriali5ed it in an attem"t to

a"ologi5e (or "ast in+$sti!es.10A *hen these e((orts were "la!ed in !ontet tho$gh, the memorial

was a "oliti!al "oly by "oliti!ians attem"ting to se!$re the moral high gro$nd on iss$es o( ra!e as

they tried to de(end segregationist "oli!ies d$ring the !i&il rights era.10 For the "oliti!ians o(

Georgia, the re&elation was (o$nd that “histori!al !on(ession !an also a!t as a so$r!e o(

"ower.”10> his $nabashed $se and mis$se o( hero-ee history (or moti&es other than the

ed$!ation o( the "$bli! has led to little "rogress being made in (orging a new "er!e"tion o( the

hero-ee "eo"le, as is e&iden!ed by the "$bli! dis"lay at %ational owboy and Heritage

7$se$m 8'""endi <=.

here ha&e been !ontem"orary attem"ts to re!ti(y the "o"$lar image o( the hero-ee. 3ne

"ro(essor at the #ni&ersity o( Georgia, imothy B. /owell, has wor-ed to bridge the ga" between

the hero-ee "ast and the hero-ee "resent with st$dents at the $ni&ersity. 's the #ni&ersity o(

Georgia began to digiti5e its ar!hi&al materials on the hero-ee, /owell attem"ted to brea-

gro$nd between the hero-ee !omm$nity, a!ademia, and st$dents residing in the state that had

initiated ;emo&al.10 *hen he (irst attem"ted to $tili5e the digital ar!hi&es with his st$dents, he

(o$nd di((i!$lty in re&ealing the s$btet o( the random assortment o( do!$ments. /owell wor-ed

to !reate an ed$!ational a""roa!h that wo$ld !onne!t st$dents with the realities o( the hero-ee

10A 'ndrew Denson, “;emembering hero-ee ;emo&al in i&il ;ightsN2ra Georgia,” Southern

Cultures 14, no. 4 8*inter <00>=: >>.

10 Ibid., .

10> Ibid., .

10 imothy B. /owell, “Digiti5ing hero-ee $lt$re: Eibraries, St$dents, and the ;eser&ation,”

M!'%S ?0, no. < 8S$mmer <00=: @>0.




e"erien!e. hese "rimary so$r!es were great b$t the ne!essity o( !ontet and getting beyond the

words on the "age was his goal. /owell began ta-ing his st$dents on &isits to the J$alla

Bo$ndary and the Snowbird ;eser&ation in order to re&eal the hero-ee were !ontem"orary

members o( 'meri!an so!iety.110 *ith the hel" o( his st$dents, they began to hy"erlin- the

reso$r!es being digiti5ed to !ontem"orary hero-ee reso$r!es, bridging the ga" between "ast

and "resent, hel"ing to !o$nt the 7yth o( the Canishing Indian. *or- s$!h as this hel"ed garner

($nding to bring notable hero-ee leaders to the $ni&ersity in order to broaden the ed$!ational

s!o"e with insider "ers"e!ti&es.111 'll o( these intera!tions and initiati&es led to st$dents

be!oming em"atheti! not only with the hero-ee "ast b$t with how to hel" them !reate a better

($t$re. It is this in+e!tion o( h$manity that brea-s the histori!al distan!e many o( these tetboo-s

ha&e wor-ed to !reate.

Gary Free5es North Carolina: A 'and of Contrasts, "$blished in <00, is mar-edly di((erent

than any other tet analy5ed in the "a"er. he wor- treats the hero-ee with res"e!t and del&es

into the str$!t$re o( not only their traditional !$lt$re, b$t the ways in whi!h they li&e today. In

the narrati&e o( hero-ee history, Free5e "ro&ides !ontem"orary "i!t$res that show the hero-ee

are ali&e and well, while "ortraying them in a way that es!hews the $tmost res"e!t. onne!tions

are drawn between hero-ee so!ietal str$!t$re and &al$es that trans!end in a way that !o$ld be

embra!ed by not only the hero-ee, b$t all "eo"le. he )$estions "osed at the end o( the se!tions

&al$e the traditions o( the hero-ee and see- to embra!e di&ersity, en!o$raging st$dents to

e"lore their own oral traditions (or eam"le. Free5e is also not shy abo$t re&ealing that white

treatment o( non@whites has been (ar (rom admirable thro$gho$t 'meri!an history. In regard to

110 Ibid., >1.

111 Ibid., 0.



George Dylan Boan HIS 4100 <>

De Soto, “he !ame to re"resent someone who did not res"e!t the earth or h$man beings.”11< In

regard to hero-ee remo&al, Free5e "ro&ides an entire se!tion o( the boo- in order to do +$sti!e

to all "ers"e!ti&es o( the e&ent, as well as re&eal the inh$manity that de(ined that e"erien!e

thro$gh "ersonal hero-ee a!!o$nts. 3ne s$!h instan!e re&eals “he hero-ee s$((ered greatly.

he wi(e and !hildren o( 9onag$s-a, the !hie(, star&ed to death on the %antahala

mo$ntainside.”11? *hile $nsettling, "ersonal a!!o$nts s$!h as these re&eal that the tragi! nat$re

o( remo&al. Free5e also does well to re&eal the d$al nat$re o( the origins o( the 2astern Band o(

the hero-ee Indians. a-en as a whole, this tetboo- writes in hero-ee history as (lawlessly as

it !o$ld be.

In!l$sion within the narrati&e o( 'meri!an history is ($ndamental to the s$!!ess o( tr$e e)$ality,

+$sti!e, and a better ($t$re (or all !iti5ens. For (ar too long, those in !ontrol o( history ha&e

wor-ed, both "$r"osely and s$bliminally, to !ra(t a story that rea((irmed "atriotism and the stat$s

)$o at the e"ense o( histori!al a!!$ra!y and !om"leity. hro$gh analysis o( these tets, there is

a !lear trend o( "rogress towards histori!al in!l$sion (or not only hero-ees, b$t minorities as a

whole. /rogress is by no means (ast b$t as a "o"$la!e, any !iti5enry m$st diligently wor- to

ens$re that the history o( all their "eo"le is re"resented and that those e&ents deemed less than

noble are still re!o$nted, as it is o(ten in those moments when the most ed$!ational "rogress !an

be made. 'ttem"ts s$!h as those o( imothy B. /owell to !onne!t st$dents to !ontem"orary

hero-ee "eo"le will !ontin$e to be essential in remo&ing them (rom the "ast and "la!ing them

in a !ontet o( res"e!t and em"athy among the 'meri!an "$bli!. /ro(essional standards (or

tetboo- writing ha&e mar-edly im"ro&ed within the "ast 0 years b$t as seen in !ases s$!h as

olorado, (or!es will also wor- to ada"t history into a (orm that ser&es $lterior moti&es, whi!h

11< Gary Free5e, North Carolina: 'and of Contrasts 8'tlanta: lairmont /ress, <00=, 4..

11? Ibid., <?0.




the 'meri!an "o"$la!e m$st be willing to stand against. In a modern global world, di&ersity

m$st !ontin$e to be a (a!et o( !$lt$re that is embra!ed and e)$ality m$st be so$ght (or all not

only within the legal system b$t within histori!al a!!o$nts. *hile m$!h is le(t to be done to

resol&e the iss$es many o( these (lawed tets ha&e hel"ed to !reate, the twenty (irst !ent$ry

"ro&ides all new o""ort$nities (or "rogress.



George Dylan Boan HIS 4100 ?0

'""endi 1

Daniel 6ay *hitener, North Carolina Histor$ 83-lahoma ity: Harlow /$blishing or"oration,

1>=, 4.




'""endi <

Fraser, 6ames 2arl. /hotogra"h by 6ohn 2l- III. !nd of the Trail , stat$e"ost!ard, <01? 8%ational

owboy and *estern Heritage 7$se$m, 3-lahoma ity, 3=.



George Dylan Boan HIS 4100 ?<

'""endi ?

;oy!e, . ., Ma# of the former territorial limits of the Cherokee <Nation of< ndians. 7a".

*ashington, D..: Smithsonian Instit$te, 1>>4, From Eibrary o( ongress, Ma#

Collections. htt":l!!n.lo!.go&44A14.



George Dylan Boan HIS 4100 ??

Bibliogra"hy

I. /rimary So$r!es

etboo-s 'naly5ed

Federal *riters /ro+e!t o( %orth arolina, *or- /ro+e!ts 'dministration. North Carolina: A

"uide to the )ld North State. ha"el Hill: he #ni&ersity o( %orth arolina /ress, 1?.

Free5e, Gary. North Carolina: 'and of Contrasts& 'tlanta: lairmont /ress, <00.Ee(ler, H$gh . North Carolina: Histor$. "eogra#h$. "o,ernment . %ew 9or-: Har!o$rt, Bra!e L

*orld, In!., 1AA.

7oore, 6ohn *. School Histor$ of North Carolina. 8rom 192 to the *resent Time& %ew 9or-:

'meri!an Boo- om"any, 1>><./owell, *illiam S. North Carolina: A Bicentennial Histor$. %ew 9or-: *. *. %orton L

om"any, In!., 1.

/owell, *illiam S. North Carolina: A *roud State in )ur Nation. Eeington, 7assa!h$setts:

D.. Heath and om"any, 1?.*ells, 7ary 2. Student;s )(n Histor$ -ork Book: Se,enth "rade. Smith(ield, %. .: *ells L

7edlin, 1<.*hitener, Daniel 6ay. North Carolina Histor$. 3-lahoma ity: Harlow /$blishing or"oration,

1>.

Do!$ments

;oss, 6ohn. “Eetter (rom hie( 6ohn ;oss, o the Senate and Ho$se o( ;e"resentati&es”8Se"tember <>, 1>?A= in The *a#ers of Chief /ohn Ross. 0ol& 1. 123451267. 2dited by

Gary 2. 7o$lton. %orman, 3: #ni&ersity o( 3-lahoma /ress, 1>. *eb.

htt":www."bs.orgwgbhaia"art44h?0>?t.html.#nited States. “reat with the hero-ee, 1>1.” Febr$ary <, 1>1. Statutes at 'arge of the

%nited States of America , Stat$te 1.




II. Se!ondary So$r!es

Beard@7oose, hristina . *ublic ndians. *ri,ate Cherokee: Tourism and Tradition on Tribal"round . $s!aloosa: #ni&ersity o( 'labama /ress, <00.

hero-ee %ation $lt$ral ;eso$r!e enter. “' Brie( History o( the rail o( ears.” Cherokee

Nation.htt":www.!hero-ee.org'bo$the%ationHistoryrailo(ears'Brie(Historyo(therailo

(ears.as".

Denson, 'ndrew. “Gatlinb$rgMs hero-ee 7on$ment: /$bli! 7emory in the Shadow o( a

%ational /ar-.” A##alachian /ournal ?, no. 1< 8Fall <00*inter <010=: <>@4?.Denson, 'ndrew. “;emembering hero-ee ;emo&al in i&il ;ightsN2ra Georgia.” Southern

Cultures 14, no. 4 8*inter <00>=: >@101.

Garrison, im 'lan. “hero-ee ;emo&al.” Ne( "eorgia !nc$clo#edia. 0 Se"tember <014.

*eb. htt":www.georgiaen!y!lo"edia.orgarti!leshistory@ar!haeology!hero-ee@remo&al.

i!-ler, roy E. “9onag$s-a 81A0@1>?=.” North Carolina Histor$ *ro+ect . *eb.htt":www.north!arolinahistory.org!ommentary1<0entry.

indig, homas. “/ro!lamation o( 1A?.” %Shistor$&org .

htt":www.$shistory.orgde!larationrelated"ro!A?.htm.7inahan, 6ames B. !thnic "rou#s of the Americas: An !nc$clo#edia& Santa Barbara, ali(ornia:

'B@EI3, <01?. Google eBoo-.

7erriam@*ebster. “$lt$re.” !nc$clo#aedia Britannica Com#an$. htt":www.merriam@

webster.!omdi!tionary!$lt$re.7oss, Gary. “2hibit re&eals hidden lessons in %orth arolina tetboo-s.” %ni,ersit$ "a=ette.

De!ember 1?, <011. htt":ga5ette.$n!.ed$<0111<1?ehibit@re&eals@hidden@lessons@in@

north@[email protected]$se$m o( the hero-ee Indian. “Im"ortant Dates in hero-ee History,” Museum of the

Cherokee ndian. htt"s:www.!hero-eem$se$m.orged$!ation@in(o.htm.

%ational /ar- Ser&i!e. “'n 'n!ient /eo"le.” Blue Ridge National Heritage Area& htt":www.bl$eridgeheritage.!omheritage!hero-ee!hero-ee@historyan@an!ient@"eo"le.

/owell, imothy B. “Digiti5ing hero-ee $lt$re: Eibraries, St$dents, and the ;eser&ation.”

M!'%S ?0, no. < 8S$mmer <00=: @>.

/ro&en5o 6r., 2$gene F., 'nnis %. Sha&er, and 7an$el Bello, eds. The Textbook As Discourse:Sociocultural Dimensions of American Schoolbooks& %ew 9or-: ;o$tledge, <011.

Sa-ows-i, arolyn. Touring the -estern North Carolina Backroads& *inston Salem, %orth

arolina: 6ohn F. Blair, <011. Google eBoo-.*alley, ed. “Se)$oyah 8!a. 10@!a. 1>40=.” Ne( "eorgia !nc$clo#edia. 0A '$g$st <014. *eb.

htt":www.georgiaen!y!lo"edia.orgarti!leshistory@ar!haeologyse)$oyah@!a@10@!a@

1>40.

"indians": misrepresentation of cherokee history in north carolina educational texts

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