Indonesia

• Contents• 1. Maps• 2. A general timeline with

information about early Indonesia & European colonisation of Asia.

• 3. Dutch colonisation of the East Indies.

• 4. Plantation Crops• 5. Nationalism

• 6. WWII • 7. Post –WWII• 8. Independence • 9. Recent Indonesian history

You will need to take notes.

Remember that various information will be repeated along the way.

This is to help reinforce the information.

Summary of Kingdoms• Srivijaya, 7-13th Century, Java, Sumatra & Malay

Peninsula.• Sailendras, 8 – 9th Century, Central Java.• Mataram, 832 – 1042, Central Java.• Janggala, 1042 – 1222, Central Java.• Kediri, 1042 – 1222, Central Java.• Singhasari, 1222 – 1292, Java, Sumatra & Straits.• Majapahit, 1292 – 1402, The Whole Thing.

Timeline• 1494: Treaty of Tordesillas divided the non-

European world between Spain & Portugal• 1511: Portuguese conquer Melaka (formerly

Malacca), the great Malay trading port on the Straits of Melaka. Portuguese posts also established in the Spice Islands of Eastern Indonesia

• 1520: Spain -under Ferdinand & Isabella, sponsored Magellan’s voyage. He reached the Philippines & East Indonesia

• Also circumnavigated the globe

Timeline (continued)• 1565: Spanish established settlement in the Philippines• 1570: Spanish capture of Manila – they decided to stay

in the Philippines• By 17th century: the State-supported Dutch East India

Company (VOC) became the dominant European power in Southeast Asia.

• 18th century: weakening of VOC power, & defeat by the English in the Anglo Dutch War, 1781-4;

• English gained more territorial power in India, surpassed Dutch in cartography & maritime technology, & in the profitable trade between India and China.

• The British consolidate their “sphere of influence” in the Malay Peninsula (British Malaya) & Burma, & use migrant labour (Chinese & Indians in Malaya, & Indians in Burma) to develop the export economy.

• the French establish control in Vietnam, Cambodia & Laos

• (French Indochina); • the Dutch extend their control over Indonesia (the

Netherlands East Indies); • in 1898 the Americans “buy” the Philippines from

Spain following the Spanish-American War.

Timeline (continued): 19th century: Colonial control gradually advances in

Southeast Asia.

Some important dates:• 1824: Anglo-Dutch treaty created Dutch & British “spheres of influence’ by a line drawn down the Melaka Straits.

•1825-30: Dutch victory in the “Java War”; beginning of forced delivery of crops such as coffee, sugar, indigo etc.

Timeline: 19th century (continued)

Timeline: 19th century (continued)

• 1857: Indian “Mutiny”: British government established direct control in much of India

• 1858: Dutch began a “forward move” in Sumatra, the French also moved into Vietnam

• 1859-61: French began attacks on Vietnam in response to treatment of missionaries

• In fact the latter part of the 19th century consists of European conquests of SE Asia (Indochina, Burma, Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia) & India.

Timeline: 20th century • Colonial introduction of Western education leads to

the rise of a small group of elites aware of democratic developments overseas.

• They become leaders in new nationalist movements. • The formation of the Communist Party in Russia

and China has marked effects in the archipelago. • Strong communist movements develop in Vietnam,

Indonesia, among the Chinese in Malaya, & in the Philippines.

• All colonial powers are strongly opposed to left-wing movements, & give little hope for independence

Timeline: 20th century. WWII 1940-1945

• What happens in Europe has consequences in the colonies:

• Britain, France & the Netherlands vs Germany, Japan & Italy

• Vichy France Nazi occupation. French lost Indochina to Japan

• 1941, December 7: Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor & • 1941, December 8: US declared war on Japan• 1941 December 8 Japanese invasion of Southeast Asia• 1942 March S.E.Asia was under Japanese control. (not

French Indochina & Thailand)

Timeline: 20th century.

• Post –WWII is the period known as “de-colonisation” .

IndiaCeylon (Sri Lanka)BurmaMalaya( Malaysia)IndonesiaThe PhilippinesLaos Cambodia Vietnam

African countries

“Sugar and Spice and Everything Nice?” Economic Motives for Imperialism in

Southeast Asia• Positioned mid-way between major civilisations tothe east and west• Straits of Melaka (Malacca) only major waterwaythrough the region until 16th century use ofStraits of Sunda by Indian traders & in 17thcentury by the Dutch (VOC)• British in late 18th century used passage througheastern Indonesia to China via Sulu archipelago• Prior to steamships in late 19th century, sailing

ships subject to monsoon winds

The Dutch in Indonesia• Both the Dutch VOC (Vereenigde Oostandische

Compagnie) (1602) & English East India Company (1600) were interested in S.E. Asian trade.

• Conflict led to the Ambon Massacre in 1623 & the withdrawal of the East India Company from the archipelago.

• The Dutch gradually gained control of the entire archipelago: Ambon – 1605, Malacca – 1641, Aceh – 1667, Macassar –1669, Banten - 1682.

• The objective was trade: Indian cottons for spices.

Dutch East India Company Routesin the 17th and 18th Centuries

Development of Trade, theLifeblood of Southeast Asia

• Initially, Southeast Asia formed a maritime east-west trade that supplemented the silk road trade;

• Southeast Asia a transit point• Increasingly, Southeast Asian

products came to supplement and later even became the primary products in international trade

Southeast Asian Products in Demand inInternational Trade Prior to 15th

Century

• Medicinal products: camphor, benzoin, cloves, rhinoceros horn• Exotic products: aromatic woods (eaglewood), rattans, kingfisher’s feathers, pearls, birdsnests, tripang (sea cucumbers; beche de mer)• Other trade items: tin (used as foil in Indiantemples)

Early Modern Period (c. 1450-c. 1800)

• Southeast Asia now regarded as major source of

goods in international markets• Return of Chinese traders in 1567, continuingIndian trade, temporary influx of Japanesetraders, and arrival of Europeans (initiallyPortuguese and Spanish, then joined by Dutch& British in the early 17th century)• Period referred to as the “Ageof Commerce”

• By early 20th century all of present-day Indonesiabrought under Dutch control; Aceh in north Sumatrafought& lost long war (1873-1912), though the Dutchnever re-entered the area

• Malay Peninsula came under British control after theAnglo-Dutch Agreement of 1824- a linethrough the Straits of Melaka creating division betweenpresent-day Malaysia & Indonesia

Colonisation of Island Southeast Asia

Colonisation of Indonesia• The Dutch avoided direct

administration until the mid 18th century. Control was exercised through local rulers who were also doubled as principal traders

• The system of leveringen began at end the 17th century: Fixed amounts at fixed prices.

• Direct administration of areas growing coffee, sugar, indigo & spices began in the 18th century.

Colonisation of Indonesia (continued)

• The Dutch employed their navy to enforce a monopoly on trade with Europe.

• There was no effort to introduce religion, culture or education.

• Dutch trade practices did have the unintentional consequence of displacing the population

• One result was the rise of the Bugis pirates.

Hermann Daendels• Herman Daendels was

appointed Gov-Gen of Indonesia by Napoleon from 1808-11 to improve defenses against the British and improve administration. He – Centralised administration.– Reduced graft and corruption.– Established adat courts.

• Increased compulsory coffee production and established a monopoly on rice to raise funds.

Thomas Stamford Raffles• Gov-Gen Minto (India)

led an invasion of Java in 1811 and left Stamford Raffles in charge. He introduced major reforms.– Permitted land ownership

with tax rate based on fertility.

– Peasants could cultivate and sell crops of their choice, except coffee.

– Created an elaborate court system with jury trials.

• Dutch returned in 1816.

Role of the Regent• The Regent was the native VOC agent contracted to

deliver export crops. He was subordinated to a governor-general, regional governor & resident/comptroller. In turn, he appointed and supervised village chiefs who he was responsible to pay from the taxes he collected.

• His role grew to include governmental & religious aspects, usurping the role of local princes. Eventually, the position was considered hereditary.

• Daendels & Raffles sought to reduce his powers to protect the natives. Raffles land rent system virtually eliminated him.

• The Java War demonstrated the need for his support.

First Transformation of SoutheastAsian Landscape

• European attempt to monopolise trade in cloves,nutmeg, and cloves (“trinity of spices”)• bring change in collection and production•Under Portuguese (16th century), spices nolonger just picked branch and all, but picked, dried, & bagged•Under Dutch (mid 17th and 18th centuries), forests of clove and nutmeg trees “extirpated” *,•allowing trees only in designated islands:•Ambon for cloves & Banda Islands for nutmeg•Clearing of forests by both local rulers and•Europeans for new plantation crops

* Extirpate: removed something completely

NUTMEG

Java War (1825-1830)• Also called the Dipo Negoro Revolt.• Led to the death of 200,000; 8,000 were Dutch.• Dipo Negoro was a prince, but as the son of a lesser

wife not eligible to inherit the Sultanate of Yogyakarta. Rejected by Raffles as his father’s successor, he became an Islamic mystic. When tombs were disturbed by road construction, he led a revolt as a messianic ratu adil.

• Controlled middle Java and Yogyakarta until defeated in 1825. Then led a guerrilla war until 1827. Captured in 1830. The war cost the Dutch 30 million guilders.

Banda Islands

The Culture System• The system was implemented from 1830 to

1877 to raise funds to cover the cost of the Java War, Napoleonic Wars & the Belgium Civil war.

• It was the brain child of Baron Johannes Van Den Bosch, Gov-Gen of Java..

• Required villages to grow export crops to raise sufficient funds to cover their land taxes.

• These would be sold to the government at a fixed price for transportation to Amsterdam. The system provided 19-32% of the state’s revenue.

Max Havelaar• Max Havelaar or The Coffee Auctions of the

Dutch Trading Company written by Eduard Douwes Dekker & published in 1860.

• Portrayed the Culture System as organised forced labor. Increased prices led to increased taxes & taxes were collected on commission.

• By 1840, rice shortages, famines , epidemics and dislocation all began to appear. Saijah & Adinda.

• Reforms led to the system being dismantled government monopolies abolished starting in 1860. Coffee remained a monopoly until 1917.

Other Reforms• Baron Van Hoevell, a former preacher

in Java, led a reform movement in the Dutch States General:– 1848 – The legislature would have a say

in colonial government.– 1854 – Passed a “colonial constitution” for

abolition of culture system.– 1870 - Passed the Agrarian Act allowing

the leasing of land and development of free trade.

The Ethical Policy 1901• A policy of “ethical obligation and moral

responsibility to the people of the East Indies.”

“education, irrigation and emigration.”

Included Western education for elites, agricultural extension to open new areas and improve crops, resettlement from Java to Sumatra, improved infrastructure, encouragement of economic development and Christian missionaries.

Plantation Crops in Early Modern Period

• Clearing of forests by both local rulers &Europeans to plant pepper to meet demand,

especiallyfrom India and China• Black pepper (piper nigrum) introduced toSoutheast Asia from southern India aboutbeginning of Common Era & grown alongsideSumatran varieties; • high maintenance crop• Other crops introduced by Dutch in Java were: sugar, coffee, indigo, tobacco for international

trade

THE CLOVE TREE

NUT AND MACE OF NUTMEG

Sugar cane field

• INDIGO

TOBACCO

BLACK PEPPER

COFFEE

• Communications system: telegraph, roads, bridges,railways, ports, warehouses; roads from mines andplantations to rivers to ports, later railways to port• Legal and Administrative system: new land tenurealienating land for mines or plantations• Scientific and technical research institutes• Financial system: currency linked to currency of themetropole for stability; banking and insurance to aidcapital flow• Organisation of manpower• Stable government• Invested in extraction of raw materials and cultivation oftropical export crops in great demand in temperate areas

Introduction of “High Colonialism” in1870s:Creating the infrastructure for Economic Exploitation

• Major swaths of forested lands & even wet-rice landstransformed to make way for expansion of area underplantation crops in all colonial areas of Netherlands EastIndies (Indonesia), British Malaya, Spanish Philippines,British Burma, French Indo-China,

• Brazilian rubber tree successfully introduced to Indonesia making rubber a major revenue earner in early 20th century because of the automobile (& later the airplane)Industry

• Forests also felled for timber trade

Second Transformation of the Southeast Asian Landscape

RUBBER TREELatex

• Coffee begun in 17th century in Java, but varietychanged from Arabica up to 1880s, to Liberica andRobusta from Africa today• Sugar cane also developed new varieties in 19th century• Other 19th century crops were tea, originally from China•quinine from the bark of cinchona tree (originally from Andes) developed in Java in early 20th century• Mainland Southeast Asia’s main export was rice• Copra and palm oil for vegetable oils, for flux*

Plantation Crops prior to WW II

* metallurgy a substance that promotes the fusion of two substances or surfaces. Use: soldering, welding.

COPRAInter-island copra trade since 17th century, but large-scale not until early 20th century with increase in world demand for fats

Collaboration/cooperation• Westernised elite group, obtained Europeaneducation, occupied lower administrative positions incolonial bureaucracy•formed Reformist groups, work with EuropeansAim: Gain autonomy within a larger union undercolonial power

• Anti-Western/non-cooperation and resistance•Westernised elite group, obtained Europeaneducation but refused to work with colonials• Indigenous “millennarian” movements• Early 20th century, rise of communismAim: Overthrow of colonial regime

Responses to Colonial Regimes

Reformism• Those with education tended to be in the middle& upper income classes, hence the desire tobe treated as equals of the colonials; met “glassceilings”• In reformism, the elite classes see selves in thesame light as the colonials & feel little need toconsider those below them; class structure still inplace• Only with failure to gain access to positionsbelieved to be rightfully theirs through theireducation & class, do the elites then turn toseeking alliance with those under them

• Colonial education: Learning history Treatment by European children in schools Meeting of local students from other ethnic groups• Discrimination in employment• Lack of political representation• Victory of Japan over Russia (1905) made Japan hero & magnet for Southeast Asian nationalist leaders

Rise of Nationalism-1

• Communism Rise of communist movement Lenin’s Theses on the Nationalist and Colonial questions in1920 calling for cooperation of bourgeois nationalists & Communists

• Religion and Identity Theravada Buddhist monkhood (sangha) in Burma,Cambodia, and Laos created sites of resistance to colonials Islam & religious teachers (ulama) in Indonesia & Malaysia, helped galvanise support against the Christian colonial powers

Rise of Nationalism-2

INDONESIA’s path from reformism to nationalism:

Elite emphasis on “our” nation, hence creating the“imagined community”& subordinating all ethnic& class divisions under banner of nationalism National revolution succeeded, & old elite retainedpower & benefited in move from reformism tonationalism at expense of social revolution

From Reform to Independence Movements - 1

• Usually founded by a kiai• Kiai is teacher and spiritual guide • Students (santris) board (Pondok = hostel)• Studies include Qur’an, Hadith, fiqh = deepen knowledge

of Islam, learn Arabic, traditions of exegesis (analysis of texts- interpretations of relig. texts), sayings of the Prophet, law & logic.

• Core values emphasised: sincerity, individual autonomy, solidarity, & self-discipline.

• spiritual and moral training; nowadays government school curriculum is also included.

• Close relation between kiai and santris , young men bonded with teacher & contributing to a sense of ind. commit. to faith

Pesantren (lit.: place for santris) or Pondok Pesantren. special relig. boarding schools in S, J & Kalimantan

• Financially supported by students and local community• Usually cheaper than other schools– Santris may work for pesantren – Usually in rural areas

• Continuation of pre-Islamic tradition of schools (ashrams?)• In Indonesia: Faith=demands of Islam & daily life struggle• No clear line between orthodoxy & heresy in Indo. context• Religion adapted to local conditions, brought peacefully by

traders from India in 12th C, mystics as well

Pesantren (lit.: place for santris) or Pondok Pesantren. special relig. boarding schools in S, J & Kalimantan (continued)

• Javanese nobility; • value the pre-Islamic heritage;• most are “abangan” religiously • may follow forms of kebatinen • some are practising Muslims • quickest to become Westernised

Priyayi

• Budi Utomo: 1908, secular, Javanese• Muhammadiya: 1912, Santri, modernist, educational, dakwa• Sarekat Islam 1912, Santri, modernist, nationalist, socialist

orientation, political• Indonesian Communist Party (PKI): 1920, secular• Persatuan Islam (Persis): 1923, Islamist, educational, dakwa,

political in 1940s-50s• Nahdlatul Ulama (NU): 1926, Santri, pesantren based,

political 1941-84• Indonesian National Party (PNI): 1927, secular, led by

Sukarno

Reform and Political Movements: early 20th century

Santri: fully practising MuslimsDakwa:Pesantren: religious school

Nationalist Movements• Many consider the Java War (1825-1830) as

a first expression of nationalism.• Education of the priyayi (Javanese nobility)

and santri under the Ethical Policy produced a new elite and a sense of national identity.

• Organisations which promoted nationalism:– 1902 - Kartini Schools - 1908 - Boedi Utomo– 1912 –Sareket Islam - 1920 – PKI (Communist

Party)– 1927 – PNI (Ind. National Party)

Were Southeast Asian Resources a Major Reason for Japan’s Invasion?

• Most of Southeast Asian resources sold to US or tometropolitan powers: Malaya was known as “the[British] Empire’s dollar arsenal”, while Indonesia came to be known as “the cork by which Holland floated” and “the tail which wagged the Dutch dog”.

• Oil in Indonesia was particularly valuable; in 1938Indonesia produced 7,398,000 metric tons of oil &exported 5,999,000 metric tons of petroleum products(petroleum, aviation spirits, kerosene, diesel &lubricating oils, paraffin, asphalt)

• With such a high percentage of vital resources availablein Southeast Asia & most going to the West, Japan’sprimary aim in invading Southeast Asia may have beenprimarily to deny these resources to the West, whileusing them for its imperial expansion.

Were Southeast Asian Resources a Major Reason for Japan’s Invasion? (continued)

• In 1930s nationalist movements largely suppressed by colonial regimes for fear of communist or fascist influences; secret police active in suppression

• Even reformists lost hope since no concessions beinggiven because of looming war threat in Europe and Asia

• Nationalist leaders were either incarcerated or in exile,with little progress toward nationalist demands forindependence or even reforms

• When Japan invaded and portrayed itself as “liberator”of Southeast Asians against colonial regimes, this waswidely hailed in the region

Situation Prior to Japanese Invasion in December 1941

World War II• The Dutch promise a

conference on self-government before they leave in 1941.

• Sukarno, Mohammed Hatta & Sutan Sjahrir released from jail by the Japanese when they occupied Indonesia in 1942.

• Sukarno, Hatta & others formed Putera as a double edge puppet government.

Indonesian Revolution• Sukarno announced the Five Postulates &

declared independence in 1945.The Dutch had not yet returned.– Nationalism (National unity)– Internationalism (One sovereign nation among

equals)– Representative Democracy (All significant

groups represented)– Social Justice ( A Marxist view)– Belief in God (A secular state, not Islamic)

Struggle for Independence

• The Netherlands asked Britain to reoccupy Indonesia on its behalf.

• The initial British force attempted to occupy Surabaya on November 10, 1945. The result was a bloody one-month long battle.

• Negotiations with Dutch led to Linggadjati Agreement in 1947 creating the United States of Indonesia under Dutch sovereignty. The USI was to be part of a larger Netherlands-Indonesian-Surinam-Curacao Union.

Sovereignty At Last• The Indonesians were not satisfied with

the lack of sovereignty. A guerrilla war ensued during which 6,000 Dutch & 150,000 Indonesians were killed during 1947-49. – A cease fire was imposed by the U.N. in

1947. – An Asian Conference hosted by India imposed

sanctions against the Dutch in 1949.– Sovereignty was finally transferred by the

Dutch in December, 1949.

Coping with Independence

• Indonesia found it extremely difficult to create and operate a viable government..– Elections only yielded pluralities & weak,

short-lived coalition governments.– The economy was in decline and inflation

rampant. The country was bankrupt.– Fear of nationalisation of assets

prevented significant foreign investment.

Guided Democracy• In 1957 Sukarno established guided

democracy to “save” the country.– A national advisory council was established

composed of representative groups, e.g., peasants, workers, the military.

– A “cooperating parliament” was established in place of the elected parliament. Opinion could be expressed but votes were not taken. The goal was to govern by deliberation and consensus.

Foreign Policy• Sukarno sought a leading role for

Indonesia as a non-aligned nation.– 1954 – Meeting of the Colombo Powers at

Bogor. Obtained support for claims to West Irian.

– 1954 – Hosted the 29 nation Asian-African conference at Bandung of newly freed peoples.

– 1962 – Indonesia sought to invade West Irian (Dutch New Guinea) after negotiating with the Dutch since 1949. West Irian was transferred to Indonesia in 1963 with help of the U.N. and U.S. diplomat Ellsworth Bunker.

Foreign Policy Cont’d– 1963 - 65 - Crush Malaysia Campaign launched

by Sukarno over the formation of the Federation of Malaysia. Felt that the linking of Sarawak, Brunei and Sabah to Malaya would threaten Kalimantan.

– The Crush Malaysia Campaign was part of Konfrontasia, the confronting of the remnants of colonialism. It involved NEFOS vs. the OLDEFOS

– Received $ 2 Billion in aid from the USSR in 1965. Nevertheless, Sukarno was drawn thru the influence of PKI to align with China.

The Gestapu Affair• On the night of September 30, 1965, six

leading generals and one lieutenant were assassinated in an attempted coup. – General Nasution escaped the assassination

and Major General Suharto was not targeted.– The reaction was a massacre of a half million

Communist and Chinese, a combination pogrom and Jihad.

– Sukarno had no advance knowledge of the coup but his powers were curbed. He was removed as president in 1967 and died in 1970.

Suharto’s New Order• March 11, 1966 – Sukarno

signed the Supersemar decree authorising Suharto to take all measures necessary . This was the beginning of the New Order. – Revived the parliament of

1955.– Adam Malik renegotiated

debt of $1.7 million.– Ended Confrontation Policy.– Joined ASEAN– Befriended the West & Japan.– Held national elections in

1971.

New Order Problems• Sekber Golkar (the

government party) lost creditability in the early ’70s.

• Legitimised “Dual Function.”

• Graft, cronyism and corruption were extremely wide spread.

• Examples:Astra Toyota & TommyPertamina lost $10.5 billion.

The Downfall of Suharto

• The 1997-98 crises led to Indonesian currency losing 70% of its value. The IMF bailout required strict austerity measures leading to further economic hardship & inflation.

• Sukarno ran unopposed for president for the seventh time. Sparked by the killing of six student demonstrators, Jakarta was seized by demonstrations and riots.

• The army took over Jakarta and Sukarno resigned after 32 years as president and $15 billion in graft.

B. J. Habbie• As V.P., Habbie assumed

the presidency. Many were highly skeptical.

• Trained as an engineer in Germany. Founded an aircraft company in Bandung. Championed industrial vs. agricultural development.

• Allowed East Timor referendum leading to that country’s independence.

Abdurrahman Wahid• Elected in 1999. Was a

nearly blind Muslim cleric. Had suffered recurring strokes. Proved to be indecisive & incapable of running the country.

• Did not effectively cope with the separatist demands of Aceh & Irian Jaya.

• Was impeached in 2001.

Separatist Movements• There have been three major separatist

movements: Aceh, Iran Jaya (West Papua) and East Timor.

Jose Ramos Horta, Timor’s 1st PM.

East Timor• East Timor declared its independence in 1975 after a

change in the government of Portugal. Indonesia invaded four days later.

• Timor had been a Portuguese colony since 1702, as such its population is 90% Catholic. The Netherlands annexed West Timor in 1859. It is largely Islamic.

• Indonesia invaded East Timor because it feared FRETILIN (the independence party) was in league with China & would turn the country Communist.

• FRETILIN fought a successful guerrilla war from 1975 to 1999. Total deaths from all causes = 200,000 +/-.

• East Timor became fully independent in 2002.

Aceh• Was independent prior to colonial rule, even

controlling part of the Malay Peninsula (Kedah).• Indonesia granted Aceh special autonomy status

in 1959. The Aceh freedom movement began in 1976 led by GAM. Warfare led to 5,000 deaths by 2000.

• In 1999, President Wahid assured GAM that all of its demands short of total independence would be met. Granted 75% of all oil and gas revenue plus Sharia law and own flag in 2001. GAM continued to demand total independence until 2005 peace.

Western New Guinea• The Dutch sought to retain in a commonwealth.• In 1961, Indonesia mounted an invasion after

West Papua declared independence.• In 1962, agreement was reached to transfer the

territory to Indonesia. An “Act of Free Choice” was required. The poll was taken in 1969.

• President Wahid granted special autonomy in 2000. In 2001, it was split into two provinces. The freedom movement wanted a share of the income from the rich gas, oil, copper & gold resources.

Megawati Sukarnoputri

• Indonesia’s first woman president. Succeeded Wahid in 2001 as his V.P.

• Formed her own political party to win election when banned from the PDI. She formed PDI-P.

• Considered herself the “good Queen.” Was called “Mother Mega.”

• Presided over a 3-year transition to civilian rule.

Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono

• Elected president in 2004 in Indonesia’s first direct presidential election. Called “SBY.”

• Top graduate of Indonesian military academy, U.S. Infantry Advanced Course and Command and the General Staff College.

• Labeled “the thinking general.” Took leading role against terrorism.

Retired as a 4 star in 2000.