information processing in management and marketing: personality styles and meaning profiles...
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Information Processing in Information Processing in Management and Management and
Marketing:Marketing:Personality Styles and Personality Styles and
Meaning ProfilesMeaning ProfilesShulamith Kreitler, Ph.D.Shulamith Kreitler, Ph.D.
Department of PsychologyDepartment of PsychologyTel-Aviv UniversityTel-Aviv University
Tel-Aviv, IsraelTel-Aviv, Israel
Tel +972-3-5227185Fax +972-3-5225371E-mail [email protected]
In management and marketing In management and marketing information processing plays a information processing plays a role in:role in: The daily work of the manager who has The daily work of the manager who has
to deal with large amounts of to deal with large amounts of informationinformation
The act of communication which The act of communication which consists in the exchange of information consists in the exchange of information between two or more individualsbetween two or more individuals
The act of purchasing, i.e., processes The act of purchasing, i.e., processes involved in the decision to buy, the involved in the decision to buy, the buying and the evaluation afterwards.buying and the evaluation afterwards.
Cybernetics
INFORMATION
Psychosemantics
MEANING
Purpose:Purpose:– To present a theory and methodology, To present a theory and methodology,
based on the meaning system, that based on the meaning system, that enable assessing information processing enable assessing information processing in management and marketingin management and marketing
Structure of talk:Structure of talk:A.A. Presentation of the meaning systemPresentation of the meaning systemB.B. Application of the meaning system to Application of the meaning system to
assessing meaning styles of individuals assessing meaning styles of individuals in management and in marketingin management and in marketing
C.C. Application of the meaning system to Application of the meaning system to promoting purchasingpromoting purchasing
A. A. Presentation of Presentation of the meaning the meaning
systemsystem
Developed by Kreitler and Developed by Kreitler and Kreitler, since 1968 onwardKreitler, since 1968 onward
A.A. The system of The system of meaning meaning
(Kreitler & Kreitler)(Kreitler & Kreitler)
Cognition is a system that works with meaning, namely, it responds to meanings, and produces, elaborates, stores, transforms and uses meanings.
Assumptions Underlying Assumptions Underlying the the
Meaning SystemMeaning System
Meaning is communicableMeaning is complexMeaning includes a personal-
subjective part and an interpersonally-shared part
MeaningMeaning is a pattern of is a pattern of cognitive contentscognitive contents focused focused
on a on a referentreferent. .
A A referentreferent can be an can be an external or internal stimulus, external or internal stimulus,
a situation, an event, an a situation, an event, an individual, a product, the act individual, a product, the act
of purchasing, etc.of purchasing, etc.
The The cognitive contentscognitive contents are are designed to express or designed to express or
communicate information communicate information that would enable identifying that would enable identifying
the referent, handling it, the referent, handling it, responding to it, or dealing responding to it, or dealing
with it within the with it within the psychological domain.psychological domain.
The cognitive content and the The cognitive content and the referent form together the referent form together the
meaning unit.meaning unit.
Referent – Meaning Value
Examples: Examples: Hong Kong – is a wonderful cityHong Kong – is a wonderful cityAn airport – serves for An airport – serves for transportationtransportation
The cognitive content is The cognitive content is called meaning value called meaning value
because it fulfills the role of because it fulfills the role of expressing or expressing or
communicating meaning.communicating meaning.
The meaning unit is characterized in The meaning unit is characterized in terms of the following 5 sets of terms of the following 5 sets of
variables:variables:
Referent – Meaning Value
Shifts in Referent
Types of Relation
Forms of Relation
Forms of Expression
Meaning Dimensions
The psychosemantic method consists in The psychosemantic method consists in coding the responses in terms of the following coding the responses in terms of the following categories:categories: Meaning dimensions: Content categories, such as
Feelings and Emotions, Actions, Sensory Qualities (color, shape, etc.), Size, Weight
Types of Relation: Relational categories, such as Attributive, Comparative, Illustrative-Exemplifying, Metaphoric-Symbolic.
Forms of Relation : Formative categories, such as Positive or Negative, Simple or Complex (e.g., Conjunctive, Disjunctive), Absolute or Modified (e.g., always, sometimes)
Shifts of Referent : Categories of shifts to other constructs, such as from Ocean to Lake, from House to Windows
Forms of Expression : Categories of means of expression, such as words, drawings, movements, denoted objects
Examples of Meaning Examples of Meaning VariablesVariables
Meaning Meaning DimensionsDimensions– Range of inclusionRange of inclusion– MaterialMaterial– FunctionsFunctions– Feelings & EmotionsFeelings & Emotions
Types of RelationsTypes of Relations– AttributiveAttributive– ComparativeComparative– Exemplifying-illustrativeExemplifying-illustrative– Metaphoric-symbolicMetaphoric-symbolic
Forms of RelationForms of Relation– Positive, NegativePositive, Negative– Conjunctive, DisjunctiveConjunctive, Disjunctive– NormativeNormative
Referent ShiftsReferent Shifts– Identical to inputIdentical to input– Part of inputPart of input– AssociationAssociation
Forms of ExpressionForms of Expression– VerbalVerbal– GesturalGestural– GraphicGraphic
Meaning TestMeaning Test
Instructions:Instructions: Communicate to another Communicate to another person the meaning (interpersonally-person the meaning (interpersonally-shared and personal) of a presented shared and personal) of a presented set of stimuli, using any means of set of stimuli, using any means of communication considered adequate.communication considered adequate.
Stimuli:Stimuli: Street, Bicycle, Sea (ocean), Street, Bicycle, Sea (ocean), to take, to kill, Telephone, etc.to take, to kill, Telephone, etc.
Examples of Coded ResponsesExamples of Coded Responses
Stimulus: Stimulus: Hong KongHong Kong
Meaning Meaning DimensionsDimensions
Types of Types of RelationRelation
Forms of Forms of RelationRelation
Shifts of Shifts of ReferentReferent
Forms of Forms of ExpressionExpression
A A beautiful beautiful citycity
Contextual Contextual Allocation / Allocation / JudgementJudgements & s & EvaluationEvaluation
AttributiveAttributivePositivePositiveNoneNoneVerbalVerbal
More More southern southern than than BeijingBeijing
Locational Locational QualitiesQualities
ComparatiComparativeve
PositivePositiveNoneNoneVerbalVerbal
I love it’s I love it’s centercenter
Feelings & Feelings & EmotionsEmotions
AttributiveAttributivePositivePositivePart of Part of (center)(center)
VerbalVerbal
Meaning ProfileMeaning Profile
Frequencies (proportions) of individual’s use of each meaning variable in responding to the stimuli of the meaning test.
Functions of MeaningFunctions of Meaning
In regard to cognitionIn regard to cognition In regard to personalityIn regard to personality In regard to states of In regard to states of
consciousnessconsciousness In regard to behaviorIn regard to behavior In regard to physiological In regard to physiological
responsesresponses
Meaning Variables and Meaning Variables and CognitionCognition
Cognitive contents, information
Meaning values
Cognitive processes
Meaning variables
Cognitive acts, structural schemas
Meaning profiles
Meaning
1. Meaning Values and Cognitive 1. Meaning Values and Cognitive ContentsContents
Meaning values correspond to Meaning values correspond to cognitive contents and information.cognitive contents and information.
Examples:Examples:
When the individual’s meaning profile shows When the individual’s meaning profile shows a high frequency of the meaning dimension a high frequency of the meaning dimension Locational Qualities, that individual may be Locational Qualities, that individual may be expected to have a lot of labels, words, expected to have a lot of labels, words, information in the domain of location, places, information in the domain of location, places, routes.routes.
2. Meaning Values and Cognitive 2. Meaning Values and Cognitive ProcessesProcesses
Cognitive processes correspond to Cognitive processes correspond to specific meaning variables or specific meaning variables or combinations of meaning variables.combinations of meaning variables.
Examples:Examples:Shifting from one theme to anotherShifting from one theme to another – High frequency – High frequency of referent shifts of medium degree (e.g., shifting to of referent shifts of medium degree (e.g., shifting to previous response, or to superordinate referent)previous response, or to superordinate referent)AssociationsAssociations – High number of meaning values – High number of meaning values (absolute and especially relative), high number of (absolute and especially relative), high number of different shifts of referentdifferent shifts of referentAbstractingAbstracting –High frequency of meaning dimension –High frequency of meaning dimension Contextual AllocationContextual Allocation
3. Meaning Profiles and Cognitive 3. Meaning Profiles and Cognitive ActsActs
Cognitive acts correspond to specific Cognitive acts correspond to specific combinations of meaning variables combinations of meaning variables that constitute complete profiles.that constitute complete profiles.
Meaning Profile of PlanningMeaning Profile of Planning Meaning DimensionsMeaning Dimensions
– Contextual allocationContextual allocation– Range of inclusionRange of inclusion– ActionsActions– Manner of operationManner of operation– Antecedents & causesAntecedents & causes– Consequences & resultsConsequences & results– Range of applicationRange of application– StructureStructure– Quantity & numbersQuantity & numbers– Locational qualitiesLocational qualities– Temporal qualitiesTemporal qualities– Sensory qualities (-)Sensory qualities (-)– Judgments & evaluationsJudgments & evaluations
Types of RelationTypes of Relation– AttributiveAttributive– Metaphoric-symbolic (-) Metaphoric-symbolic (-)
Forms of RelationForms of Relation– Propositional, positive & Propositional, positive &
negativenegative– PartialPartial– ConjunctiveConjunctive– DisjunctiveDisjunctive
Shifts of ReferentShifts of Referent– Close shifts: Parts, Former Close shifts: Parts, Former
responses, Grammatical responses, Grammatical variationsvariations
– Medium shifts: Input Medium shifts: Input modified by addition, modified by addition, Combination of several Combination of several former responsesformer responses
– Distant shifts (-) : Distant shifts (-) : Associations, LabelsAssociations, Labels
Forms of ExpressionForms of Expression– Verbal, Verbal desc???? By Verbal, Verbal desc???? By
drawingsdrawings
Further cognitive acts whose Further cognitive acts whose meaning profiles were identified:meaning profiles were identified:
Memory for verbal material / names / Memory for verbal material / names / facesfaces
Analogical thinkingAnalogical thinking Inventive thinkingInventive thinking CreativityCreativity Exploration and curiosityExploration and curiosity Various cognitive styles Various cognitive styles (e.g., (e.g.,
impulsiveness vs. reflectivity, monitoring vs. impulsiveness vs. reflectivity, monitoring vs. blunting)blunting)
Meaning Variables and Meaning Variables and PersonalityPersonality
Each personality trait Each personality trait corresponds to a profile of corresponds to a profile of
meaning variablesmeaning variables
Example: Example: Meaning profile of extraversionMeaning profile of extraversion
Meaning DimensionsMeaning Dimensions– Contextual allocationContextual allocation– Range of inclusionRange of inclusion– ActionsActions– Results & Consequences Results & Consequences
(-)(-)– Size & dimensionsSize & dimensions– Quantity & numbersQuantity & numbers– Temporal qualities (-)Temporal qualities (-)– PossessionsPossessions– Sensory qualities (-) Sensory qualities (-)
(experienced by referent)(experienced by referent)– Sensory qualities (of Sensory qualities (of
object)object)– Judgments & evaluations Judgments & evaluations
(-)(-)
Types of Types of RelationRelation– AttributiveAttributive– Metaphoric (-)Metaphoric (-)
Forms of Forms of RelationRelation– PositivePositive
Referent ShiftsReferent Shifts– Associations (-)Associations (-)
[Source: Kreitler, S. & Kreitler, H. (1990). The Cognitive Foundations of Personality Traits. New York: Plenum]
For example,For example,There are meaning profiles There are meaning profiles corresponding to:corresponding to:
Leadership (Fiedler’s LPC)Leadership (Fiedler’s LPC) AlexithymiaAlexithymia NarcissismNarcissism Tendency to experience anxietyTendency to experience anxiety Tendency to apply different defense Tendency to apply different defense
mechanisms, such as repression, mechanisms, such as repression, denial, projectiondenial, projection
Two Modes of MeaningTwo Modes of Meaning Personal-SubjectivePersonal-Subjective
– Exemplifying-IllustrativeExemplifying-Illustrative– Metaphoric-SymbolicMetaphoric-Symbolic
Interpersonally-SharedInterpersonally-Shared– AttributiveAttributive– ComparativeComparative
Effects on:Effects on:– Gestalt perceptionGestalt perception– CreativityCreativity– FantasyFantasy– Logical reasoningLogical reasoning
[Source: Kreitler, S. (1999). Consciousness and meaning. In J. Singer & P. Salovey (Eds.), At Play in the Fields of Consciousness: Essays in Honor of Jerome L. Singer. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum (pp. 175-206)]
Meaning Variables and Meaning Variables and States of ConsciousnessStates of Consciousness
Training Meaning VariablesTraining Meaning Variables
1.1. Determining the meaning variables Determining the meaning variables targetted for trainingtargetted for training
2.2. Training each targetted meaning Training each targetted meaning variable separatelyvariable separately
3.3. StrengtheningStrengthening the targetted the targetted meaning variable meaning variable
4.4. ElaboratingElaborating the meaning of the the meaning of the targetted meaning variabletargetted meaning variable
5.5. ExplainingExplaining the use of the targetted the use of the targetted meaning variablemeaning variable
Principles of the TrainingPrinciples of the Training
B. B. Application of Application of the Meaning the Meaning System to System to
Assessing Meaning Assessing Meaning Profiles of Profiles of
Individuals in Individuals in Management and Management and
MarketingMarketing
Administering the Meaning Administering the Meaning Test to an individual enables Test to an individual enables determining the individual’s determining the individual’s
Meaning ProfileMeaning Profile
Major Uses of the Meaning Major Uses of the Meaning Profile AssessmentProfile Assessment
Evaluation of personnelEvaluation of personnel Selection of personnelSelection of personnel Training of personnelTraining of personnel
Meaning Profile
Grasping and Comprehending InformationGetting
InformationCommunicating with Others
Cognitive Acts
Personality Traits
Personality Disposition & Emotional Tendencies
Correspondence between Meaning Correspondence between Meaning ProfilesProfiles
Possibility to determine to what extent Possibility to determine to what extent an individual’s meaning profile : an individual’s meaning profile :
Corresponds to the meaning profile Corresponds to the meaning profile of some standard, e.g., of the “good of some standard, e.g., of the “good manager”, “creative manager”manager”, “creative manager”
Corresponds to the meaning profile Corresponds to the meaning profile of the individuals (one or more) with of the individuals (one or more) with whom he/she is to cooperatewhom he/she is to cooperate
Meaning Profile of the “Good” Meaning Profile of the “Good” ManagerManager
(based on the meaning variables common to 12 (based on the meaning variables common to 12 managers in different high-tech firms, evaluated by their managers in different high-tech firms, evaluated by their
peers and supervisors)peers and supervisors) Meaning DimensionsMeaning Dimensions– Contextual allocationContextual allocation– FunctionFunction– Manner of operationManner of operation– Consequences Consequences – Causes (-)Causes (-)– Domain of applicationDomain of application– StateState
Types of RelationTypes of Relation– AttributiveAttributive– Comparative – Comparative –
DifferenceDifference– Exemplifying (-)Exemplifying (-)– Metaphoric (-)Metaphoric (-)
Forms of RelationForms of Relation– PositivePositive– Partial (not Partial (not
universal)universal)– ConjunctiveConjunctive– DisjunctiveDisjunctive– NormativeNormative– Desired (-)Desired (-)
Referent ShiftsReferent Shifts– Close shiftsClose shifts– Medium shiftsMedium shifts– Distant shifts (-)Distant shifts (-)
Index of Similarity in regard to Index of Similarity in regard to Meaning Profiles:Meaning Profiles:
Steps of Construction:Steps of Construction:1.1. Determine the meaning profiles of two individuals Determine the meaning profiles of two individuals
(or one individual and “standard” profile)(or one individual and “standard” profile)
Procedure AProcedure A2.2. Correlate the two Correlate the two
profiles. The profiles. The Spearman Product-Spearman Product-Moment Coefficient Moment Coefficient yields the measure of yields the measure of similaritysimilarity
Procedure BProcedure B2.2. For each meaning For each meaning
variable determine variable determine whether its score is whether its score is above the group’s mean above the group’s mean (for “positive” variables) (for “positive” variables) or below (for negative or below (for negative variables)variables)3.3. Count the number of variables in the meaning profiles Count the number of variables in the meaning profiles
that are both above or below the group’s mean. The that are both above or below the group’s mean. The number yields a gross measure of similarity.number yields a gross measure of similarity.
Note. The same procedures can be applied for more than two meaning profiles
Preliminary findings concerning Preliminary findings concerning team work (High-Tech firms)team work (High-Tech firms)
TeamTeamNo. of No. of
IndividualIndividualss
Mean of Mean of Similarity Similarity IndicesIndices
Mean Mean Rating of Rating of SatisfactiSatisfaction (1-7)on (1-7)
Mean Mean Rating of Rating of
EffectiveneEffectiveness (1-7)ss (1-7)
Team Team AA
44Mean Mean r=.39r=.392.72.73.23.2
Team Team BB
55Mean Mean r=.52r=.525.65.64.94.9
SelectionSelection of Personnel of Personnel
The meaning profile enables The meaning profile enables selecting, for the organization or selecting, for the organization or for particular positions in the for particular positions in the organization, individuals with organization, individuals with desired tendencies in regard to desired tendencies in regard to cognition, personality and cognition, personality and behavior.behavior.
Procedures of selectionProcedures of selection
1.1. DetermineDetermine or retrieveor retrieve the meaning the meaning profile corresponding to the cognitive profile corresponding to the cognitive act or personality trait or behavior of act or personality trait or behavior of interestinterest
2.2. DetermineDetermine the individual’s meaning the individual’s meaning profileprofile
3.3. ComputeCompute the index of similarity the index of similarity between the individual’s meaning between the individual’s meaning profile and the meaning profile profile and the meaning profile corresponding to the desired cognitive corresponding to the desired cognitive act, personality trait or behavioract, personality trait or behavior
TrainingTraining of Personnel of Personnel Steps in the training procedureSteps in the training procedure
1.1. Determine or retrieveDetermine or retrieve the meaning profile the meaning profile corresponding to the cognitive, personality corresponding to the cognitive, personality or behavior tendency of interestor behavior tendency of interest
2.2. DetermineDetermine the individual’s meaning profile the individual’s meaning profile
3.3. CompareCompare the individual’s meaning profile to the individual’s meaning profile to the meaning profile of the desired tendency the meaning profile of the desired tendency and determine in which meaning variables it and determine in which meaning variables it deviatesdeviates
4.4. ApplyApply the training process with the individual the training process with the individual in regard to the targetted meaning variablesin regard to the targetted meaning variables
C. C. Application of the Application of the Meaning system to Meaning system to
Promoting Promoting PurchasingPurchasing
Meaning Profile of the “good”
purchaserMeaning of
purchasing the item
Means for promoting Means for promoting purchasing:purchasing:
Procedure A: Focus on the meaning Procedure A: Focus on the meaning profile of the “good” purchaserprofile of the “good” purchaser
a)a) DetermineDetermine the meaning profile of the the meaning profile of the “good” (desired) purchaser“good” (desired) purchaserCriteria (examples): Criteria (examples):
amounts of purchasingamounts of purchasingFrequency of purchasingFrequency of purchasingRange of purchasingRange of purchasingSelectivity of purchasingSelectivity of purchasing
b)b) EvokeEvoke the relevant meaning variables the relevant meaning variables when advertising items or presenting when advertising items or presenting them on display for purchasingthem on display for purchasing
Meaning Profile of Purchaser
Buying it will stimulate positive
evaluations of the purchaser
Meaning Dimension
Judgments and Evaluation
Displayed Item
Procedure B: Focus on the meaning of Procedure B: Focus on the meaning of purchasing a given set of itemspurchasing a given set of items
Meaning of Meaning of Purchasing Purchasing Specific Specific ItemItem
FunctionalFunctionalPresent for myselfPresent for myself
Characteristics Characteristics of displaying & of displaying & SellingSelling
Many different kinds Many different kinds togethertogetherEach kind separatelyEach kind separately
Simple contextSimple contextElaborate contextElaborate context
High accessibility for High accessibility for handlinghandling
Low accessibility for Low accessibility for handlinghandling
No salespersonNo salespersonSalesperson involvementSalesperson involvement
No wrappingNo wrappingSpecial or selected Special or selected wrappingwrapping
Fast, simple paying Fast, simple paying procedureprocedure
Elaborative slowed-down Elaborative slowed-down paying procedurepaying procedure
Purchaser brings the item Purchaser brings the item to cashierto cashier
Salesperson or cashier Salesperson or cashier hands the item to the hands the item to the purchaserpurchaser
ConclusionsConclusions The meaning system provides concepts and The meaning system provides concepts and
tools for assessing processes underlying tools for assessing processes underlying cognitive, emotional, personality and behavior cognitive, emotional, personality and behavior tendencies.tendencies.
The major concepts are meaning units, The major concepts are meaning units, referent, meaning value, and meaning variable.referent, meaning value, and meaning variable.
The major tool is the Meaning Test that yields The major tool is the Meaning Test that yields the meaning profile.the meaning profile.
The meaning system enables improving the The meaning system enables improving the Evaluation, Selection and Training of personnel Evaluation, Selection and Training of personnel in management.in management.
The meaning system provides means for The meaning system provides means for promoting purchasing by focusing on the promoting purchasing by focusing on the purchaser or on the meaning of the items to be purchaser or on the meaning of the items to be purchased and of the act of purchasing.purchased and of the act of purchasing.