information technology kamta prashad

7/31/2019 Information Technology Kamta Prashad

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Information Technology - Definition and HistoryInformation Technology A Definition:

We use the term information technology or IT to refer to an entire industry. In actuality, information technology is the use of

computers and software to manage information. In some companies, this is referred to as Management Information Services

(or MIS) or simply as Information Services (or IS). The information technology department of a large company would be

responsible for storing information, protecting information, processing the information, transmitting the information as

necessary, and later retrieving information as necessary.

What Is Information Technology

In the 1960s and 1970s, the term information technology (IT) was a little known phrase that was

used by those who worked in places like banks and hospitals to describe the processes theyused to store information. With the paradigm shift to computing technology and "paperless"

workplaces, information technology has come to be a household phrase. It defines an industry

that uses computers, networking, software programming, and other equipment and processes to

store, process, retrieve, transmit, and protect information.

In the early days of computer development, there was no such thing as a college degree in

IT.Software developmentandcomputer programmingwere best left to the computer scientists

and mathematical engineers, due to their complicated nature. As time passed

and technologyadvanced, such as with the advent of the personal computer in the 1980s and its

everyday use in the home and the workplace, the world moved into the information age.

By the early 21st century, nearly every child in the Western world, and many in other parts of the

world, knew how to use a personal computer. Businesses' information technologydepartmentshave gone from using storage tapes created by a singlecomputer operatorto interconnected

networks of employee workstations that store information in a server farm, often somewhere

away from the main business site. Communication has advanced, from physical postal mail, to

telephonefaxtransmissions, to nearly instantaneous digital communication through electronic

mail (email).

Great technological advances have been made since the days when computers were huge

pieces of equipment that were stored in big, air conditioned rooms, getting their informationfrom

punch cards. The information technology industry has turned out to be a huge employer of

people worldwide, as the focus shifts in some nations from manufacturing to service industries. It

is a field where the barrier to entry is generally much lower than that of manufacturing, for

example. In the current business environment, being proficient in computers is often a necessityfor those who want to compete in the workplace.

Jobs in information technology are widely varied, although many do require some level ofhigher

education. Positions as diverse as software designer, network engineer, and database

administrator are all usually considered IT jobs. Nearly any position that involves the intersection

of computers and information may be considered part of this field.
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History of Information Technology:

In relative terms, it wasn't long ago that the Information Technology department might have

consisted of a single Computer Operator, who might be storing data on magnetic tape, and then

putting it in a box down in the basement somewhere. The history of information technology is

fascinating! resources for information on everything from the history of IT to electronics inventionsand even the top 10 IT bugs.

All About the History of Information TechnologyThe history of information technology is fascinating! Here are some of my favorite links to

information about the history of information technology.

1.IT History Timeline

A great IT History timeline from the University of Alabama's Telecommunication and Film

department.

2.Timeline of Electronics Inventions

From GreatAchievements.org - a time line of electronics inventions.

3.History of Technology - Early Inventors Successes

Information about the innovators of the early technology revolution, including Bill Gates, Steve

Jobs, Steve Wozniak and others.

4.History of Computer Languages

History of computer languages. Alphabetical listing of computer languages along with a timeline of

programming language development. Links to more information on programming languages.

5.History of the World Wide Web

Timeline based history of the world wide web. Amazingly, the timeline starts in 1945!!

6.History of Technology - The Dot Com Bubble

Information about the Dot Com Bubble in the technology industry.

7.History of Technology - The Dot Bomb

Information about the bursting of the dot com bubble, also know as the dot bomb period of

information technology history.

8.Top 10 IT Bugs

The worst of the worst - the top 10 information technology bugs of all time.

A History of Information Technology and Systems

Four basic periodsCharacterized by a principal technology used to solve the input, processing, output andcommunication problems of the time:

1. Premechanical,2. Mechanical,3. Electromechanical, and4. Electronic
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A. The Premechanical Age: 3000 B.C. - 1450 A.D.

1. Writing and Alphabets--communication.1. First humans communicated only through speaking and picture drawings.2. 3000 B.C., the Sumerians in Mesopotamia (what is today southern Iraq)

devised cuniform3. Around 2000 B.C., Phoenicians created symbols4. The Greeks later adopted the Phoenician alphabet and added vowels; the Romans

gave the letters Latin names to create the alphabet we use today.2. Paper and Pens--input technologies.

1. Sumerians' input technology was a stylus that could scratch marks in wet clay.2. About 2600 B.C., the Egyptians write on the papyrus plant3. around 100 A.D., the Chinese made paper from rags, on which modern-day

papermaking is based.3. Books and Libraries: Permanent Storage Devices.

1. Religious leaders in Mesopotamia kept the earliest "books"2. The Egyptians kept scrolls3. Around 600 B.C., the Greeks began to fold sheets of papyrus vertically into leaves

and bind them together.

4. The First Numbering Systems.1. Egyptian system:

The numbers 1-9 as vertical lines, the number 10 as a U or circle, thenumber 100 as a coiled rope, and the number 1,000 as a lotus blossom.

2. The first numbering systems similar to those in use today were invented between100 and 200 A.D. by Hindus in India who created a nine-digit numbering system.

3. Around 875 A.D., the concept of zero was developed.5. The First Calculators: The Abacus.

One of the very first information processors.

B. The Mechanical Age: 1450 - 1840

1. The First Information Explosion.1. Johann Gutenberg (Mainz, Germany)

Invented the movable metal-type printing process in 1450.2. The development of book indexes and the widespread use of page numbers.

2. The first general purpose "computers"o Actually people who held the job title "computer: one who works with numbers."

3. Slide Rules, the Pascaline and Leibniz's Machine.


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o Slide Rule.

Early 1600s, William Oughtred, an English clergyman, invented the slide rule Early example of an analog computer.

o The Pascaline. Invented by Blaise Pascal (1623-62).

The Pascaline (front)


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(rear view)


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Diagram of interior

One of the first mechanical computing machines, around 1642.o Leibniz's Machine.

Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716), German mathematician andphilosopher.


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The Reckoner (reconstruction)

4. Babbage's EnginesCharles Babbage (1792-1871), eccentric English mathematician


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o The Difference Engine.

Working model created in 1822. The "method of differences".

o The Analytical Engine.


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Joseph Marie Jacquard's loom.

Designed during the 1830s Parts remarkably similar to modern-day computers.

The "store" The "mill" Punch cards.

Punch card idea picked up by Babbage from Joseph Marie Jacquard's(1752-1834) loom. Introduced in 1801. Binary logic Fixed program that would operate in real time.

o Augusta Ada Byron (1815-52).


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o The first programmer

C. The Electromechanical Age: 1840 - 1940.

The discovery of ways to harness electricity was the key advance made

during this period. Knowledge and information could now be converted intoelectrical impulses.

1. The Beginnings of Telecommunication.1. Voltaic Battery.

Late 18th century.2. Telegraph.

Early 1800s.3. Morse Code.

Developed in1835 by Samuel Morse Dots and dashes.

4. Telephone and Radio.

Alexander Graham Bell.

18765. Followed by the discovery that electrical waves travel through space and can

produce an effect far from the point at which they originated.6. These two events led to the invention of the radio

Guglielmo Marconi 1894

2. Electromechanical Computing1. Herman Hollerith and IBM.

Herman Hollerith (1860-1929) in 1880.


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Census Machine.

Early punch cards.


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Punch card workers.

By 1890 The International Business Machines Corporation (IBM).

Its first logo

2. Mark 1.

Paper tape stored data and program instructions.


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Howard Aiken, a Ph.D. student at Harvard University

Built the Mark I Completed January 1942 8 feet tall, 51 feet long, 2 feet thick, weighed 5 tons, used about

750,000 parts

D. The Electronic Age: 1940 - Present.

1. First Tries.o Early 1940so Electronic vacuum tubes.

2. Eckert and Mauchly.1. The First High-Speed, General-Purpose Computer Using Vacuum Tubes:

Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC)The ENIAC team (Feb 14, 1946). Left to right: J. Presper Eckert, Jr.; John GristBrainerd; Sam Feltman; Herman H. Goldstine; John W. Mauchly; Harold Pender;


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Major General G. L. Barnes; Colonel Paul N. Gillon.


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Rear view (note vacuum tubes).

Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) 1946. Used vacuum tubes (not mechanical devices) to do its calculations.

Hence, first electronic computer. Developers John Mauchly, a physicist, and J. Prosper Eckert, an

electrical engineer The Moore School of Electrical Engineering at the University

of Pennsylvania Funded by the U.S. Army. But it could not store its programs (its set of instructions)

2. The First Stored-Program Computer(s)


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The Manchester University Mark I (prototype).

Early 1940s, Mauchly and Eckert began to design the EDVAC - theElectronic Discreet Variable Computer.

John von Neumann's influential report in June 1945: "The Report on the EDVAC"

British scientists used this report and outpaced the Americans. Max Newman headed up the effort at Manchester University

Where the Manchester Mark I went into operation inJune 1948--becoming the first stored-programcomputer.

Maurice Wilkes, a British scientist at Cambridge University,completed the EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage AutomaticCalculator) in 1949--two years before EDVAC was finished.

Thus, EDSAC became the first stored-program computer ingeneral use (i.e., not a prototype).

3. The First General-Purpose Computer for Commercial Use: UniversalAutomatic Computer (UNIVAC).


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UNIVAC publicity photo.

Late 1940s, Eckert and Mauchly began the development of a computercalled UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer)

Remington Rand. First UNIVAC delivered to Census Bureau in 1951.

But, a machine called LEO (Lyons Electronic Office) went into action a few

months before UNIVAC and became the world's first commercialcomputer.

3. The Four Generations of Digital Computing.0. The First Generation (1951-1958).

1. Vacuum tubes as their main logic elements.2. Punch cards to input and externallystore data.

3. Rotating magnetic drums for internalstorage of data and programs Programs written in


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Machine language Assembly language

Requires a compiler.1. The Second Generation (1959-1963).

0. Vacuum tubes replaced by transistors as main logic element.

AT&T's Bell Laboratories, in the 1940s Crystalline mineral materials called semiconductors could be

used in the design of a device called a transistor1. Magnetic tape and disks began to replace punched cards as external

storage devices.2. Magnetic cores (very small donut-shaped magnets that could be polarized

in one of two directions to represent data) strung on wire within thecomputer became the primary internal storage technology.

High-level programming languages

E.g., FORTRAN and COBOL2. The Third Generation (1964-1979).


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0. Individual transistors were replaced by integrated circuits.1. Magnetic tape and disks completelyreplace punch cards as external

storage devices.2. Magnetic core internalmemories began to give way to a new form, metal

oxide semiconductor (MOS) memory, which, like integrated circuits, usedsilicon-backed chips.

Operating systems Advanced programming languages like BASIC developed.

Which is where Bill Gates and Microsoft got their start in1975.

3. The Fourth Generation (1979- Present).0. Large-scale and very large-scale integrated circuits (LSIs and VLSICs)1. Microprocessors that contained memory, logic, and control circuits (an

entire CPU = Central Processing Unit) on a single chip. Which allowed for home-use personal computers or PCs, like

the Apple (II and Mac) and IBM PC. Apple II released to public in 1977, by Stephen Wozniak

and Steven Jobs. Initially sold for $1,195 (without a monitor); had

16k RAM.


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First Apple Mac released in 1984. IBM PC introduced in 1981.

Debuts with MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk OperatingSystem)

Fourth generation language software products E.g., Visicalc, Lotus 1-2-3, dBase, Microsoft Word, and

many others. Graphical User Interfaces (GUI) for PCs arrive in early

1980s

MS Windows debuts in 1983, but is quite aclunker.

Windows wouldn't take off until version 3was released in 1990

Apple's GUI (on the first Mac) debuts in 1984.

Bibliography

1. Kenneth C. Laudon, Carol Guercio Traver, Jane P. Laudon, Information Technology andSystems, Cambridge, MA: Course Technology, 1996.

2. Stan Augarten, BIT By BIT: An Illustrated History of Computers (New York: Ticknor &Fields, 1984).

3. R. Moreau, The Computer Comes of Age: The People, the Hardware, and the Software,translated by J. Howlett (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1984).

4. Telephone History Web Site. http://www.cybercomm.net/~chuck/phones.html, accessed1998.

5. Microsoft Museum. http://www.microsoft.com/mscorp/museum/home.asp, accessed 1998.

ElectronicsTimeline

Brilliant inventors from the late 19th century to the presentday have built on each other's work to launch a revolution

in electronics. In recognizing the team of Bardeen,Brattain, and Shockley for their invention of the transistor,the Nobel Prize also paid tribute to their predecessors, the


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discoverers of electrons, the vacuum tube, purifiedcrystals, and diodes. The transistor spurredexperimentation with new materials such as silicon andwith a host of manufacturing techniques, leading toelectronic devices that have altered every aspect of dailylife.

1904 Thermionic valve, or diode invented

Sir John Ambrose Fleming, a professor of electricalengineering and the first scientific adviser for theMarconi Company, invents the thermionic valve, ordiode, a two-electrode rectifier. (A rectifier preventsthe flow of current from reversing.) Building on thework of Thomas Edison, Fleming devises an"oscillation valve"a filament and a small metalplate in a vacuum bulb. He discovers that an electriccurrent passing through the vacuum is alwaysunidirectional.

1907 Triode patented

Lee De Forest, an American inventor, files for apatent on a triode, a three-electrode device he callsan Audion. He improves on Flemings diode byinserting a gridlike wire between the two elements inthe vacuum tube, creating a sensitive receiver andamplifier of radio wave signals. The triode is used toimprove sound in long-distance phone service,radios, televisions, sound on film, and eventually inmodern applications such as computers and satellitetransmitters.

1940 Ohl discovers that impurities in semiconductorcrystals create photoelectric properties

Russell Ohl, a researcher at Bell Labs, discoversthat small amounts of impurities in semiconductorcrystals create photoelectric and other potentiallyuseful properties. When he shines a light on a siliconcrystal with a crack running through it, a voltmeterattached to the crystal registers a half-volt jump. Thecrack, it turns out, is a natural P-N junction, withimpurities on one side that create an excess ofnegative electrons (N) and impurities on the other

side that create a deficit (P). Ohls crystal is theprecursor of modern-day solar cells, which convertsunlight into electricity. It also heralds the coming oftransistors.

1947 First pointcontact transistor

John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain, and William B.Shockley of Bell Labs discover the transistor.Brattain and Bardeen build the first pointcontacttransistor, made of two gold foil contacts sitting on agermanium crystal. When electric current is appliedto one contact, the germanium boosts the strength ofthe current flowing through the other contact.Shockley improves on the idea by building the


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junction transistor"sandwiches" of N- and P-typegermanium. A weak voltage applied to the middlelayer modifies a current traveling across the entire"sandwich." In November 1956 the three men areawarded the Nobel Prize in physics.

1952 First commercial device to apply Shockleysjunction transistor

Sonotone markets a $229.50 hearing aid that usestwo vacuum tubes and one transistorthe firstcommercial device to apply Shockleys junctiontransistor. Replacement batteries for transistorizedhearing aids cost only $10, not the nearly $100 ofbatteries for earlier vacuum tube models.

1954 First truly consistent mass-produced transistor isdemonstrated

Gordon Teal, a physical chemist formerly with BellLabs, shows colleagues at Texas Instruments thattransistors can be made from pure silicondemonstrating the first truly consistent mass-produced transistor. By the late 1950s silicon beginsto replace germanium as the semiconductor materialout of which almost all modern transistors are made.

1954 First transistor radio

Texas Instruments introduces the first transistorradio, the Regency TR1, with radios by RegencyElectronics and transistors by Texas Instruments.The transistor replaces De Forests triode, whichwas the electrical component that amplified audiosignalsmaking AM (amplitude modulation) radiopossible. The door is now open to thetransistorization of other mass production devices.

1955 Silicon dioxide discovery

Carl Frosch and Link Derick at Bell Labs discoverthat silicon dioxide can act as a diffusion mask. Thatis, when a silicon wafer is heated to about 1200C in

an atmosphere of water vapor or oxygen, a thin skinof silicon dioxide forms on the surface. Withselective etching of the oxide layer, they coulddiffuse impurities into the silicon to create P-Njunctions. Bell Labs engineer John Moll thendevelops the all-diffused silicon transistor, in whichimpurities are diffused into the wafer while the activeelements are protected by the oxide layer. Siliconbegins to replace germanium as the preferredsemiconductor for electronics.

1958-1959

Integrated circuit invented

Jack Kilby, an electrical engineer at TexasInstruments and Robert Noyce of Fairchild


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Semiconductor independently invent the integratedcircuit. In September 1958, Kilby builds an integratedcircuit that includes multiple components connectedwith gold wires on a tiny silicon chip, creating a"solid circuit." (On February 6, 1959, a patent isissued to TI for "miniaturized electronic circuits.") In

January 1959, Noyce develops his integrated circuitusing the process of planar technology, developedby a colleague, Jean Hoerni. Instead of connectingindividual circuits with gold wires, Noyce uses vapor-deposited metal connections, a method that allowsfor miniaturization and mass production. Noyce filesa detailed patent on July 30, 1959.

1962 MOSFET is invented

The metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor(MOSFET) is invented by engineers Steven Hofsteinand Frederic Heiman at RCA's research laboratory

in Princeton, New Jersey. Although slower than abipolar junction transistor, a MOSFET is smaller andcheaper and uses less power, allowing greaternumbers of transistors to be crammed togetherbefore a heat problem arises. Most microprocessorsare made up of MOSFETs, which are also widelyused in switching applications.

1965 Automatic adaptive equalizer invented by RobertLucky

The automatic adaptive equalizer is invented in 1965at Bell Laboratories by electrical engineer Robert

Lucky. Automatic equalizers correct distortedsignals, greatly improving data performance andspeed. All modems still use equalizers.

1966 Self-aligned gate process for fabricating fieldeffect transistors

In 1966 Dr. Robert W. Bower invents the self-alignedgate process for fabricating field effect transistors,providing the foundation for later developmentsestablishing the core technology for the fabrication ofhigh performance MOS integrated circuits.

1967 First handheld calculator invented

A Texas Instruments team, led by Jack Kilby, inventsthe first handheld calculator in order to showcase theintegrated circuit. Housed in a case made from asolid piece of aluminum, the battery-powered devicefits in the palm of a hand and weighs 45 ounces. Itaccepts six-digit numbers and performs addition,subtraction, multiplication, and division, printingresults up to 12 digits on a thermal printer.

1968Bell Labs team develops molecular beam epitaxy


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Alfred Y. Cho heads a Bell Labs team that developsmolecular beam epitaxy, a process that depositssingle-crystal structures one atomic layer at a time,creating materials that cannot be duplicated by anyother known technique. This ultra-precise method ofgrowing crystals is now used worldwide for making

semiconductor lasers used in compact disc players.(The term epitaxy is derived from the Greekwords epi, meaning "on" and taxis, meaning"arrangement.")

1969 Dynamic random access memory

In 1969 Dr. Robert H. Dennard invents the 1-transistor dynamic random access memory (DRAM),providing a large increase in memory density andspeed. Dennards design remains today as thecritical memory component in all computers.

1970 The first CD-ROM patented

James T. Russell, working at Battelle MemorialInstitute's Pacific Northwest Laboratories inRichland, Washington, patents the first systemscapable of digital-to-optical recording and playback.The CD-ROM (compact disc read-only memory) isyears ahead of its time, but in the mid-1980s audiocompanies purchase licenses to the technology.(See computers.) Russell goes on to earn dozens ofpatents for CD-ROM technology and other opticalstorage systems.

1971 Intel introduces "computer on a chip"

Intel, founded in 1968 by Robert Noyce and GordonMoore, introduces a "Computer on a chip," the 4004four-bit microprocessor, design by Frederico Faggin,Ted Hoff, and Stan Mazor. It can execute 60,000operations per second and changes the face ofmodern electronics by making it possible to includedata processing hundreds of devices. A 4004provides the computing power for NASA's Pioneer10 spacecraft, launched the following year to surveyJupiter.

3M Corporation introduces the ceramic chip carrier,designed to protect integrated circuits when they areattached or removed from circuit boards. The chip isbonded to a gold base inside a cavity in the squareceramic carrier, and the package is then hermeticallysealed.

1972 Home video game systems become available

In September, Magnavox ships Odyssey 100 homegame systems to distributors. The system is testmarketed in 25 cities, and 9,000 units are sold inSouthern California Alone during the first month at a

price of $99.95.


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In November, Nolan Bushnell forms Atari and shipsPong, a coin-operated video arcade game, designedand built by Al Alcorn. The following year Atariintroduces its home version of the game, which soonoutstrips Odyssey 100.

1974 Texas Instruments introduces the TMS 1000

Texas Instruments introduces the TMS 1000,destined to become the most widely used computeron a chip. Over the next quarter-century, more than35 different versions of the chip are produced for usein toys and games, calculators, photcopyingmachines, appliances, burglar alarms, andjukeboxes. (Although TI engineers Michael Cochranand Gary Boone create the first microcomputer, afour-bit microprocessor, at about the same time Inteldoes in 1971, TI does not put its chip on the marketimmediately, using it in a calculator introduced in

1972.)

1980 First circuit boards that have built-in self-testingtechnology

Chuck Stroud, while working at Bell Laboratories,develops and designs 21 different microchips andthree different circuit boardsthe first to employbuilt-in self-testing (BIST) technology. BIST results ina significant reduction in the cost, and a significantincrease in the quality of producing electroniccomponents.

1997 IBM develops a copper-based chip technology

IBM announces that it has developed a copper-based chip technology, using copper wires ratherthan traditional aluminum to connect transistors inchips. Other chip manufacturers are not far behind,as research into copper wires has been going on forabout a decade. Copper, the better conductor, offersfaster performance, requires less electricity, andruns at lower temperatures, This breakthroughallows up to 200 million transistors to be placed on asingle chip.

1998 Plastic transistors developed

A team of Bell Labs researchersHoward Katz, V.Reddy Raju, Ananth Dodabalapur, Andrew Lovinger,and chemist John Rogerspresent their latestfindings on the first fully "printed" plastic transistor,which uses a process similar to silk screening.Potential uses for plastic transistors include flexiblecomputer screens and "smart" cards, full of vitalstatistics and buying power, and virtuallyindestructible.


27/49

ElectronicsTimeline

Brilliant inventors from the late 19th century to the presentday have built on each other's work to launch a revolutionin electronics. In recognizing the team of Bardeen,Brattain, and Shockley for their invention of the transistor,the Nobel Prize also paid tribute to their predecessors, thediscoverers of electrons, the vacuum tube, purifiedcrystals, and diodes. The transistor spurred

experimentation with new materials such as silicon andwith a host of manufacturing techniques, leading toelectronic devices that have altered every aspect of dailylife.

1904 Thermionic valve, or diode invented

Sir John Ambrose Fleming, a professor of electricalengineering and the first scientific adviser for theMarconi Company, invents the thermionic valve, ordiode, a two-electrode rectifier. (A rectifier preventsthe flow of current from reversing.) Building on thework of Thomas Edison, Fleming devises an

"oscillation valve"a filament and a small metalplate in a vacuum bulb. He discovers that an electriccurrent passing through the vacuum is alwaysunidirectional.

1907 Triode patented

Lee De Forest, an American inventor, files for apatent on a triode, a three-electrode device he callsan Audion. He improves on Flemings diode byinserting a gridlike wire between the two elements inthe vacuum tube, creating a sensitive receiver andamplifier of radio wave signals. The triode is used to

improve sound in long-distance phone service,radios, televisions, sound on film, and eventually inmodern applications such as computers and satellitetransmitters.

1940 Ohl discovers that impurities in semiconductorcrystals create photoelectric properties

Russell Ohl, a researcher at Bell Labs, discoversthat small amounts of impurities in semiconductorcrystals create photoelectric and other potentiallyuseful properties. When he shines a light on a siliconcrystal with a crack running through it, a voltmeterattached to the crystal registers a half-volt jump. Thecrack, it turns out, is a natural P-N junction, with


28/49

impurities on one side that create an excess ofnegative electrons (N) and impurities on the otherside that create a deficit (P). Ohls crystal is theprecursor of modern-day solar cells, which convertsunlight into electricity. It also heralds the coming oftransistors.

1947 First pointcontact transistor

John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain, and William B.Shockley of Bell Labs discover the transistor.Brattain and Bardeen build the first pointcontacttransistor, made of two gold foil contacts sitting on agermanium crystal. When electric current is appliedto one contact, the germanium boosts the strength ofthe current flowing through the other contact.Shockley improves on the idea by building thejunction transistor"sandwiches" of N- and P-typegermanium. A weak voltage applied to the middle

layer modifies a current traveling across the entire"sandwich." In November 1956 the three men areawarded the Nobel Prize in physics.

1952 First commercial device to apply Shockleysjunction transistor

Sonotone markets a $229.50 hearing aid that usestwo vacuum tubes and one transistorthe firstcommercial device to apply Shockleys junctiontransistor. Replacement batteries for transistorizedhearing aids cost only $10, not the nearly $100 ofbatteries for earlier vacuum tube models.

1954 First truly consistent mass-produced transistor isdemonstrated

Gordon Teal, a physical chemist formerly with BellLabs, shows colleagues at Texas Instruments thattransistors can be made from pure silicondemonstrating the first truly consistent mass-produced transistor. By the late 1950s silicon beginsto replace germanium as the semiconductor materialout of which almost all modern transistors are made.

1954 First transistor radio

Texas Instruments introduces the first transistorradio, the Regency TR1, with radios by RegencyElectronics and transistors by Texas Instruments.The transistor replaces De Forests triode, whichwas the electrical component that amplified audiosignalsmaking AM (amplitude modulation) radiopossible. The door is now open to thetransistorization of other mass production devices.

1955 Silicon dioxide discovery

Carl Frosch and Link Derick at Bell Labs discover


29/49

that silicon dioxide can act as a diffusion mask. Thatis, when a silicon wafer is heated to about 1200C inan atmosphere of water vapor or oxygen, a thin skinof silicon dioxide forms on the surface. Withselective etching of the oxide layer, they coulddiffuse impurities into the silicon to create P-N

junctions. Bell Labs engineer John Moll thendevelops the all-diffused silicon transistor, in whichimpurities are diffused into the wafer while the activeelements are protected by the oxide layer. Siliconbegins to replace germanium as the preferredsemiconductor for electronics.

1958-1959

Integrated circuit invented

Jack Kilby, an electrical engineer at TexasInstruments and Robert Noyce of FairchildSemiconductor independently invent the integratedcircuit. In September 1958, Kilby builds an integrated

circuit that includes multiple components connectedwith gold wires on a tiny silicon chip, creating a"solid circuit." (On February 6, 1959, a patent isissued to TI for "miniaturized electronic circuits.") InJanuary 1959, Noyce develops his integrated circuitusing the process of planar technology, developedby a colleague, Jean Hoerni. Instead of connectingindividual circuits with gold wires, Noyce uses vapor-deposited metal connections, a method that allowsfor miniaturization and mass production. Noyce filesa detailed patent on July 30, 1959.

1962 MOSFET is invented

The metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor(MOSFET) is invented by engineers Steven Hofsteinand Frederic Heiman at RCA's research laboratoryin Princeton, New Jersey. Although slower than abipolar junction transistor, a MOSFET is smaller andcheaper and uses less power, allowing greaternumbers of transistors to be crammed togetherbefore a heat problem arises. Most microprocessorsare made up of MOSFETs, which are also widelyused in switching applications.

1965 Automatic adaptive equalizer invented by Robert

Lucky

The automatic adaptive equalizer is invented in 1965at Bell Laboratories by electrical engineer RobertLucky. Automatic equalizers correct distortedsignals, greatly improving data performance andspeed. All modems still use equalizers.

1966 Self-aligned gate process for fabricating fieldeffect transistors

In 1966 Dr. Robert W. Bower invents the self-alignedgate process for fabricating field effect transistors,

providing the foundation for later developmentsestablishing the core technology for the fabrication of


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high performance MOS integrated circuits.

1967 First handheld calculator invented

A Texas Instruments team, led by Jack Kilby, invents

the first handheld calculator in order to showcase theintegrated circuit. Housed in a case made from asolid piece of aluminum, the battery-powered devicefits in the palm of a hand and weighs 45 ounces. Itaccepts six-digit numbers and performs addition,subtraction, multiplication, and division, printingresults up to 12 digits on a thermal printer.

1968 Bell Labs team develops molecular beam epitaxy

Alfred Y. Cho heads a Bell Labs team that developsmolecular beam epitaxy, a process that depositssingle-crystal structures one atomic layer at a time,

creating materials that cannot be duplicated by anyother known technique. This ultra-precise method ofgrowing crystals is now used worldwide for makingsemiconductor lasers used in compact disc players.(The term epitaxy is derived from the Greekwords epi, meaning "on" and taxis, meaning"arrangement.")

1969 Dynamic random access memory

In 1969 Dr. Robert H. Dennard invents the 1-transistor dynamic random access memory (DRAM),providing a large increase in memory density andspeed. Dennards design remains today as thecritical memory component in all computers.

1970 The first CD-ROM patented

James T. Russell, working at Battelle MemorialInstitute's Pacific Northwest Laboratories inRichland, Washington, patents the first systemscapable of digital-to-optical recording and playback.The CD-ROM (compact disc read-only memory) isyears ahead of its time, but in the mid-1980s audiocompanies purchase licenses to the technology.

(See computers.) Russell goes on to earn dozens ofpatents for CD-ROM technology and other opticalstorage systems.

1971 Intel introduces "computer on a chip"

Intel, founded in 1968 by Robert Noyce and GordonMoore, introduces a "Computer on a chip," the 4004four-bit microprocessor, design by Frederico Faggin,Ted Hoff, and Stan Mazor. It can execute 60,000operations per second and changes the face ofmodern electronics by making it possible to includedata processing hundreds of devices. A 4004

provides the computing power for NASA's Pioneer10 spacecraft, launched the following year to survey


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Jupiter.

3M Corporation introduces the ceramic chip carrier,designed to protect integrated circuits when they areattached or removed from circuit boards. The chip isbonded to a gold base inside a cavity in the square

ceramic carrier, and the package is then hermeticallysealed.

1972 Home video game systems become available

In September, Magnavox ships Odyssey 100 homegame systems to distributors. The system is testmarketed in 25 cities, and 9,000 units are sold inSouthern California Alone during the first month at aprice of $99.95.

In November, Nolan Bushnell forms Atari and shipsPong, a coin-operated video arcade game, designed

and built by Al Alcorn. The following year Atariintroduces its home version of the game, which soonoutstrips Odyssey 100.

1974 Texas Instruments introduces the TMS 1000

Texas Instruments introduces the TMS 1000,destined to become the most widely used computeron a chip. Over the next quarter-century, more than35 different versions of the chip are produced for usein toys and games, calculators, photcopyingmachines, appliances, burglar alarms, andjukeboxes. (Although TI engineers Michael Cochran

and Gary Boone create the first microcomputer, afour-bit microprocessor, at about the same time Inteldoes in 1971, TI does not put its chip on the marketimmediately, using it in a calculator introduced in1972.)

1980 First circuit boards that have built-in self-testingtechnology

Chuck Stroud, while working at Bell Laboratories,develops and designs 21 different microchips andthree different circuit boardsthe first to employbuilt-in self-testing (BIST) technology. BIST results in

a significant reduction in the cost, and a significantincrease in the quality of producing electroniccomponents.

1997 IBM develops a copper-based chip technology

IBM announces that it has developed a copper-based chip technology, using copper wires ratherthan traditional aluminum to connect transistors inchips. Other chip manufacturers are not far behind,as research into copper wires has been going on forabout a decade. Copper, the better conductor, offersfaster performance, requires less electricity, and

runs at lower temperatures, This breakthroughallows up to 200 million transistors to be placed on a


32/49

single chip.

1998 Plastic transistors developed

A team of Bell Labs researchersHoward Katz, V.

Reddy Raju, Ananth Dodabalapur, Andrew Lovinger,and chemist John Rogerspresent their latestfindings on the first fully "printed" plastic transistor,which uses a process similar to silk screening.Potential uses for plastic transistors include flexiblecomputer screens and "smart" cards, full of vitalstatistics and buying power, and virtuallyindestructible.

Modern Information Technology Departments:

In order to perform the complex functions required of information technology departments today, the modern Information

Technology Department would use computers, servers,database management systems,andcryptography.The department

would be made up of severalSystem Administrators,Database Administratorsand at least one Information Technology

Manager. The group usually reports to theChief Information Officer (CIO).

Popular Information Technology Skills:

Some of the most popular information technology skills at the moment are:

Computer Networking

Information Security

IT Governance

ITIL

Business Intelligence

Linux

Unix

Project Management

For more information about technical skills that are popular in the job market, check out theIT Career Skills List..

Information Technology, or IT, is the study, design, creation, utilization, support, and managementof computer-based information systems, especially software applications and computer hardware.IT is not limited solely to computers though. With technologies quickly developing in the fields ofcell phones, PDAs and other handheld devices, the field of IT is quickly moving fromcompartmentalized computer-focused areas to other forms of mobile technology.

Who works in the field of Information Technology?

In today's advanced technological environment, the field of IT is very large; those who work in the

field are computer hardware and software designers, computer engineers, and specialists who maintain large computernetworks and database systems.
http://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/historyoftechindustry/g/database.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/historyoftechindustry/g/database.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/historyoftechindustry/g/database.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/historyoftechindustry/g/Cryptography.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/historyoftechindustry/g/Cryptography.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/historyoftechindustry/g/Cryptography.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/careersintechnology/p/SysAdmin.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/careersintechnology/p/SysAdmin.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/careersintechnology/p/DBA_Profile.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/careersintechnology/p/DBA_Profile.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/careersintechnology/p/DBA_Profile.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/careersintechnology/a/CIO.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/careersintechnology/a/CIO.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/careersintechnology/a/CIO.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/historyoftechindustry/p/ComputerNetwork.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/historyoftechindustry/p/ComputerNetwork.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/historyoftechindustry/g/Info_Security.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/historyoftechindustry/g/Info_Security.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/historyoftechindustry/g/IT_Governance.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/historyoftechindustry/g/IT_Governance.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/historyoftechindustry/a/ITIL.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/historyoftechindustry/a/ITIL.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/techcareersskills/g/BI.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/techcareersskills/g/BI.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/techcareersskills/p/Linux.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/techcareersskills/p/Linux.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/techcareersskills/p/Unix_OS.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/techcareersskills/p/Unix_OS.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/careersintechnology/p/Project_Manager.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/careersintechnology/p/Project_Manager.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/techcareersskills/tp/TechSkills.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/techcareersskills/tp/TechSkills.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/techcareersskills/tp/TechSkills.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/techcareersskills/tp/TechSkills.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/careersintechnology/p/Project_Manager.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/techcareersskills/p/Unix_OS.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/techcareersskills/p/Linux.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/techcareersskills/g/BI.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/historyoftechindustry/a/ITIL.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/historyoftechindustry/g/IT_Governance.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/historyoftechindustry/g/Info_Security.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/historyoftechindustry/p/ComputerNetwork.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/careersintechnology/a/CIO.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/careersintechnology/p/DBA_Profile.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/careersintechnology/p/SysAdmin.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/historyoftechindustry/g/Cryptography.htmhttp://jobsearchtech.about.com/od/historyoftechindustry/g/database.htm


33/49

IT professionals maintain databases for organizations and make sure that they are up to date and run smoothly. They

resolve problems with the computers on their network by installing and maintaining the programs that run on them,

monitoring overall system health and resolving problems such as computer viruses so that they do not spread quickly

and cause network-wide system crashes.

What kind of Education does one need to work in the field of Information Technology?

To work in the IT field, individuals must have a combination of formal education and experience. Because the field is

developing so rapidly, there is a wide range of educational opportunities available, and updating one's skills with

experience pertaining to the newest technologies out there is extremely important.

Formal educational opportunities such as two and four year degrees in the field of information technology are abundant.

Usually titled associate of science or Bachelor of Science degrees, these courses focus mainly on the majored area of

IT. With classes l ike the principles of computer language, application server programming, enterprise software

architecture, and information systems security, students receive a great deal of information regarding the nuts and

bolts of the IT industry.

In addition to such core classes, these degrees also require courses in mathematics, communications, science, socialand behavioral science, as well as some humanities. The length of the program determines how many classes in each

area are necessary for graduation

For those looking to further their information technology degree, many colleges and universities now offer Master of

Science and Ph.D. programs in the field. For instance, Carnegie Mellon Heinz College School of Information Systems &

Management developed its Mastes's program for individuals already in the field looking to hone their skills without

having to drop out of the workforce or move to get their education. Carnegie Mellon's program focuses on core

requirements such as telecommunications management, IT project management, and database management, as well

as complimentary electives like financial accounting, e-commerce technologies, healthcare information systems, and

geographic information systems.

The University of Nebraska at Omaha offers a Ph.D. in information technology. Such a program combines information

systems requirements with computer science principles to create a unique opportunity for those looking to get to the top

of the IT field. UNO's program prepares students for the specialized fields of applied computing, information systems,

internet technologies, as well as the developments in telecommunications and management of IT. Students can

specialize in areas such as artificial intelligence, bioinformatics, data mining, and B2B e-commerce and risk

management. Course requirements depend on each doctoral candidate's field of study and dissertation matter.

Getting a job in the field of Information Technology

IT jobs are very specialized and require a combination of education and experience. There are many resources for

those seeking employment in the IT field, as there are employment services that specialize in locating and obtaining IT

talent specifically.

Sites such asITjobs.comonly post openings for the info tech field. Job seekers can search the site by category and

post a resume; employers can post a job and search through posted resumes for employees, and both can do it free.

Another resource for those looking for a job in IT isDice.com. This site is a job board for IT professionals that allows

users to post their resume, search for open jobs by location, job title, or skill; it also provides job hunting tips and tricks

for IT pros like career news articles, blogs, videos from top employers, advice, and discussion boards. For employers,

they can post openings and peruse resumes, and again these services are free.

What is the Future of Information Technology?

The IT field is evolving and developing every day. New technologies in computers and mobile devices are shaping theway the world communicates with one another, gets work done, and spends free time. There is a growing need for
http://www.itjobs.com/http://www.itjobs.com/http://www.itjobs.com/http://www.dice.com/http://www.dice.com/http://www.dice.com/http://www.dice.com/http://www.itjobs.com/


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individuals with a love of the field, a curiosity for the future, and a desire to be a force in it. Jobs in the field are on the

rise, and employers are on the lookout for fresh talent; those who want to play a part in IT's future have no limits on their

potential or on the potential of their specific field.

Information Systems (IS) is anacademic/professionaldiscipline bridging thebusinessfield and the

well-definedcomputer sciencefield that is evolving toward a new scientific area of study.[4][5][6][7]

An

information systems discipline therefore is supported by the theoretical foundations

ofinformationandcomputationssuch that learned scholars have unique opportunities to explore the

academics of various business models as well as relatedalgorithmicprocesses within a computer

science discipline.[8][9][10]

Typically, information systems or the more common legacyinformation

systems include people, procedures,data, software, and hardware (by degree) that are used to

gather and analyzedigitalinformation.[11][12]

Specificallycomputer-based information systems are

complementary networks of hardware/software that people and organizations use to collect, filter,

process, create, & distributedata (computing).[13]

ComputerInformation System(s) (CIS) is often a

track within the computer science field studying computers and algorithmic processes, including theirprinciples, their software & hardware designs, their applications, and their impact on

society.[14][15][16]

Overall, an IS discipline emphasizes functionality over design.[17]

As illustrated by theVenn Diagramon the right, the history of information systems coincides with

thehistory of computer sciencethat began long before the modern discipline of computer science

emerged in the twentieth century.[18]Regarding the circulation of information and ideas, numerous

legacy information systems still exist today that are continuously updated to promote ethnographic

approaches, to ensuredata integrity, and to improve the social effectiveness & efficiency of the whole

process.[19]

In general, information systems are focused upon processing information within

organizations, especially within business enterprises, and sharing the benefits with modern society.[20]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professionalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professionalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professionalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Businesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Businesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Businesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithmichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithmichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_(computing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_(computing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venn_Diagramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venn_Diagramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venn_Diagramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computer_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computer_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computer_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_integrityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_integrityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_integrityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_integrityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computer_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venn_Diagramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_(computing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithmichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Businesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professionalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic


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Contents

[hide]

1 Overview

2 Definition

3 The Discipline of Information Systems

4 The Impact on Economic Models

5 Differentiating IS from Related Disciplines

6 Types of information systems

7 Information systems career pathways

8 Information systems development

9 Information systems research

10 See also

11 References

12 Further reading

13 External links

[edit]Overview

Silver et al. (1995) provided two views on (IS) and IS-centered view that includes software, hardware,

data, people, and procedures. A second managerial view includes people, business processes and

Information Systems.

There are various types of information systems, for example: transaction processing systems, office

systems, decision support systems, knowledge management systems, database management

systems, and office information systems. Critical to most information systems are information

technologies, which are typically designed to enable humans to perform tasks for which the human

brain is not well suited, such as: handling large amounts of information, performing complex

calculations, and controlling many simultaneous processes.

Information technologies are a very important and malleable resource available to

executives.[21]

Many companies have created a position ofChief Information Officer(CIO) that sits on

the executive board with theChief Executive Officer(CEO),Chief Financial Officer(CFO),Chief

Operating Officer(COO) andChief Technical Officer(CTO). The CTO may also serve as CIO, and

vice versa. TheChief Information Security Officer(CISO) focuses on information security

management.

[edit]Definition

Silver et al.[22]

defined Information Systems as follows:

Information systems are implemented within an organization for the purpose of improving the

effectiveness and efficiency of that organization. Capabilities of the information system and

characteristics of the organization, its work systems, its people, and its development andimplementation methodologies together determine the extent to which that purpose is achieved.
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ikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#Types_of_information_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#Differentiating_IS_from_Related_Disciplineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#The_Impact_on_Economic_Modelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#The_Discipline_of_Information_Systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#Definitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems#Overviewhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems


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[edit]The Discipline of Information Systems

Several IS scholars have debated the nature and foundations of Information Systems which has its

roots in other reference disciplines such asComputer

Science,Engineering,Mathematics,Management Science,Cybernetics, and others.[23][24][25][26]

.

Information systems also can be defined as a collection of hardware, software, data, people andprocedures that work together to produce quality information.

[edit]The Impact on Economic Models

Microeconomictheory model[clarification needed]

Transaction costtheory[clarification needed]

Agency Theory[clarification needed]

[edit]Differentiating IS from Related Disciplines

Information Systems relationship to Information Technology, Computer Science, Information Science, and Business.

Similar to computer science, other disciplines can be seen as both related disciplines and foundation

disciplines of IS. The domain of study of IS involves the study of theories and practices related to the

social and technological phenomena, which determine the development, use and effects of

information systems in organizations and society.[27]But, while there may be considerable overlap of

the disciplines at the boundaries, the disciplines are still differentiated by the focus, purpose and

orientation of their activities.[28]

In a broad scope, the term Information Systems (IS) is a scientific field of study that addresses the

range of strategic, managerial and operational activities involved in the gathering, processing, storing,

distributing and use of information, and its associated technologies, in society andorganizations.

[29]The term information systems is also used to describe an organizational function that

applies IS knowledge in industry, government agencies and not-for-profit

organizations.[30]

Information Systemsoften refers to the interaction between algorithmic processes

and technology. This interaction can occur within or across organizational boundaries. An information

system is not only the technology an organization uses, but also the way in which the organizations

interact with the technology and the way in which the technology works with the organizations

business processes. Information systems are distinct frominformation technology(IT) in that an

information system has an information technology component that interacts with the processes

components.
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Types of information systems

The 'classic' view of Information systems found in the textbooks[31]

of the 1980s was of a pyramid of

systems that reflected the hierarchy of the organization, usuallytransaction processing systemsat the

bottom of the pyramid, followed bymanagement information systems,decision support systemsand

ending withexecutive information systemsat the top. Although the pyramid model remains useful,since it was first formulated a number of new technologies have been developed and new categories

of information systems have emerged, some of which no longer fit easily into the original pyramid

model.

Some examples of such systems are:

data warehouses

enterprise resource planning

enterprise systems

expert systems

geographic information system

global information system

office automation

[edit]Information systems career pathways

Information Systems have a number of different areas of work:

Information systems strategy

Information systems management

Information systems development

Information systems security

Information systems iteration

Information system organization

There are a wide variety of career paths in the information systems discipline. "Workers with

specialized technical knowledge and strong communications skills will have the best prospects.

Workers with management skills and an understanding of business practices and principles will have

excellent opportunities, as companies are increasingly looking to technology to drive their revenue."[32]

[edit]Information systems development

Information technology departments in larger organizations tend to strongly influence information

technology development, use, and application in the organizations, which may be a business or

corporation. A series of methodologies and processes can be used in order to develop and use an

information system. Many developers have turned and used a more engineering approach such as

theSystem Development Life Cycle(SDLC) which is a systematic procedure of developing an

information system through stages that occur in sequence. An Information system can be developed

in house (within the organization) or outsourced. This can be accomplished by outsourcing certain

components or the entire system.[33]

A specific case is the geographical distribution of the

development team (Offshoring,Global Information System).

A computer based information system, following a definition ofLangefors,[34]

is:
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a technologically implemented medium for recording, storing, and disseminating linguistic

expressions,

as well as for drawing conclusions from such expressions.

which can be formulated as a generalized information systems design mathematical program.

Geographic Information Systems, Land Information systems and Disaster Information Systems arealso some of the emerging information systems but they can be broadly considered as Spatial

Information Systems. System development is done in stages which include:

Problem recognition and specification

Information gathering

Requirements specification for the new system

System design

System construction

System implementation

Review and maintenance[35]

[edit]Information systems research

Information systems research is generally interdisciplinary concerned with the study of the effects of

information systems on the behavior of individuals, groups, and organizations.[36][37]

Hevner et al.

(2004)[38]

categorized research in IS into two scientific paradigms including behavioral sciencewhich

is to develop and verify theories that explain or predict human or organizational behavior anddesign

sciencewhich extends the boundaries of human and organizational capabilities by creating new and

innovative artifacts.

Salvatore March and Gerald Smith[39]proposed a framework for researching different aspects of

Information Technology including outputs of the research (research outputs) and activities to carry outthis research (research activities). They identified research outputs as follows:

1. Constructswhich are concepts that form the vocabulary of a domain. They constitute a

conceptualization used to describe problems within the domain and to specify their solutions.

2. A modelwhich is a set of propositions or statements expressing relationships among

constructs.

3. A methodwhich is a set of steps (an algorithm or guideline) used to perform a task. Methods

are based on a set of underlying constructs and a representation (model) of the solution

space.

4. An instantiationis the realization of an artifact in its environment.

Also research activities including:

1. Buildan artifact to perform a specific task.

2. Evaluatethe artifact to determine if any progress has been achieved.

3. Given an artifact whose performance has been evaluated, it is important to determine why

and how the artifact worked or did not work within its environment.

Therefore theorizeandjustifytheories about IT artifacts.

Although Information Systems as a discipline has been evolving for over 30 years now,[40]

the core

focus or identity of IS research is still subject to debate among scholars such as.[41][42][43]There are

two main views around this debate: a narrow view focusing on the IT artifact as the core subject

matter of IS research, and a broad view that focuses on the interplay between social and technical
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information technology kamta prashad

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