Inner structure of citiesInner structure of cities

Economic Foundations of Local DevelopmentEconomic Foundations of Local DevelopmentModule 1/b: Urban and Rural development by sectorsModule 1/b: Urban and Rural development by sectorsAutumn term 2015/2016.Autumn term 2015/2016.CUB Department of Economic Geography and Futures StudiesCUB Department of Economic Geography and Futures Studies

dr. Jeney Lászlódr. Jeney LászlóSenior lecturerSenior lecturerjeney@elte.hujeney@elte.hu

22

Antecedent: von Antecedent: von Thünen’s theoryThünen’s theory

Johann-Heinrich von ThünenJohann-Heinrich von Thünen– 1738–18501738–1850– North German (Mecklenburg) North German (Mecklenburg)

landownerlandowner– Prominent nineteenth century Prominent nineteenth century

economist economist He sought to determine the most He sought to determine the most

profitable land use for his estateprofitable land use for his estate He collected information that He collected information that

would later be published in Der would later be published in Der isolierte Staat (1826)isolierte Staat (1826)– He developed one of the first models He developed one of the first models

to describe the land use practices to describe the land use practices radiating out from a central market radiating out from a central market locationlocation

33

Background of Isolated State: Background of Isolated State: Mecklenburg in early 1800sMecklenburg in early 1800s

Germany was made up of Germany was made up of many states (kingdoms, many states (kingdoms, empires, principalities, empires, principalities, dukedoms, etc.)dukedoms, etc.)– E. g. Prussia, Saxony, Hessen, E. g. Prussia, Saxony, Hessen,

Mecklenburg, Württemberg, Mecklenburg, Württemberg, The Thuringian States, The The Thuringian States, The Helvetian RepublicHelvetian Republic

Before the age of the rise of Before the age of the rise of the German customs-union the German customs-union ("Zollverein„) these states ("Zollverein„) these states were isolatedwere isolated

44

Conditions of Thünen’s theoryConditions of Thünen’s theory

Model of agricultural land use (created before industrialization)Model of agricultural land use (created before industrialization) Basic simplifying, limiting assumptions:Basic simplifying, limiting assumptions:

1.1. Central market with given prices. City with this market place is Central market with given prices. City with this market place is located centrally within what is referred to as an "Isolated State", located centrally within what is referred to as an "Isolated State", suggesting a community that is self sufficient and has no external suggesting a community that is self sufficient and has no external influencesinfluences

2.2. ‚‚Isolated StateIsolated State’’ is surrounded by wilderness: an unoccupied, unused is surrounded by wilderness: an unoccupied, unused landland

3.3. Given production methods & costs for any crop independent of Given production methods & costs for any crop independent of location (uniform technologies & no scale economies). Land is location (uniform technologies & no scale economies). Land is completely homogenous, flat, having no rivers, mountains or other completely homogenous, flat, having no rivers, mountains or other obstructions. Furthermore, the soil quality, climate and all other obstructions. Furthermore, the soil quality, climate and all other factors on agriculture are the samefactors on agriculture are the same

4.4. Linear transport cost/distance functions. There are no major roads of Linear transport cost/distance functions. There are no major roads of transportation. That is to say that the farmers transport their own transportation. That is to say that the farmers transport their own products to the market via oxcart, across land, directly to the central products to the market via oxcart, across land, directly to the central marketplacemarketplace

5.5. Farmers behave rationally to maximize profits in the marketplaceFarmers behave rationally to maximize profits in the marketplace

55

Innovation: the land use Innovation: the land use modelmodel

Several rings of Several rings of agricultural land use agricultural land use practices would surround practices would surround the central market placethe central market place

Land within the closest Land within the closest ring around the market ring around the market will produce products will produce products that are profitable in the that are profitable in the market, yet are market, yet are perishable or difficult to perishable or difficult to transporttransport

As the distance from the As the distance from the central market increases, central market increases, the land use shifts to the land use shifts to producing products that producing products that are less profitable in the are less profitable in the market, yet are much market, yet are much easier to transporteasier to transport

66

Balancing land use practices Balancing land use practices and transportation costsand transportation costs

Adam Smith's idea of ‚economic man’: the farmer is expected to Adam Smith's idea of ‚economic man’: the farmer is expected to maximize his profit (‚economic rent’) from his farmlandmaximize his profit (‚economic rent’) from his farmland

Profit at the central market depends onProfit at the central market depends on– Market value of the productMarket value of the product– Transportation costs to get the product to the marketTransportation costs to get the product to the market

Cost, market value of productsCost, market value of products– High: dairy products and fresh vegetables (tomatoes etc.)High: dairy products and fresh vegetables (tomatoes etc.)– Low: grain or livestockLow: grain or livestock

As the distance from the central market increases, the profit that As the distance from the central market increases, the profit that would be gained from a product decreaseswould be gained from a product decreases– If the producer of ‚land use 1’ needed to transport the product 5 miles, there If the producer of ‚land use 1’ needed to transport the product 5 miles, there

would be no profit made at the marketwould be no profit made at the market– Rate of depreciation in market value varies with different land use typesRate of depreciation in market value varies with different land use types– If the farmer had land 4 miles from the market it would be more profitable to If the farmer had land 4 miles from the market it would be more profitable to

produce ‚land use 2’produce ‚land use 2’– An equilibrium is met where the profit of one land use outweighs the profit of An equilibrium is met where the profit of one land use outweighs the profit of

another (at this point the land use changes)another (at this point the land use changes)

77

Basics of the theory of Basics of the theory of marginal productivity in a marginal productivity in a mathematically rigorous waymathematically rigorous way Locational rent (equivalent to land value): Locational rent (equivalent to land value):

maximum amount a farmer could pay for using maximum amount a farmer could pay for using the land, without making lossesthe land, without making losses

L L == Y(P − C) − YDF Y(P − C) − YDF– LL = locational rent (in DM/km = locational rent (in DM/km22))– YY = yield per unit of land (in t/km = yield per unit of land (in t/km22))– PP = market price per unit of commodity (in DM/t) = market price per unit of commodity (in DM/t) – CC = production cost per unit of commodity (in DM/t) = production cost per unit of commodity (in DM/t)– DD = Distance from the market (in km) = Distance from the market (in km)– FF = Transport cost (in DM/t/km) = Transport cost (in DM/t/km)

If If YY == 1000, 1000, PP == 100, 100, CC == 50, and 50, and FF == 11– At the market: At the market: LL=50000=50000– 10 km: 10 km: LL = 40000 = 40000– 30 km: 30 km: LL = 20000 = 20000

88

From ‚economic man’ to From ‚economic man’ to ‚economic rent’‚economic rent’

Adam Smith's idea of ‚economic man’: the farmer is Adam Smith's idea of ‚economic man’: the farmer is expected to maximize his profit (‚economic rent’) from his expected to maximize his profit (‚economic rent’) from his farmlandfarmland

Farmers of these products compete against each other, Farmers of these products compete against each other, plant their crops concentrically around the market plant their crops concentrically around the market according to the locational rent curves of their own cropsaccording to the locational rent curves of their own crops

Products having low yields with high price and high Products having low yields with high price and high transport costs relative to its weight or distance due to its transport costs relative to its weight or distance due to its weight, will have higher locational rent close to the market weight, will have higher locational rent close to the market than a product having lower transport coststhan a product having lower transport costs

Locational rent is the highest possible amount one will pay Locational rent is the highest possible amount one will pay for the use of the land for a certain cultivation, and is a for the use of the land for a certain cultivation, and is a relative indicator of competitiveness of it in the marketrelative indicator of competitiveness of it in the market

99

Land use – competitive Land use – competitive agricultural productsagricultural products

For each For each product product there is a there is a certain certain distance distance from the from the city where city where its its production production would be would be worthwhileworthwhile

1010

Development of the Thünen-Development of the Thünen-cirlescirles

Circular land use zones (Thünen rings)Circular land use zones (Thünen rings)– TTransport costs are referred directly to the ransport costs are referred directly to the

market (market (‚‚LuftlinieLuftlinie’’))

1111

Model of agricultural Model of agricultural land use: the Thünen land use: the Thünen ringsrings Black dot: cityBlack dot: city 4 concentric rings of agricultural activity4 concentric rings of agricultural activity

1.1. Dairy and market gardening, intensive farming: vegetables, Dairy and market gardening, intensive farming: vegetables, fruit, milk and other dairy products must get to market fruit, milk and other dairy products must get to market quicklyquickly

2.2. Forest (timber and firewood would be produced for fuel and Forest (timber and firewood would be produced for fuel and building materials): wood was a very important fuel for building materials): wood was a very important fuel for heating and cooking and is very heavy and difficult to heating and cooking and is very heavy and difficult to transporttransport

3.3. Extensive fields crops (grain etc.): grains last longer than Extensive fields crops (grain etc.): grains last longer than dairy products and are much lighter than fuel, reducing dairy products and are much lighter than fuel, reducing transport coststransport costs

4.4. Ranching: animals are self-transporting, they can walk to Ranching: animals are self-transporting, they can walk to the central city for sale or for butcheringthe central city for sale or for butchering

Outer area: wilderness where agriculture is not Outer area: wilderness where agriculture is not profitable: too great a distance from the central city profitable: too great a distance from the central city for any type of agricultural productfor any type of agricultural product

1212

Weaknesses of the modelWeaknesses of the model

Differences in local physical conditions aren’t Differences in local physical conditions aren’t taken into considerationtaken into consideration– Differential transportation costs (boats are the cheapest Differential transportation costs (boats are the cheapest

mode of transportation etc.)mode of transportation etc.)– Variations in topographyVariations in topography– Soil fertilitySoil fertility– Changes in demand or price of the commodityChanges in demand or price of the commodity– Government policiesGovernment policies

World has changedWorld has changed– City ports, railway stations– Tourist attractions– Quality of life, weather– Ethnic concentrations– People who are ALREADY there / prior land uses / history– Brownfields and pollution– Land sprawl as population grows: farms suburbs

1313

The real World and The real World and modificationsmodifications

Circular patternCircular pattern– Only one marketOnly one market– Including transportation routes, the land use Including transportation routes, the land use

zones would be stripe-formedzones would be stripe-formed What happens when we relax the What happens when we relax the

assumptions?assumptions?– Introduce another (competing) market centIntroduce another (competing) market centrree– Introduce a transportations corridorIntroduce a transportations corridor

1414

Model and reality: Model and reality: modificationsmodifications

1515

Role of climatic variationRole of climatic variation

1616

Shift from local isolation to Shift from local isolation to regional integrationregional integration

Break down Break down somewhat in somewhat in industrial and post-industrial and post-industrial economies industrial economies as urban as urban expansion/sprawl expansion/sprawl occuroccur– Development of Development of

faster transportationfaster transportation– Modern refrigerators Modern refrigerators

enable perishable enable perishable products to be products to be transported longer transported longer distancesdistances

1717

Applications of Thünen’s Applications of Thünen’s approach todayapproach today

Useful for economic history of Europe and European Useful for economic history of Europe and European colonialism before the Industrial Revolution (Fernand colonialism before the Industrial Revolution (Fernand Braudel's Civilization and Capitalism)Braudel's Civilization and Capitalism)

Idea of an "isolated state" is archaic in today's worldIdea of an "isolated state" is archaic in today's world– But agricultural patterns in Europe and the US still reflect the But agricultural patterns in Europe and the US still reflect the

economic considerations that influenced von Thüneneconomic considerations that influenced von Thünen Central to modern applicationsCentral to modern applications

– Urban land use patterns (Alonso, 1964)Urban land use patterns (Alonso, 1964)Urban sprawl (Sinclair, 1967)Urban sprawl (Sinclair, 1967)

– Other spatial studies where transportation costs have an Other spatial studies where transportation costs have an influence over decisions on land useinfluence over decisions on land use

Illustrated the use of distance-based gradient analysisIllustrated the use of distance-based gradient analysis– E. g.: the change in value for a variable such as land rent with E. g.: the change in value for a variable such as land rent with

increasing distance from the city centreincreasing distance from the city centre Foreshadowed research on optimization in land allocation Foreshadowed research on optimization in land allocation

to maximize the net return associated with landuse to maximize the net return associated with landuse activitiesactivities

1818

Subsequent contributor of the Subsequent contributor of the concept: Alonso's Bid Rent concept: Alonso's Bid Rent FunctionFunction

Publication: Location and Land Publication: Location and Land Use, 1964.Use, 1964.

Objective: optimal distances Objective: optimal distances of residential and commercial of residential and commercial land uses from CBDland uses from CBD

Assumption: mono-centric cityAssumption: mono-centric city The bid price function for the The bid price function for the

urban firm would be defined urban firm would be defined as follows:as follows:– It describes the prices which It describes the prices which

the firm is willing to pay at the firm is willing to pay at different locations (distances different locations (distances from the city centre) in order from the city centre) in order to achieve a certain level of to achieve a certain level of profits.profits.

Distance from Center

Location

R

ent

Commercial

Industrial

Residential

Agricultural

Alonso: application of Alonso: application of urban model – location urban model – location rentsrents

2020

Concentric model of Concentric model of urban land useurban land use

Urban rent prices – CBDUrban rent prices – CBD Hong KongHong Kong

2121

Other factors determining the Other factors determining the pattern of rent pricespattern of rent prices

2222

Inner structure of citiesInner structure of cities

Friedrich Engels Friedrich Engels (1845): state of (1845): state of working class in working class in EnglandEngland

Richard Hurd (1903) Richard Hurd (1903) Principles of City Land Principles of City Land ValuesValues

2323

Population change of Chicago, Population change of Chicago, 1831–19301831–1930

0

500000

1000000

1500000

2000000

2500000

3000000

3500000

4000000

1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940

fő

2424

Concentric model Concentric model of Burgess & Park of Burgess & Park (1925)(1925)

„„L” L” tracktrackss

Concentric zones of urban land useConcentric zones of urban land use1.1. CBD (Central Business District): Loop CBD (Central Business District): Loop

tracks of elevated railroads, skyscrapers, tracks of elevated railroads, skyscrapers, turismturism

2.2. Zone in transition: mid 19Zone in transition: mid 19thth cent., strong cent., strong ageing, inner industrial, outer residential ageing, inner industrial, outer residential zonezone

3.3. Zone of industrial workingmen’s homes: Zone of industrial workingmen’s homes: late 19late 19thth cent., tenement houses with 2 cent., tenement houses with 2 flatsflats

4.4. Middle- (apartment houses) and high-Middle- (apartment houses) and high-class residential zone (single family class residential zone (single family dwellings)dwellings)

5.5. Commuters zone: suburban settlementsCommuters zone: suburban settlements

6.6. Agricultural zone: supplier beltAgricultural zone: supplier belt

7.7. Gravitation zone: hinterland of metropolisGravitation zone: hinterland of metropolis

25252525

Sectoral model of Hoyt Sectoral model of Hoyt (1939)(1939)

Location of the high-rent Location of the high-rent residental areasresidental areas– Based on the model of BurgessBased on the model of Burgess– For 64 American cities, 3 datesFor 64 American cities, 3 dates

ResultsResults– Sectors instead of concentric circlesSectors instead of concentric circles– Sectors are separated from each Sectors are separated from each

other by the avenuesother by the avenues– Sectors are moving towards the Sectors are moving towards the

edge of the cities on a long run edge of the cities on a long run (suburbanization)(suburbanization)

Urban districts/sectors:Urban districts/sectors:1.1. CBDCBD2.2. Wholesale, light industryWholesale, light industry3.3. Low-class residentialLow-class residential4.4. Middle-class residentialMiddle-class residential5.5. High-class residentialHigh-class residential

2626

Policentric model of Harris & Policentric model of Harris & Ullman (1945)Ullman (1945)

Parts of cities:Parts of cities:1.1. CBDCBD2.2. Wholesale, light Wholesale, light

industryindustry3.3. Low-class Low-class

residentialresidential4.4. Middle-class Middle-class

residentialresidential5.5. High-class High-class

residentialresidential6.6. Heavy Heavy

manufacturingmanufacturing7.7. Outlying business Outlying business

districtdistrict8.8. Residential and Residential and

industrial suburbsindustrial suburbs Outer centres Outer centres

besides the CBDbesides the CBD

2727

Hungarian cases: functional – Hungarian cases: functional – morphological structure of morphological structure of Budapest and the mid-size Budapest and the mid-size townstowns

Towns of the Great Towns of the Great Hungarian PlainHungarian Plain

BudapestBudapest

Closed built-up residential quarterMixed (industrial–residential)Family dwellings

Block of flats

Other clear area

Zone of farmsteads

Definitions and Definitions and harmonising polices of the harmonising polices of the urban concepturban concept

2929

Urban conceptUrban concept

General characteristics of the towns:General characteristics of the towns:– Their role (functions): Their role (functions): ‚‚importantimportant’’ places places– Their demographic features: larger population Their demographic features: larger population

number, population density, heterogeneous number, population density, heterogeneous societysociety

– Image: suiting to thImage: suiting to thee crowd crowd Lack of unified official definition of the Lack of unified official definition of the

concept of the towns, it varies:concept of the towns, it varies:1.1. In space: geographic places/culturesIn space: geographic places/cultures2.2. In time: historical periodsIn time: historical periods3.3. In different disciplinesIn different disciplines

3030

1. Geographic differences of 1. Geographic differences of the concept of the townthe concept of the town

Towns with different size in different societies, Towns with different size in different societies, depending on:depending on:

– Natural resourcesNatural resources– Available material for buildingsAvailable material for buildings– Form of economyForm of economy

Basis of urban–rural separation differsBasis of urban–rural separation differs– Less developed countries: agriculture is still Less developed countries: agriculture is still

determinant determinant basis is the economic structure (weight basis is the economic structure (weight of agriculture)of agriculture)

– Developed world: agriculture is not determinant in Developed world: agriculture is not determinant in villages villages basis is the population density basis is the population density

Critical population number is different in Critical population number is different in different countries for definition of the townsdifferent countries for definition of the towns

– Scandinavia: 200 residentsScandinavia: 200 residents– Some Asian countries: more 10 thousand residentsSome Asian countries: more 10 thousand residents

3131

2. Dinamic change of the 2. Dinamic change of the concept of the town – long concept of the town – long termtermFeatures of the feudal towns:Features of the feudal towns:Wall of the townWall of the town

– For the security of the seatsFor the security of the seats– EtiEtimmologically: castle ologically: castle citizen / German ( citizen / German (‚‚BurgBurg’’

‚‚BürgerBürger’’), Hungarian (), Hungarian (‚‚várvár’’ ‚‚városváros’’))– Visible element of the image of the townsVisible element of the image of the towns

Free rightsFree rights– Paradoxon: citizens behind the walls are more freeParadoxon: citizens behind the walls are more free– Independence from the landlords: Independence from the landlords: ‚‚Stadtluft macht freiStadtluft macht frei’’– Society of the Middle Ages: big importance of the Society of the Middle Ages: big importance of the

additional city rights: taxes, trade, judgementadditional city rights: taxes, trade, judgement

3232

2. Dinamic change of the 2. Dinamic change of the concept of the town – short concept of the town – short termtermFeatures of the modern towns:Features of the modern towns:Decreasing significance of the walls of the Decreasing significance of the walls of the townstowns

– Towns exceeds the limits of its wallsTowns exceeds the limits of its walls– Walls are unable to defend in the Modern AgesWalls are unable to defend in the Modern Ages– Crowd Crowd high density + growing buildings high density + growing buildings

(high rise buildings) (high rise buildings) visible element of the visible element of the image of the towns (instead of walls)image of the towns (instead of walls)

More civil society More civil society decreasing significance decreasing significance of the additional rightsof the additional rights

– Lack of Middle Ages in the New World: critical Lack of Middle Ages in the New World: critical population number (instead of royal city rights)population number (instead of royal city rights)

– Globalization, consuming society Globalization, consuming society consuming consuming culture is determinantculture is determinant

3333

2. Dinamic change of the 2. Dinamic change of the concept of the town – short concept of the town – short termterm Hungarian practise in definition of townsHungarian practise in definition of towns Socialism: advantages of city right Socialism: advantages of city right less new towns less new towns

1.1. Better position at state supportsBetter position at state supports

2.2. Institution, location of higher level of council and party Institution, location of higher level of council and party organisationsorganisations

– 1970: smallest town (Szigetvár) – app. 10 thousand 1970: smallest town (Szigetvár) – app. 10 thousand residentsresidents

1985: cancellation of the State Settlement-1985: cancellation of the State Settlement-development Concept, settlement policy is facing development Concept, settlement policy is facing towards the disadvantageous areas towards the disadvantageous areas easier way of easier way of getting the urban right getting the urban right ‚‚urban boomurban boom’’ (2012: 328) (2012: 328)

– 2012: 185 towns below 10 thousand residents, smallest one 2012: 185 towns below 10 thousand residents, smallest one (Pálháza) – below 1 thousand residents (Pálháza) – below 1 thousand residents decreasing decreasing average size of townsaverage size of towns

3434

Number of towns in Number of towns in Hungary, 1885–2010Hungary, 1885–2010

-50

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

1885

1890

1895

1900

1905

1910

1915

1920

1925

1930

1935

1940

1945

1950

1955

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

váro

sok s

zám

a

új várossá nyílvánítások

városállomány

3535

3. Different approaches in 3. Different approaches in different disciplines in different disciplines in definition of townsdefinition of towns The disciplines dealing with towns are not The disciplines dealing with towns are not

unifiedunified Urban characteristics is different in Urban characteristics is different in

various professional areasvarious professional areas– Geography: central functionsGeography: central functions– Public administration: urban rightPublic administration: urban right– Sociology: social distribution: multicultural + Sociology: social distribution: multicultural +

polarizedpolarized– Urban architectureUrban architecture // Urbanistics: more densely Urbanistics: more densely

built settlement + high buildingsbuilt settlement + high buildings

3636

Characteristics of townsCharacteristics of towns

1.1. Their functions Their functions economic–functional urban concept economic–functional urban conceptA.A. Many-sided and central function within the settlement Many-sided and central function within the settlement

networknetworkB.B. Low significance of agricultureLow significance of agriculture

2.2. Their demographic features Their demographic features social–statistical urban social–statistical urban conceptconcept

A.A. Higher population numberHigher population numberB.B. Higher population densityHigher population density

3.3. Appearance Appearance image–urbanistic urban concept image–urbanistic urban conceptA.A. More crowded building structureMore crowded building structureB.B. Higher average floor numberHigher average floor number

Their significance if different in various periodsTheir significance if different in various periods But: these remained urban feature currently as wellBut: these remained urban feature currently as well

3737

Megacities over 10 milion Megacities over 10 milion residentsresidents

EuEuroperope: sub- and dezurbanization : sub- and dezurbanization slower increase of slower increase of cities cities not characteristic (only Istanbul and Moscow) not characteristic (only Istanbul and Moscow)

Global peripheries: appearance of megacities (megGlobal peripheries: appearance of megacities (megaapolises) polises) parallel with the demographic explosion of the 20parallel with the demographic explosion of the 20thth century century

3838

Classification of the Classification of the Hungarian cities by their Hungarian cities by their population number, 2012population number, 2012

Urban size category

Population number (persons)

Cities belonging to the category

numberTotal

populationPopulation share (%)

City 500 th < 1 1740041 25

Megacity (megapolis)

10 mn < 0 0 0

Worldcity (metropolis)

1–10 mn 1 1740041 25

Regional city

500 th – 1 mn

0 0 0

Mid-size town

20–500 th 58 3036575 44

Small town < 20 th 269 2162686 31

Total 328 69309302 100

3939

Urban and rural areas in Urban and rural areas in the European Union the European Union according to the definition according to the definition of the OECDof the OECD Predominantly urban Predominantly urban

regions: rural population regions: rural population less than 15% of the total less than 15% of the total population of the NUTS3 population of the NUTS3 regionregion

Intermediate regions: rural Intermediate regions: rural population between 15 and population between 15 and 50 % of the total 50 % of the total population of the NUTS3 population of the NUTS3 regionregion

Predominantly rural Predominantly rural regions: rural population is regions: rural population is 50% or more of the total 50% or more of the total population of the NUTS3 population of the NUTS3 regionregion

4040

Urban and rural areas in Urban and rural areas in the European Union the European Union according to the definition according to the definition of the EUof the EU Predominantly urban Predominantly urban

regions: rural population regions: rural population less than 20% of the total less than 20% of the total population of the NUTS3 population of the NUTS3 regionregion

Intermediate regions: rural Intermediate regions: rural population between 20 and population between 20 and 50 % of the total population 50 % of the total population of the NUTS3 regionof the NUTS3 region

Predominantly rural regions: Predominantly rural regions: rural population is 50% or rural population is 50% or more of the total population more of the total population of the NUTS3 regionof the NUTS3 region– This typology is based on a This typology is based on a

definition of urban and rural 1 definition of urban and rural 1 kmkm22 grid cells grid cells

– Critical population density: 300 Critical population density: 300 inhabitants per kminhabitants per km22

– Critical population: 5000 res.Critical population: 5000 res.

4141

Tallest cities of the world Tallest cities of the world (by the average height of (by the average height of their 10 tallest buildings)their 10 tallest buildings)Rank City 2001

Metres

Rank City 2011 Metres

1. New York 1010.4

1. Dubai 1176.1

2. Chicago 995.1 2. Hong Kong 1080.9

3. Kuala Lumpur

852.1 3. Chicago 1036.5

4. Hong Kong 839.6 4. Shanghai 1010.3

5. Houston 809.8 5. Guangzhou 945.7

6. Toronto 776.3 6. New York 940.8

7. Singapore 772.3 7. Shenzhen 907.1

8. Los Angeles 767.1 8. Kuala Lumpur

897.7

9. Tokio 754.3 9. Singapore 835.8

10. Shanghai 747.1 10. Pusan 834.5