INOVASI DAN PRODUKTIVITAS INDUSTRI KECIL

Studi Pada Industri Kecil dan Menengah Manufaktur Logam Di Kabupaten Tegal – Jawa Tengah

Francisca Indarsiani Universitas Kristen Satya Wacana

ISBN 978-602-18388-1-5

Desain Sampul: Francisca Indarsiani

© Francisca Indarsiani

All rights reserved. Save Exception stated by the law, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system of any nature, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, included a complete or partial transcription, without the prior written permission of the author, application for which should be addressed to author.

UNIVERSITAS KRISTEN SATYA WACANA

INOVASI DAN PRODUKTIVITAS

INDUSTRI KECIL

Studi Pada Industri Kecil dan Menengah Manufaktur Logam Di Kabupaten Tegal – Jawa Tengah

DISERTASI

Diajukan untuk memperoleh gelar Doktor di Universitas Kristen Satya Wacana,

disertasi ini telah dipertahankan dalam Ujian Terbuka Program Pasca Sarjana Studi Pembangunan

Universitas Kristen Satya Wacana yang dipimpin oleh Rektor Magnificus Prof. Pdt. John A. Titaley, ThD.

pada hari Selasa, 21 November 2012 di Kampus Universitas Kristen Satya Wacana

Jalan Diponegoro 52-60 Salatiga, Jawa Tengah

Indonesia

Oleh

Francisca Indarsiani Lahir di Sungei Gerong, Sumatra Selatan, Indonesia

Promotor:

Marthen L. Ndoen, SE, MA, PhD. Co-Promotor: Prof. Dr. Ir. Kutut Suwondo, MS. Dr. Soegeng Hardiyanto Penguji: Prof. Daniel D. Kameo, SE, MA, PhD. Dr. Gatot Sasongko, SE, MS. Prof. Wihana Kirana Jaya, M.Soc.Sc., PhD.

“Governments do not trade. Governments do not create the world’s added value.

People do—entrepreneurs. Economic considerations have long since overwhelmed

political considerations. The role of government ought to be to stay out of the way so entrepreneurs and corporations can continue to

create the global economy”.

[Naisbitt, 1996:34]

Summary ____________________________________

The Indonesia Competitiveness Report 2011 indicates that Indonesia is now the 17th largest economy in the world; and, the 6th largest of all developing countries. With an average economic growth rate of 6.4% in 2011, Indonesia is one of a few countries which are expected to contribute to Asia’s 50% contribution to global growth over the next five years. This, despite the fact much of Indonesia’s increasing trend in economic growth is supported by high domestic consumption levels and increased exports of raw products and low value-added industrial output – a trend that is not healthy or desirable in the long term.

Meanwhile, in an era of globalization and a more open economy featuring increased volumes of foreign goods, local producers must make their products competitive not only in their own domestic markets, but in global markets as well. In order to succeed, Indonesian firms have to find ground-breaking advances that allow them to breakthrough and be more competitive. Innovation plays a critical role in this campaign to survive and grow; and as a result, recent literature and public dialogue in this subject area has increasingly focused on the whole paradigm of innovation. In Asia, innovation cases are often presented with findings from studies in the Middle Income Countries (MICs) of Asia, such as Korea, Taiwan and China. Their collective impressive performance in innovation has been largely measured by new applications of technology and improved production methods.

In the case of Indonesia, the government believes that the sector to be targeted in terms of value addition and augmented innovation is the manufacturing sector, with the metal manufacturing industry representing one of the sectors with the highest potential for sustainable growth. This industry sector is, however, dominated by small-sized firms, which are typically encumbered with the challenges of a low capability to absorb new technologies, most often exacerbated by limited access to financial debt capital. While innovation theories

take various forms, from technological-pull and market-push to a more complex-interactive model, the particular situation for most metal industrial firms, particularly those at the lower end of the spectrum, dictates the need for a unique and more small-firm-specific approach to innovation. That is, the operating environment and parameters of small firms demand different approaches to the introduction and implementation of innovation than do medium and larger sized manufacturers.

This empirical study that was conducted with 12 small and medium scale metal industrial firms in Tegal District, Central Java served to reconstruct the typical approach to innovation undertaken by small industries within the research area. Specifically in Tegal, metal industrial firms are involved in 3 separate manufacturing activities: metal casting, machining and fabrication.

The strong link between metal industry and various technical fields in the manufacturing sector has resulted in a definition for innovation that evolves from engineering disciplines. This mindset has stimulated government-led R&D and technological innovation; such as the National Rusnas Research Program innovation, which is aimed at identifying competitive products for small businesses in the district to produce. The case of Rusnas is an example of applying a misleading definition and interpretation of innovation, as it fails to include both commercial viability and internal implementation systems in small industries as components of its approach to promoting innovation.

Research reveals that most literature and studies of Tegal metal industries focus on production and technological innovation. Significantly, studies on metal industries in Tegal District have been directed only on technology diffusion and applications in the cluster business model – a common approach which epitomizes the bulk of the literature, with its focus on large firms and their advantages for both financing and adopting the findings of extensive R&D programs. This is not the sphere of reality for small firms. Contrary to all of these theories and concepts, the findings of this research suggests that

Summary

innovation in small industries is not all about, and cannot be all about new product development that requires expensive R&D and modern CNC technology applications. Although Tegal metal industry has been evolving for over one hundred and thirty years, it does not automatically mean that the mostly small scale firms of this sector would be able to easily absorb years of knowledge diffusion, automatically. In fact, their collective ability to adopt and apply new innovations has been historically stymied by the two factors cited above: a low capability to absorb new technologies; and, limited access to debt capital.

The reality is that innovation in the Tegal metal manufacturing industry sector is actually triggered by two critical elements: leadership and market opportunity. Eight out of 12 firms researched are family-owned enterprises, whereby all but one is controlled by a second generation owner. Importantly, in these small firms in Tegal, innovation is driven by the leadership of the owners of the firms. The degree of success realized in undertaking these innovations in this sector has been habitually determined by the capacity of leadership to access external factors for use in endogenous innovation. Despite the presence of a state-run innovation center in the business district, findings of this research conclusively demonstrate the critical role the owner plays in deciding on the degree of utilization of exogenous factors, including the application of technology, in the innovation process.

In most cases, external factors are being mobilized only when buyers demand good quality products that require the application of higher forms of technology, such as those engaged in sub-contracting business arrangements. To sustain a relationship with a buyer, businesses are required to follow international standards of efficiency and effectiveness with their production systems, in order to produce quality products. This explains why firms engaged in subcontracting arrangements tend to focus more on innovative production.

Leadership in the context of small firm business innovation is identified as the capacity to manage endogenous innovations that take into account critical exogenous factors. Business cultures which have evolved over more than a hundred years, have typically adopted more traditional business practices, with unstructured divisions of labour. Each worker’s attitude and behaviour is influenced by his or her experiences in their workshops. Overall management practices usually depend upon a strong leadership role by the owner. Thus, in situations where the leader is no longer directly involved in managing the business, his/her company faces much greater risks to survive. The success of small firms in this industrial sector is very owner-dependent.

Apart from technology, the most critical external factor is market opportunity, usually identified in the form of regular job orders from subcontractor partnerships, tender of government procurement project and special job orders. Market opportunities do not only allow small firm to pursue a more advanced innovation activity, but in fact, they provide a way to sustain their businesses. The primary concern of small firms is all about maintaining day-to-day cash flow.

Empirical findings from this research supports the theoretical argument about the different roles the market plays in stimulating innovation. In larger scale industries, the market provides a source of inspiration for new product trends that serves to motivate firms to undertake further innovations in product development. In small businesses, market opportunities usually just materialize in the form of job orders, which in turn generate capital for innovation.

Tegal metal industry firms hardly ever undertake innovations for new product development; hence, it is difficult to find products unique to Tegal in the marketplace. In fact, most innovations are in the form of product differentiation, or sometimes in the guise of minor modifications to existing products. Most innovation activity in this area has been incremental. This set of circumstances for small firms reinforces the reason why they continue to play a role as the suppliers of different components for larger, mostly foreign manufacturing

Summary

firms in automotive, heavy equipment and shipbuilding industries, as well as for machinery for other metalworking segments in areas like agriculture, health equipment and machinery. The most sophisticated, complete product produced by local businesses in Tegal consists of traditional hand-tractors for farming. The findings of the empirical study with reference to the strong leadership role played by the owners of the researched firms, leads to the conclusion that it is not easy to integrate external interventions into small businesses. The theories and concepts of innovation based on knowledge and technology are not all relevant to the actual situation of small businesses in Tegal District. Although metal industry is a sector that requires the application of technical expertise to operate production systems; small businesses habitually must undertake any changes via a ‘trial and error’ experimental approach. Testing new concepts in the workshop in small steps with efficient applications of tight budget is more the norm and more than critical for small firms trying to adopt prospective innovations. This fact explains why training implemented by government or private business service providers, that is not demand-driven or tailor-made to the needs of small businesses usually will not help improve technical and managerial knowledge and skills; or be the right kind of support for small firms to utilize innovation to their sustainable advantage.

Pengantar _____________________________

Selama masa perkuliahan dan penulisan buku disertasi ini, saya memperoleh dukungan dan dorongan dari berbagai pihak di Salatiga, Semarang, Tegal dan Jakarta. Penelitian lapangan dan penulisan buku ini merupakan hasil kerja keras yang berlangsung cukup lama. Di awal proses penulisan, tidak mudah untuk merumuskan alur pikir inovasi berdasar bukti empiris. Hal ini disebabkan karena di satu pihak inovasi dipersepsikan sebagai sesuatu yang sederhana, menyangkut teknologi dan R&D, serta persoalan terobosan baru dalam usaha bisnis. Di lain pihak, inovasi ternyata merupakan konsep yang cukup kompleks. Sebab itu, saya sangat bersyukur bahwa pada akhirnya buku disertasi ini dapat diselesaikan dengan baik.

Penulisan buku ini adalah atas bimbingan yang diberikan oleh Promotor Bapak Marthen L. Ndoen, SE, MA, PhD. dan Co-Promotor Prof. Dr. Ir. Kutut Suwondo, MS. dan Dr. Soegeng Hardiyanto. Kepada para pembimbing saya sampaikan apresiasi dan rasa hormat setingginya atas dedikasi yang diberikan selama proses penyusunan dan penulisan hingga selesainya buku ini dengan sempurna. Kepada Bapak Marthen Ndoen terima kasih telah meluangkan banyak waktu untuk memberikan pengarahan terkait struktur tulisan dan substansi isi bab, mempertajam analisis dan sintesis serta kesimpulan dari temuan penelitian.

Saya juga merasa sangat beruntung dapat dibimbing oleh Bapak Kutut Suwondo sejak awal rencana penelitian, sehingga disertasi ini menjadi lebih sistematis dan sesuai tujuan. Bapak Kutut banyak memberi masukan mengenai perumusan theoritical gap dan benang merah hasil temuan penelitian. Proses pembimbingan ini menjadi semakin lengkap dengan kehadiran Bapak Sugeng Hardiyanto yang sangat peduli terhadap teknik penulisan disertasi yang benar, dengan merumuskan alur pikir yang tepat mengenai konsep inovasi. Melalui kritik dan

Inovasi dan Produktivitas Usaha Industri Kecil dan Menengah

masukannya, saya banyak belajar untuk senantiasa menjaga profesionalisme dalam menulis.

Keberhasilan menyelesaikan buku disertasi ini juga berkat keterlibatan dosen penguji, yaitu Prof. Daniel D. Kameo, SE, MA, PhD, Dr. Gatot Sasongko, SE, MS dan Prof. Wihana Kirana Jaya, M.Soc.Sc., PhD. Saya sampaikan penghargaan setingginya atas masukan dan kritikan terhadap substansi buku disertasi ini yang disampaikan saat ujian tertutup. Kepada Bapak Daniel Kameo saya haturkan ucapan terima kasih yang sebesarnya karena telah membuka akses bagi keikutsertaan saya dalam program doktoral studi pembangunan di UKSW. Juga kepada Bapak Wihana Kirana, saya sangat menghargai kesediaannya menjadi dosen penguji, kendati sangat sibuk sebagai Dekan Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Gajah Mada.

Saya sampaikan pula ucapan terima kasih kepada dosen pengajar lain, yang memiliki andil dalam meningkatkan pengetahuan saya selama berkuliah di UKSW dan secara tidak langsung ikut membantu mewujudkan usaha saya menyelesaikan buku disertasi ini, yaitu kepada Dr. Ir. Lasmono TS, M.Sc, Drs. David S Widihandojo, Ph.D, Prof Liek Wilardjo, PhD, Prof. Dr. Kris Herawan Timotius, Dr, Kristantius, Prof. Dr. Ir. Sony Heru Priyanto, MM, Titi Susilowati Prabawa, SPd, MA, PhD dan Prof. Supramono, SE. MBA. DBA.

Penelitian ini tidak mungkin dilakukan tanpa dukungan dari para tokoh dari usaha kecil dan menengah logam, pusat inovasi, pemerintah dan institusi politeknik yang ada di Kabupaten Tegal. Terima kasih tak terhingga untuk mas Jite Syaekhudin dan mas Suyanto yang membantu proses pemilihan informan dari kalangan pengusaha dan pemerintah dan membuka akses kepada individu yang menjadi informan, dan sekaligus mengatur pertemuan-pertemuan sepanjang penelitian ini dilakukan. Saya mengucapkan terima kasih tak terhingga kepada Bapak Asep Syaefuddin, Sdr Rizal, Bapak Darsono, Bapak Harnanto, Bapak Parwono Edy, Bapak Imron Rosadi, Sdr Tamliho, Bapak Abdullah NS, Fariz, Bapak Teddy, Bapak Lukas, Sdr Herry, Bapak Aran Pusponegoro,

Bapak Dodo Anggoro, Bapak Oka Wijiarto, Bapak Dasuki, Bapak Bambang Susanto, Bapak Khaerudin, Eko, Iwan dan Denny Wijayanto.

Masa kuliah menjadi menyenangkan dan produktif dengan kehadiran teman-teman satu angkatan: Agus Suryono, Prasetyo Aribowo, Sri Suwartiningsih, Widiastuti, Mohamad Sumarsono dan Gunarto Taslim. Pada akhirnya saya sangat setuju bahwa menjadi doktor ternyata tidak mudah, antara putus asa dan tidak ingin menyerah. Saya memilih untuk tidak menyerah. Secara khusus ucapan terima kasih ini saya sampaikan kepada Sri karena perannya sebagai ‘Kepala Suku’ banyak membantu dalam persoalan teknis akademis, Prasetyo untuk dorongan semangat berprestasi dan dukungan untuk memperoleh data propinsi, Agus yang telah meyakinkan untuk berkuliah di UKSW, mendukung penelitian di Kabupaten Tegal, dan memberikan masukan penting terkait temuan lapangan, Widiastuti untuk keahliannya dalam persoalan substansi hukum, dan membantu memperkaya pengetahuan ‘hak kepemilikan industri’, Gunarto untuk pengalaman advokasi isu-isu penting dalam masyarakat dan yang tak kalah pentingnya adalah sahabat Sumarsono, pendorong sema,ngat untuk segera menyelesaikan buku ini. Kombinasi ilmu dan pengalaman kerja yang berbeda, mulai dari pemerintah, universitas dan lembaga swadaya masyarakat, telah memperkaya diskusi-diskusi yang berlangsung di kelas. Terima kasih untuk kebersamaan dan kekompakan yang dibangun semasa kuliah.

Tak lupa terselip ucapan terima kasih kepada Yola Wawolumaja dan Kezia Ayu, yang telah membantu dalam persiapan teknis administrasi setiap menjelang dilakukannya seminar dan segala bentuk pengujian disertasi ini. Tanpa mereka, mahasiswa yang berdomisili di luar Jawa Tengah pasti menghadapi tantangan yang lebih berat.

Kehadiran saya di perkuliahan di Salatiga tidak mungkin diwujudkan tanpa persetujuan dari pimpinan kantor dimana saya bekerja. Untuk itu saya sampaikan rasa hormat saya kepada Ms. Rosalind Coleman, Kepala CIDA (Canadian Inrternational Development Agency) di Jakarta ketika itu, yang telah memberikan ijin kepada saya untuk hadir diperkuliahan setiap hari Jumat, selama setahun sehingga saya dapat memenuhi

Inovasi dan Produktivitas Usaha Industri Kecil dan Menengah

ketentuan perkuliahan UKSW. Pengaturan jadwal kuliah pada akhir minggu memberi peluang kepada pekerja seperti saya untuk berpartisipasi di program doktoral ini. Untuk itu salut kepada UKSW yang telah membuat kebijakan yang inklusif. Terima kasih pula atas masukan dan koreksi yang diberikan oleh Tim Reynolds, teman dan mitra kerja dalam melaksanakan program kerjasama Canada-Indonesia di bidang pengembangan sektor usaha di beberapa wilayah di Indonesia, khususnya di Sulawesi.

Lamanya waktu yang dibutuhkan untuk menyelesaikan buku disertasi ini menyebabkan berkurangnya perhatian yang diberikan kepada keluarga. Untuk itu saya ingin menyampaikan rasa syukur yang sedalam-dalamnya atas dukungan dan pengertian dari suami, Irfani Darma dan anak-anak: Fabian, Syaharani, Kevin, Tata, Zsazsa, Ati dan Tya. Teristimewa untuk Syaharani dan Fabian, terima kasih telah bersabar menunggu dan menjadi mandiri.

Jakarta, 21 November 2012 Francisca Indarsiani

Daftar Isi _____________________________

Daftar Isi ............................................................................................... vii Daftar Akronim……………………………………………………… xi Daftar Tabel.......................................................................................... xiii Daftar Gambar...................................................................................... xv Daftar Skema ....................................................................................... xvii Daftar Boks.......................................................................................... xix Pengantar..............................................................................................xxiii Bab 1 Pendahuluan.................................................................................. 1 Inovasi dan Produktivitas …………………………………………….. 1 Konsep Inovasi ........................................................................................ 4 Industri Manufaktur Logam ….............................................................. 8 Usaha Industri Kecil ….………................……………........................ 11 Penelitian Inovasi Industri Kecil ....................................................... 14 Kabupaten Tegal ................................................................................... 17 Garis Besar Isi Buku............................................................................... 18 Bab 2 Pandangan Kritis Inovasi Usaha ............................................... 23 Inovasi ……………………………………………………………….. 23 Inovasi dan Entrepreneurship..... ......................................................... 27 Kepemimpinan dan Struktur Institusi Sosial........................................ 30 Evolusi Model Inovasi dari Generasi ke Generasi............................... 34 Inovasi Proses Produksi......................................................................... 37 Sistem Inovasi dan Mekanisme Klaster ................................................ 39 Inovasi Dalam Struktur Ekonomi Negara Berkembang ...................... 48 Peran Institusi Publik ........................................................................... 50 Pengalaman Praktis Middle Income Countries................................... 52 Pengukuran Kinerja Inovasi ................................................................ 64 Rekapitulasi Teori dan Konsep Inovasi ……..............……...……...... 70 Bab 3 Mendulang Informasi .................….......................................... 73

Inovasi dan Produktivitas Usaha Industri Kecil dan Menengah

Pendekatan Penelitian……… ……………………………................. 73 Skopa Usaha IKM Logam....................................................................... 76 Kabupaten Tegal ................................................................................... 78 Survei dan Wawncara .......................................................................... 80 Analisa Data........................................................................................... 86 Bab 4 Lingkungan Usaha..................................................................... 89 Daya Saing Produk Lokal…………………………..........………...… 89 Struktur Industri Logam...................................................................... 94 Karakteristik Geografis dan Historis................................................... 96 Kontribusi Industri Manufaktur Logam.............................................. 102 Pemikiran Pemerintah......................................................................... 105 Sistem Inovasi ...................................................................................... 116 Karakteristik Entrepreneurial............................................................ 124 Bab 5 Inovasi Endogen Usaha Kecil……..……………………....... 127 Konteks Usaha Kecil……………………........................................... 127 Startups. Trial and Error dan Imitasi………………………............ 136 Pemimpin Visioner……. ………………….……………………...... 143 Peran Pengetahuan Rancang Bangun….…………….…................. 147 Eksperimen Dalam Bengkel…… ……………….............................. 157 Spillover Pengetahuan…… …………………………………... ...... 161 Strategi Pilihan Teknologi……… ……………………………....... 163 Peluang Pasar………… ………………………………………........ 170 Dilema Sertifikasi dan Paradox Paten.............................................., 179 Kesimpulan…… ………………………………………………........ 183 Bab 6 Stimulan Exogen........... ......................................................... 191 Job Order Penggerak Inovasi……… …………………………........ 192 Tender Proyek Pemerintah…… ………………………………...... 194 Kemitraan Usaha Subkontrak…… …………………...,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,..... 195 Kesimpulan…… …...……..………………………............................ 212 Bab 7 Pemerintah dan Inovasi Usaha Kecil...................................... 215 Layanan Teknologi Modern.............................................................. 215 Kerjasama Swasta-Pemerintah.......................................................... 223

Pencitraan Daerah Melalui Produk Unggulan................................. 231 Rusnas: Mimpi Industri Permesinan Nasional................................ 233 Potensi Inovasi Traktor Tangan......................................................... 239 Kesimpulan..... .................................................................................... 244 Bab 8 Penggerak Inovasi: Sebuah Sintesa......................................... 249 Aras Inovasi................... ..................................................................... 249 Kapasitas Inovasi Usaha Kecil............................................................ 255 Interaksi Elemen Inovasi……........................................................... 263 Kepemimpinan............ ...................................................................... 264 Pasar Determinan Inovasi.................................................................. 273 Eksperimen Bengkel.......................................................................... 278 Peran Teknologi................................................................................ 281 Antara Imitasi dan Inovasi................................................................. 287 Hak Kepemilikan Industri................................................................. 290 Intervensi Pemerintah....................................................................... 295 Inovasi dan Produktivitas Usaha....................................................... 300 Kesimpulan......................................................................................... 309 Bab 9 Kesimpulan........ ..................................................................... 319 Rekonstruksi Konsep Inovasi........................................................... 319 Implikasi Praktis............................................................................... 325 Penutup............................................................................................. 326 Daftar Pustaka................................................................................... 329 Summary…………………………………………………………... 347

Daftar Akronim _____________________________

ACFTA : Asia-China Free Trade Agreement ADB: Asian Development Bank APEC: Asia-Pacific Economic Committee BLU: Badan Layanan Umum BPM: Badan Penanaman Modal BPPT: Badan Pengkajian dan Penerapan Teknologi CNC: Computerized Numeric Controlled DRD: Dewan Riset Daerah HAKI/HKI: Hak Kepemilikan Intelektual IFC : International Finance Cooperation IPEDA: Iuran Pembangunan Daerah ISIC: International Standard Classification of All Economic Activities KemenKUKM (KKUKM): Kementrian Koperasi dan Usaha Kecil Menengah Kemenperin: Kementerian Perindustrian LIK Takaru: Lingkungan Industri Kecil Takaru MICs (Middle Income Countries): Negara Berpenghasilan Menengah MP3EI: Masterplan Percepatan dan Perluasan Pembangunan Ekonomi Indonesia MPRS: Majelis Perwakilan Rakyat Sementara NSI: National System of Innovation P&G: Perusahaan Procter&Gamble PHK: Pemutusan Hubungan Kerja PPIT (Pusat Pelayanan dan Inovasi Teknologi): sarana usaha dan pembinaan

terpadu yang bertujuan meningkatkan kompetensi daya saing industri kecil dan menengah di Kabupaten Tegal

R&D (Research and Development): Penelitian dan Pembangunan RPJMD: Rencana Program Jangka Menengah Daerah RPJMN: Rencana Program Jangka Menengah Nasional SIDa: Sistem Inovasi Daerah SK Menperindag: Surat Keputusan Menteri Perindustrian dan Perdagangan SKPD: Satuan Kerja Pemerintah Daerah SNI: Standar Nasional Industri TAF: The Asia Foundation TNI: Tentara Nasional Indonesia

Inovasi dan Produktivitas Usaha Industri Kecil dan Menengah

TQC: Total Quality Control UPT Logam: Unit Pelaksana Teknis (Propinsi) UPTD Lab: Unit Pelaksana Teknis Daerah (Kabupaten) Laboratorium untuk

uji komposisi dan kekuatan materi UD : Usaha Dagang YDBA: Yayasan Dharma Bhakti Astra

Daftar Tabel _____________________________

Tabel 3.1. Responden Survei – Klaster Komponen Perkapalan……. 82 Tabel 3.2. Informan Kegiatan Wawancara............................................ 85 Tabel 4.1. Jumlah Unit Usaha Berdasar Sektor Ekonomi Th 2009... . 103 Tabel 5.1. Profil Usaha Industri Kecil dan menengah Logam............ 133 Tabel 5.2. Peluang Inovasi Usaha Industri Kecil................................. 187 Tabel 8.1. Tingkatan dan Aras Inovasi................................................. 251 Tabel 8.2. Tahapan Perkembangan Inovasi di Kabupaten Tegal….. 293

Daftar Gambar _____________________________

Gambar 4.1. Peta Kabupaten Tegal…………………………....… 98 Gambar 5.1. Bagian depan lay-out bengkel usaha kecil................ 129 Gambar 5.2. Sentra Industri Komponen Kapal.............................. 132 Gambar 5.3. Produk Hydran Air ................................................... 149 Gambar 5.4. Inovasi Eksperimen Bengkel Mesin Hidrolik...…... 152 Gambar 5.5. Inovasi Mesin Hidrolik Bending Press..……...…... 166 Gambar 5.6. Peralatan Mesin Usaha Industri Kecil....................... 169 Gambar 5.7. Peralatan Hidrolik Press Buatan Sendiri …....……. 171 Gambar 5.8. Peralatan Mesin Usaha Menengah………...…….. 173 Gambar 6.1. Kondisi Tempat Usaha Di Kawasan LIK Takaru...... 202 Gambar 6.2. Lay-out Bengkel Usaha Industri Menengah…..… 205 Gambar 7.1. Kondisi Bangunan Tempat Usaha di LIK....... ......... 221 Gambar 7.2. Mesin Diesel Silent Hasil Inovasi…………………. 238 Gambar 7.3. Traktor tTangan Takaru buatan Kelompok SIM … 241

Daftar Skema _____________________________

Skema 2.1. Technology Push………………………………………… 35 Skema 2.2. Market Push……………………………………………… 35 Skema 2.3. Coupling of R&D and Marketing……………………….. 36 Skema 2.4. Integrated Business Process…………………………….. 37 Skema 2.5. Dua Aliran Konsep Inovasi……………. ……………….. 71 Skema 5.1. Bentuk Inovasi Berdasar Pasar………………………….. 177 Skema 5.2. Proses Inovasi dalam Tahapan Kegiatan Bisnis................ 188 Skema 6.1. Inovasi Usaha Industri Menengah.................................... 213 Skema 8.1. Tingkatan Aras Inovasi……………….............................. 253 Skema 8.2. Inovasi Endogen dan Faktor Exogen................................ 262 Skema 9.1. Proses Inovasi Pada Level Unit Usaha Kecil.................... 311

Daftar Boks _____________________________

Boks 5.1. Visi Kepemimpinan PT IM (1)……...................................… 143 Boks 5.2. Rancang Bangun dan Baca Gambar..........................................148 Boks 5.3. Eksperimen Bengkel Indra Sandjaja……….…...................... 156 Boks 5.4. Manfaat Spillover…………………………………………… 165 Boks 5.5. Inovasi Diversifikasi PT IM (3)…..............……………...…. 175 Boks 5.6. PT IK (2) – Proses Sertifikasi Alkes…………..………...…... 183 Boks 7.1. Inovasi Kelompok SIM – PT IK (7)………............................ 240