insecticides photograph by scott bauer stephen j. toth, jr.wayne g. buhler department of...
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InsecticidesInsecticides
Photograph by Scott Bauer
Stephen J. Toth, Jr. Wayne G. BuhlerDepartment of Entomology Department of Horticultural ScienceNorth Carolina State University North Carolina State University
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Insects and MitesInsects and Mites
• 99% of species are of minor importance
• Beneficial insects and mites are small group which include honey bees, lady beetles, parasitic wasps, and predaceous mites
• Destructive insects and mites represent the smallest but most notable group
Photographs by Steve Bambara and Jack Bacheler.
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History of Insecticide UseHistory of Insecticide Use
• Greek philosopher Homer reported the use of sulfur for fumigation and other pest control uses (1000 B.C.)
• Pliny the Elder reported pest control practices from Greek literature (70 A.D.); included use of pepper and tobacco extracts, soapy water, vinegar, turpentine, fish oil, brine, lye, etc.
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History of Insecticide UseHistory of Insecticide Use
• As recently as the 1940s, insecticides limited to the arsenicals, petroleum oils, nicotine, pyrethrum, rotenone, sulfur, hydrogen cyanide gas and cryolite
• Synthetic organic insecticides introduced after World War II
National Agriculture Library
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The Criteria for JudgingThe Criteria for JudgingInsecticide EffectivenessInsecticide Effectiveness
• Controls insects
• Cost effective
• Environmentally safe
• Can be used safely
Tim McCabe
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Mode of Action of InsecticidesMode of Action of Insecticides
• Nerve poisons (axonic and synaptic)
• Metabolic inhibitors
• Muscle poisons
• Alkylating agents
• Physical toxicants
• Cytolytic (cellular) toxins
USDA/ARS
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Mode of Action of InsecticidesMode of Action of InsecticidesNerve PoisonsNerve Poisons
• Axonic poisons: effect electronic transmission of nerve impulses along nerve axon; cause repetitive discharges of nerves that eventually results in paralysis; examples include DDT, pyrethrum and synthetic pyrethroids
• Synaptic poisons: effect electronic transmission (chemical) of nerve impulse across junction between nerve cells (synapses); cause repetitive discharges of nerves that results in paralysis; examples include organochlorines, organphosphates, carbamates and nicotine
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Mode of Action of InsecticidesMode of Action of Insecticides• Metabolic inhibitors: effect electron transport chain;
examples are rotenone (slows heartbeat, depresses respiration and oxygen consumption, and causes paralysis and death) and arsenicals (inhibit respiratory enzymes)
• Muscle poisons: have a direct action on muscle tissue; examples are ryania and sabadilla which increases oxygen consumption, followed by paralysis and death
• Alkylating agents: react directly with chromosomes and enzymes in cells; examples are fumigants such as methyl bromide and ethylene dibromide
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Mode of Action of InsecticidesMode of Action of Insecticides
• Physical toxicants: mechanically blocks a physiological process; examples are oil (blocks respiratory openings in insects) and boric acid and silica gel (effects insect cuticle causing dehydration and death)
• Cytolytic (cellular) toxins: cause cells to rupture and disintegrate; example is Bacillus thuringiensis which is ingested by insects and disrupts cells in the gut (causing paralysis of gut and cessation of feeding)
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Routes of Exposure to InsecticidesRoutes of Exposure to Insecticides
• Stomach poisons: insecticide must be ingested by the insect for toxic effect
• Contact poisons: the insect must come into contact with insecticide for toxic effect
Scott Bauer
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Classes of Insecticides: InorganicsClasses of Insecticides: Inorganics• Inorganic insecticides do not contain carbon
• Usually white and crystalline, resembling salts
• Stable chemicals (persistent), do not evaporate and are frequently soluble in water
• Sulfur: stomach poison; oldest known insecticide; controls mites, thrips, scale insects and caterpillars
• Arsenicals: stomach poisons; very useful to agriculture from 1930 to 1956; include Paris green, lead arsenate and calcium arsenate
• Others: cryolite (fluorine), boric acid and silica gels
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Classes of Insecticides: BotanicalsClasses of Insecticides: Botanicals• Botanical insecticides are toxicants derived from plants
• Flowers, leaves and roots are finely ground and used, or toxic ingredients of plants are extracted and used alone or in mixture; expensive; low toxicity to mammals
• Used for centuries; maximum use in U. S. in the 1960s
• Nicotine: tobacco extracts, nicotine sulfate; nicotine is a nerve poison (mimics acetylcholine at nerve synapse)
Ken Hammond
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Classes of Insecticides: BotanicalsClasses of Insecticides: Botanicals
• Rotenone: roots of Derris or cube plants; rotenone is both contact and stomach poison; used for control of many insects and fish
• Pyrethrum: extracted from flower of chrysanthemum; nerve poison that paralyzes insects quickly (“knock down” effect); used in household sprays and aerosols, and on many vegetables, fruits and ornamental plants
• Others: Ryania (roots of shrub), Limonene (citrus peels), Sabadilla (seeds of lily) and Neem (oil extracts of neem tree seeds)
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Classes of Insecticides: OrganochlorinesClasses of Insecticides: Organochlorines
• Insecticides that contain carbon (organo-), chlorine and hydrogen; also known as chlorinated hydrocarbons
• Highly persistent and bioaccumulate in environment
• DDT: nerve poison (effects axon); more than 4 billion pounds used in agriculture and for public health; very inexpensive to produce (22 cents per pound); DDT’s persistence in the environment resulted in ban of its use in U. S. in 1973
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Classes of Insecticides: OrganochlorinesClasses of Insecticides: Organochlorines
• Lindane: gamma isomer of benzenehexachloride; nerve poison that resembles DDT; limited uses remain
• Cyclodienes: includes chlordane, aldrin, dieldrin and heptachlor; extremely persistent insecticides and stable in the soil; used in soil to control termites and soil insect pests of agriculture; uses cancelled (1975-1988)
• Toxaphene: a polychloroterpene; once used on cotton
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Classes of Insecticides: OrganophosphatesClasses of Insecticides: Organophosphates
• Insecticides that contain phosphorus
• Distinctive features are their acute toxicity to vertebrate animals and chemical instability (less persistent in the environment than organochlorines); related to nerve gases
• Nerve poisons that inhibit acetylcholinesterase at nerve synapses; cause rapid twitching of muscles and paralysis
• Examples include malathion, chlorpyrifos (Dursban), diazinon and methyl parathion
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Classes of Insecticides: CarbamatesClasses of Insecticides: Carbamates
• Insecticides that are derivatives of carbamic acid
• Distinctive features are their low toxicity to mammals (exception is aldicarb) and broad spectrum of insect control (used widely for lawn and garden insects)
• Nerve poisons that inhibit acetylcholinesterase at nerve synapses; cause rapid twitching of muscles and paralysis
• Examples are carbaryl (Sevin) and aldicarb (Temik)
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Classes of Insecticides: PyrethroidsClasses of Insecticides: Pyrethroids
• Synthetic insecticides related to pyrethrum (botanical)
• Pyrethroids are much more stable in sunlight (persistent) than pyrethrum and effective against insects at very low application rates (0.1 pound per acre)
• Nerve poisons that effect nerve axon; cause repetitive discharges of nerves which results in eventual paralysis
• Examples are allethrin and permethrin
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Classes of Insecticides: BiorationalsClasses of Insecticides: Biorationals
• Natural or synthetic substances specific for target pest(s), but have no adverse effect on humans or environment
• Insect pheromones: sex pheromones used for male trapping, monitoring, detection and mating disruption; example is gossyplure (pink bollworm)
Jack Bacheler
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Classes of Insecticides: BiorationalsClasses of Insecticides: Biorationals• Insect growth regulators: disrupt
the growth and development of immature insects into adults; insect mortality is typically slow; examples are methoprene and fenoxycarb (Logic)
• Microbials: bacteria (Bacillus thuringiensis), viruses, fungi, protozoa and nematodes that are isolated, cultured and mass-produced for use as insecticides Scott Bauer
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Classes of Insecticides: New ChemicalsClasses of Insecticides: New Chemicals
• Nicotinoids: action similar to nicotine; example is imidacloprid (Gaucho)
• Spinosyns: fermentation product of soil-inhabiting microorganisms; example is spinosid (Tracer)
• Pyrrole: chlorfenapyr (Pirate)
• Phenylpyrazole: fipronil (Frontline)
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ReferencesReferences
• Ware, G. W. An Introduction to Insecticides. 3rd edition. Radcliffe’s IPM World Textbook. (http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapters/ware.htm)
• Ware, G. W. 1994. The Pesticide Book. 4th edition. Thomson Publications, Fresno, California. pp. 41-74.