integrated water resources management in the caribbean

8/16/2019 Integrated Water Resources Management in the Caribbean

1/52

Integratedwater resources

management

in the Caribbean:

The challenges facing SmallIsland Developing States

T F PECHNICAL OCUS APER

www.gwp.org


2/52

www.gwp.org2

Global Water Pa rtnership (GWP), es tablished in 1996, is an international network open to

a ll organisa tions involved in wa ter resources mana gement: developed a nd developing country

government institutions, a gencies of the United Na tions, b i- and multila tera l development

ba nks, professiona l as sociations, research institutions, non-governmenta l organisa tions, a nd

the priva te s ector. GWP wa s crea ted to fos ter Integrate d Water Resources Management (IWRM),

which aims to ensure the co-ordinated development and ma nagement of water, land, a nd

related resources by maximising economic a nd socia l welfa re without compromising the

sustainability of vital environmental systems.

GWP promotes IWRM by crea ting fora a t global, regional a nd national levels, des igned

to support sta keholders in the pra ctical implementation o f IWRM. The Pa rtnership's governance

includes the Technical Committee (TEC), a group of interna tionally recognised profess ionals and

scientists skilled in the different as pects of water management. This committee, whose

members come from different regions of the world, provides technical support and ad vice to theother governance a rms and to the Pa rtnership as a whole. The Technical Committee has been

charged with developing a n a nalytical framework of the water sector a nd proposing a ctions that

will promote s usta inable wa ter resources management. The Technical Committee maintains a n

open cha nnel with the GWP Regiona l Wa ter Partnerships (RWPs) around the world to facilita te

a pplica tion of IWRM regiona lly and na tionally.

Worldwide adoption and a pplica tion of IWRM req uires changing the way business is

conducted by the international wate r resources community, particula rly the way investments

a re made. To effect changes of this nature and scope, new ways to address the globa l, regionaland conceptual aspects and agendas of implementing actions are required.

ATechnical Focus Pa per is a publica tion of the GWP Technical Committee aimed a t harnessing

and sha ring knowledge and experiences genera ted by Knowledge Partners and Regional/Country

Water Partnerships through the GWP Knowledge Cha in.

© Globa l Wa ter Partnership, 2014. All rights reserved.

This publication is the property of Globa l Wate r Partnership (GWP) a nd is protected by intellectua l property

laws. Portions of the text may be reproduced for educational or non-commercial use without prior

permiss ion from GWP, provided tha t the source is a cknowledged, with mention of the complete na me of the

report, and that the portions are not used in a misleading context. No use of this publication may be made

for resa le or other commercial purposes . The findings, interpretations, a nd conclusions express ed a re tho se

of the author(s) and do not imply endorsement by GWP.

ISSN: 2001-4023

ISBN: 978-91-87823-01-5

Printed by LjungbergsDesign and layout by Scriptoria, www.s criptoria.co.uk


3/52

www.gwp.org 3

Contents

Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6Executive summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71 Water challenges on small islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102 The Caribbean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

2.1 Clima te . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

2.2 Geogra phy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

2.3 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

2.4 Water resources and water services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

2.5 Polit ics o f water management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

3 Policy challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

3.1 Challenges for IWRM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223.2 Challenges for water security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

3.3 The Cartagena Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

3.4 Challenges related to climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

3.5 The challenges for regional approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

4 Policy developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274.1 Regional and sub-regional IWRM developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

4.2 National developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

4.2.1 Anguilla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

4.2.2 Antigua a nd Barbuda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

4.2.3 The Ba ha ma s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294.2.4 Ba rba dos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

4.2.5 Belize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

4.2.6 British Virgin Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

4.2.7 Dominica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

4.2.8 Grena da . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

4.2.9 Guya na . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

4.2.10 Jamaica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

4.2.11 Montserrat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

4.2.12 Sa int Kitts and Nevis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

4.2.13 Sa int Lucia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354.2.14 Sa int Vincent and the Grenad ines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36

4.2.15 Trinida d a nd Tob ago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37

5 Adoption of IWRM – so where a re we? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .395.1 Public part icipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

5.2 Polit ica l support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

5.3 Institutional and professional support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41

5.4 Project-based support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42

5.5 Stakeholder legitimacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

5.6 The Dublin Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

5.7 Transforming water management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

. . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . .

.


4/52

ACRONYMS

www.gwp.org4

ACS . . . . . . . . Association of Caribbean States

APUA . . . . . . . Antigua Public Utilities AuthorityBPOA . . . . . . . Barbados Programme of Action

BWA . . . . . . . . Barba dos Water Authority

Cap-Net . . . . . Capa city Development in Sustainable Water Mana gement

CAR/RCU . . . . Ca ribbean Regional Coordinating Unit

CARDI . . . . . . . Ca ribbean Agricultura l Resea rch and Development Institute

CARICOM . . . . Ca ribbean Community

CARIWIN . . . . . Ca ribbea n Water Initia tive

CAWASA . . . . . Ca ribbea n Water and Sewe ra ge Ass ocia tion Inc.

CBO . . . . . . . . Community-ba sed organisation

CDB . . . . . . . . Caribbean Development Bank

CEHI . . . . . . . . Ca ribbean Environmental Hea lth Institute

CIMH . . . . . . . Ca ribbean Institute for Meteorology and Hydrology

COTED . . . . . . Council for Trade and Economic Development

CWSA . . . . . . . Centra l Water and Sew erage Authority

CWWA . . . . . . Ca ribbean Water and Was tewa ter Association

DOWASCO . . . Dominica Water and S ewera ge Company

EC . . . . . . . . . European commission

ECLAC . . . . . . Economic Commiss ion for La tin American and the Caribbean

EU . . . . . . . . . European Union

FAO . . . . . . . . Food a nd Agriculture Organization of the United Na tions

GEF . . . . . . . . Global Environment Facility

GoB . . . . . . . . Government of Barbados

GoJ . . . . . . . . . Government of Jamaica

GoSL . . . . . . . Government of Saint Lucia

GoTT. . . . . . . . Government of Trinida d a nd Toba go

GWI . . . . . . . . Guyana Water Inc.GWP . . . . . . . . Globa l Water Partnership

GWP-C . . . . . . Globa l Wa ter Partnership Ca ribbea n

IDB . . . . . . . . . Inter-American Development Bank

IPCC . . . . . . . . Intergovernmental Panel on Clima te Change

IWCAM . . . . . . Integrating watersheds and coastal areas management

IWRM . . . . . . . Integrated wa ter resources management

JpoI . . . . . . . . Johannesburg Plan of Implementation

LBS . . . . . . . . Land-based sources

MoH . . . . . . . . Ministry of Health

Acronyms


5/52

www.gwp.org 5

ACRONYMS

NAWASA . . . . Na tiona l Water and S ewerage Authority

NGO . . . . . . . . Non-governmental organisationNWC . . . . . . . . Na tional Wa ter Commiss ion

OECS . . . . . . . Organisation of Eas tern Ca ribbea n States

RIC . . . . . . . . . Regulated Industries Commission

SIDS . . . . . . . . Small Island Developing States

SVG . . . . . . . . Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

UNDP . . . . . . . United Na tions Development Progra mme

UNEP . . . . . . . United Nations Environment Progra mme

UNEP-CEP . . . UN Environment Progra mme-Caribbea n Environment Programme

UNFCCC . . . . . United Na tions Framework Convention on Climate Change

USACE . . . . . . United States Army Corps of Engineers

WASA . . . . . . . Water and S ewerage Authority

WASCO . . . . . Wa ter a nd Sewerage Company

WB . . . . . . . . . World Bank

WRA . . . . . . . . Wa ter resources agency

WSP . . . . . . . . Water safety plan

WUE . . . . . . . . Water use efficiency

Authors: Adrian Cashman, Christopher Cox, Judy Danie l, and Terrence Smith

Acknowledgments


6/52

FOREWORD

www.gwp.org6

Foreword

Concerns about the rea lity of implementing integra ted water resources mana gement (IWRM) have

been raised many times. Although IWRM has gained worldwide acceptance over the past two

decad es and is now included in na tional policies, strategies, and laws, there are still questions

ab out how it is put into practice. So what is the current state of water resources planning and

implementation?

Substantia l evidence to support an integra ted approach comes from the UN sta tus report on

Integra ted Approaches to Water Resources Management (UN, 2012) published in time for the Rio+ 20

Conference. Some 134 nations across the world responded to the survey to de termine progress

towards susta inab le water resources using integra ted a pproaches. These a pproaches were measured

against the practical elements of implementing integra ted water resources management, namely, a

strong enabling environment; s ound investments in infrastructure; clear, robust, a nd comprehensive

institutional roles; and effective use of available management and technical instruments.

Encouragingly, 82 percent of countries have embarked on reforms to improve the enabling

environment and integra ted approaches to wa ter resources management. The report rightly points

out that there is no quick fix for sustainable water mana gement and so na tional and international

leaders must demonstrate their commitment for the long haul if it is to succeed.

Many changes have indeed taken place in the a rea of water management, a nd it is highly likely that

the extent and timing of ad ditional changes will accelera te even further in the coming deca des. The

need for an objective, non-dogmatic scrutiny of the IWRM paradigm has never been stronger. But the

conceptual attractiveness of a pa radigm is not enough: it must be applicable in the real world to

improve the sustainable management of water resources.

This Technica l Focus Paper is the first in a series of papers to present a critica l review of progress

made in planning and then putting plans into practice. They synthesise the cha llenges, the

successes, the setba cks, and the d irection for further integra tion. They provide valuable insights from

which others can learn lessons and a pply them to their particular and often unique circumsta nces.

This paper dea ls with the 15 English-spea king Caribbea n States, which comprise some of the most

fragile economies in the region, and expla ins the specia l circumsta nces of Small Island Developing

States as they adopt and a dapt to a 'source to sea' approach as their integrating framework. After 15

years' experience, the tangible results serve as a tes tament to the effectiveness and importance of

taking an integra ted approach. They reinforce the messa ge tha t this works best when it addresses

real issues that resona te with people's everyday experiences with water and their environment.

My thanks to the authors of this report, who a re members of GWP-Caribbean, for their excellent

ana lysis of water security challenges in what is a most diverse a nd complex region. We would

particularly like to a cknowledge Adrian Cashman, Christopher Cox, and Terrence Smith as lead

authors and others within GWP-Caribbea n for their inva luable comments and suggestions during

the dra fting stages.

Dr Moha med Ait Kadi Judy Daniel

Cha ir, GWP Technica l Committee Cha ir of GWP-Ca ribbea n


7/52

www.gwp.org 7

EXECUTIVE S UMMARY

Executive summary

In 1998, the Forum of Ministers of the Environment of La tin America a nd the Caribbea n agreed

that integrating water and coasta l resources mana gement was a priority in the Caribbean region.

In 2002, at the Johannesburg World Summit on Susta inable Development, the Caribbea n States

a lso committed to work towa rds developing integra ted wa ter resources mana gement (IWRM)

plans and water use efficiency (WUE) plans by 2005. Some 15 years have now pass ed a nd this

paper as ks: What measures have been taken and what progress has been made towards

adopting an integra ted a pproach to wa ter mana gement in the Caribbean?

For Sma ll Island Developing States (SIDS), realising these a mbitious commitments was a lways

going to be challenging. These s ta tes a re particularly vulnerable to increased s tress es on their

water resources through the limitations of land, population, and water resources and the need

for economic development and socia l well-being. Hence in SIDS, IWRM has to adopt a 's ource to

sea ' approach as an integra ting framework. For the Caribbea n, with a large geographical

footprint, but small and dispersed popula tions and land mass , which face simila r clima tic

conditions that influence the availab ility of water resources, it makes sense to combine national

initiatives with a regional approa ch.

Much work has taken place in the region to push forward a process of integra tion, a nd examples

of initia tives and an eva lua tion of their outcomes and rela tive successes a re described. The focus

is on the 15 States in the English-speaking Caribbea n, the unifying effects of whose s hared

language a nd cultura l and politica l simila rities make this region a productive focus for the

evaluation. This area has some of the region's most vulnerable sta tes and territories in terms of

fragile economies, impact of clima te change, and constra ined development opportunities.

A feature of water resources in the Caribbean is the diverse organisational a rrangements

governing management. Jamaica and Guyana ha ve a ministry dedicated to water management,

but in most states, water mana gement forms just one part of a ministry portfolio, and often,

responsibility is spread across more tha n one ministry. Responsibility for ta riffs and economic

regula tion is ra rely exercised independently of ministeria l/cabinet control.

In most sta tes, water service providers a lso undertake wa ter resources management. Water

supply and was tewater services a re undertaken by a government-owned company or statutory

authority, with little independent oversight and eva lua tion. Little distinction is made be tween

responsibilities for water services and wa ter resources management, as they are centralised

within the same organisation. This reflects a predominant supply-side paradigm that sees water

resources as an integra l extension of water supply services. This centra lising tendency is

underpinned by the politica l dispensa tions that came into being after independence, which

sought to address a legacy of neglect and marginalisa tion of large sections of the population on

the grounds of colour and race. Programmes were implemented to grea tly expand provision a nd

access to bas ic services, such as health care, education, a nd water and sanitation. As a result,

the region made significant progress in water supply, a nd most countries report over 95 percent

access. Concomitantly, the public have come to expect that governments will provide services by

guaranteeing financial support to ensure minimal cost to the public so that services are

a fforda ble. The problems now being encountered include qua lity of service, maintenance a nd

operation of existing infra structure, a geing infrastructure, high levels of unaccounted for water,

and quality of potable water. This suggests difficulties with the mana gement of water services

and with securing the necessa ry levels of investment to a ddress the supply–demand gap.


8/52

EXECUTIVE S UMMARY

www.gwp.org8

Water resources management faces challenges that affect water a vailability and long-term

freshwa ter security. An example is the increasing threa t to streamflows caus ed when catchments

a re converted for development and agriculture. Overa ll wa ter security is an emerging challenge,

which the present institutional frameworks and enabling environments are increas ingly

ill-eq uipped to dea l with. Although many governments acknowledge the need for change a ndto develop plans , existing efforts to put these plans into practice have not proved s ufficient.

Regional interventions have failed to get off the ground and na tiona l-level interventions have

fared little better. The main cha llenge facing regional approa ches is diversity, and so wa ter

resources management should focus on developing common frameworks and standa rds.

Over the past decad e, most of the many interventions designed to improve integra tion have been

initiated or promoted by international or regiona l actors. But a 'project approach' preferred by

such agencies, a nd the as sociated implica tions for funding activities, does not fit well with the

protracted process of transitioning and reforming national water sectors. Despite the fact that the

Caribbean region shows considerable understa nding of and sensitivity to the need for

integra tion, so fa r efforts to embed integra ted thinking have yielded few ta ngible benefits,particula rly when these efforts have focused on institutional frameworks.

The administrative and professional clas ses in the wa ter sector are very well acquainted with an

integra ted a pproa ch and a ctively include it, as far as they can, in the working environment. This

is due in large part to ongoing training, capacity building, and networking of va rious advocacy

organisa tions. However, the profess ionals have failed to capita lise on this, even when

opportunities, such a s the impact of natural hazards (e.g. droughts and hurricanes), have drawn

a ttention to the need for change. It may have been the cas e that the urgent need for short-term

crisis mana gement obscured the longer-term commitment req uired for more far-rea ching reforms.

Projects that add ress specific stakeholder concerns or issues at national and community levels

were the most successful and visible aspects of interventions. The greates t impact can be seen in

specific 'demonstration' projects, usually a t the community or wa tershed level. These results

reinforce the messa ge that an integrated a pproach works best when it addresses real issues that

resonate with people's everyday experiences with wa ter and their environment.

In spite of failings in water service delivery, consumers and the public have s hown very little

appetite for change, a nd there is implicit support for continuing with existing arrangements.

Customers have little influence over service providers and a re unab le to hold them to a ccount.

This lack of public interest in change is compounded by perceived political risks of change, such

as ra ising wa ter ra tes, improving collection of unpaid bills, a nd depoliticising investment

decisions by which potentia l influence is reduced. The ca binet-ba sed approach to politica l

decision-making could potentia lly provide a mechanism for mobilising politica l support if

ministers were to become champions of change. But this has seldom been the cas e.

Given the level of consensus among the va rious actors in the water sector and their commonly

held beliefs about what constitutes good water governance, the necessary conditions for

improving water management a re in place. However, the slow pace of change suggests that these

conditions and the presence of champions a lone are not sufficient; that something else is

necessary. Recent research suggests that advocacy needs to be complemented by so-called

'brokering' a ctions, which ca ll for different approa ches for different countries. Brokering is about

recognising and reconciling the needs and a spira tions of different sta keholders, pa rticula rly the

politicians. This is achieved by ensuring a 'fit' between the problem perceived by politicians and

decision-makers and the proposed s olution. This suggests that approaches that seek wholesale

wa ter mana gement reform will seldom 'fit'. What a re req uired a re more incremental approa ches,


9/52

www.gwp.org 9

EXECUTIVE S UMMARY

peculiar to each country, coupled with internat ional financia l contributions. Such approa ches

may be more successful, particularly if they have support a t the very highest politica l level. The

challenge for the Caribbean is how to secure that level of support, which to date is missing.


10/52

1 WATER CHALLENGES ON SMALLISLANDS

www.gwp.org10

Small Island Developing Sta tes (SIDS) are pa rticularly vulnerable to increased stresses on their

wa ter resources (Cas hman et a l., 2010; Fa lkland, 1999; Pa yet a nd Agricole, 2006). Thelimitations of land, population, a nd wa ter resources and the need for economic development

and social well-being place pa rticular press ures on them. Furthermore, a pa rticular fea ture of

SIDS, which sets them apa rt from their continental neighbours, is the close interconnection

between land a nd sea and the role of water as the medium of connection between them.

Run-off genera ted by ra infall events can travel quickly through the terrestrial environment and

enter the ma rine environment within a very short spa ce of time. The use and mana gement of

land a nd water resources have a direct and immediate effect on the health and vitality of

marine resources, so it is important to link water and watershed management with the

management of coasta l areas. This is necessa ry in order to support livelihoods and ecosystems

services of both terrestria l and ma rine environments. Hence in SIDS, integra ted wa ter resources

management must ad opt a 'source to sea ' a pproach a s an integrating framework (UNEP, 2012a).

In 2002 a t the Johannesburg World Summit on Susta ina ble Development, the Caribbean Sta tes,

a long with the rest of the global community, signed up to the Johannesburg Pla n of

Implementation (JPoI). One of the provisions under JPoI was a commitment to work towards the

development of IWRM plans and wa ter use efficiency (WUE) plans , to be in place by 2005. In

large part this recognised that the limitations of existing water management arrangements were

imposing obstacles to national development, as well as having a n increasingly ad verse impact

on the integrity of ecos ystems. For developing countries, a nd particula rly for SIDS, the

realisation of the ambitious commitments made in respect of water management was always

going to be cha llenging. A regiona l a pproa ch to the problem, in conjunction with na tional

initia tives, is an effective approa ch to the problem for a region such as the Ca ribbean with alarge geographical footprint and small and dispersed popula tions and la nd mass . The countries

face simila r climatic conditions that influence the availability of wa ter resources. This was

recognised a t a Caribbea n Ministers of Environment meeting in April 2008 a t the Caribbean

Community's (CARICOM) Council for Trade a nd Economic Development (COTED) (CARICOM,

2011). It expressed the concern that the ma jority of Ca ribbea n States had not been able to

a chieve the JPoI goals and that the need for policy and governance reform was not being met.

Ministers recognised that in order to support this process there was a need to develop a

common approa ch to wate r resources management in the Caribbean tha t would contribute to

developing and s trengthening nat ional wa ter policies, IWRM, a nd WUE plans .

Preceding, but overlapping these events , was another IWRM-relate d development. At the 11th

Meeting of the Forum of Ministers of Environment of La tin America and the Ca ribbean in Ma rch

1998 (UNEP, 1998), it was agreed tha t there was a priority need to include a project in the

Regional Programme of Action to address integrated mana gement of water and coas tal

resources in the Caribbea n region. Following this, CARICOM a nd the Secretariat of the Cartagena

Convention, the Caribb ea n Environmenta l Hea lth Inst itute (CEHI), the United Na tions

Environment Programme-Caribb ea n Regiona l Coordinat ing Unit (UNEP-CAR/RCU), a nd the

United Na tions Development Programme (UNDP) proceed ed to develop a project to strengthen

institutional capacities a t national and regional levels, and a ssist countries in integrating their

management of watersheds and coasta l areas (Merla a nd Simmons, 2012). The project was

funded through the Globa l Environment Facility (GEF) with co-funding from na tional

governments and partner organisa tions a nd was referred to a s the GEF-funded Integra ting

Watershed a nd Coa sta l Area Mana gement (IWCAM) project. It was approved in Ma y 2004 and

became operational in 2006. One of the anticipated outcomes of the project was to implement

1 Water cha llenges on sma ll islands


11/52

www.gwp.org 11


overall na tiona l a nd regiona l reforms in support of the GEF-IWCAM PROJECTapproach. This

would be primarily achieved through policy, legislation, and institutional reforms of the way in

which water resources were managed.

A related de velopment contributing to and supporting improvements in wa ter resourcesmanagement was the formation of a regional Global Water Partnership network of partners.

Globa l Water Partnership Caribbean (GWP-C) was esta blished in 2004 a t a meeting a ttended by

67 representa tives from 14 countries and 36 organisa tions in the Caribbean region. As of

December 2013, GWP-C has 80 pa rtners in over 20 Caribbea n territories (GWP-C, 2014a). One

of the goals of the partnership is to promote and facilitate better water resources management

through the a doption of IWRM. To this end it supports the development of IWRM roa d maps a nd

undertakes awareness -ra ising activities. GWP-C co-hosts the a nnua l High Level Forum for

Ministers with responsibility for water (GWP-C, 2014b), which provides a platform for them to

meet with other decision-makers, wa ter experts and professionals, a nd representa tives of

regional organisa tions active in the water sector to discuss policy and water-related matters,

under the umbrella of IWRM.

The 2012 Ministe rial Forum recognised the importance of ensuring long-term wa ter security as a

driver for economic and s ocial development a nd the urgent need to address water scarcity in

the region. From this (GWP-C, 2014c) came a clea r understanding tha t more politica l a ttention

was needed to promote meas ures that increas e water security. The prominence of the iss ue

indicated the growing concern over the ability of the governments to ensure good ma nagement

a nd provision of wa ter without jeopardising economic growth and the ma intenance of social

well-being. Of concern were the impacts of clima te change, tariffs and the financia l

susta ina bility of service provision, the need to upgrade existing wa ter infra structure a nd

improve resource use efficiency, the prevention of pollution of wa ter sources, a nd the

management of resources a nd services in the face of natura l hazards. While IWRM seeks toaddress all of these issues, there appears to be a long way to go and governments are

struggling to ma instrea m IWRM.

The sha red a nd multifaceted nature of water presents special cha llenges for its management

a nd the problems faced. The professional and institutional sta keholders in the region clea rly

show no shortage of interest in water management and the potential threats to water security.

But this interest is not, on the whole, reflected by the genera l public, whose interests are often

more immedia te. The vulnerabilities of, in pa rticular, tropical island s tates and territories have

long bee n recognised. For example, the 1994 Ba rbad os Progra mme of Action (BPOA) for the

Sustainable Development of SIDS, identified priority areas a nd specific actions necessa ry for

a ddressing the special cha llenges faced by SIDS. Priorities included coasta l and marine

freshwater and land resources, a s well as strengthening nationa l and regional institutions (UN,

1994). This was followed by the Mauritius Stra tegy of Implementation in 2005 which recognised

that there were still constra ints in fulfilling the a ctivities of the BPOA. So, some 15 years a fter

the 1998 a greement that recognised the need for a n integrated approach to wa ter and coasta l

a reas management, and nearly 20 years after the BPOA, what meas ures have been taken and

what progress has been mad e in the Ca ribbean to adopt IWRM?

This paper a ttempts to answer this question. It takes stock of how much progress the Caribbea n

has made in improving wa ter resources management a nd builds on this experience to better

inform the future direction of movement. Future a ctions must be informed by past lessons and

a chievements in order to formulate answers to the question: Should things be done differently

or should different things be done? The extent to which the management of wate r resources will

be mainstreamed in the future will be determined by how well it resonates with Caribbea n


12/52


www.gwp.org12

realities a nd circumsta nces. This means that it will have to incorporate changing conceptua l

frameworks, such as the green economy, the la nd–wa ter–energy nexus, and the successors to

the UN Millennium Development Goals on susta inability, a s well as building upon the less ons

of the past .

" In the series of things those which follow are always aptly fitted to those which have gone before; for this series is

not like a mere enumeration of disjointed things, which has only a necessary seq uence, but it is a rational

connection."

The Meditation s, Book 4. Marcus Aurelius (121–180 AD)

Firstly, the pa per presents an overview of the wa tersca pe of the Caribbean region, in order to

set the context within which the water a ffa irs of the region a re loca ted a nd ma naged . Thisincludes the social, economic, and cultura l factors which modulate the intera ction between

society and water and which shape water use and mana gement. A number of challenges and

concerns a rise from this that have a direct bea ring on policy development. These include

questions of how climate change a nd was tewater management might be addressed through

policy a nd programme interventions. Much work has taken place and examples of initia tives

a nd an evaluation of their outcomes and relative successes a re described. The paper then

describes the significance of a dopting a n integrated approa ch to wa ter resources management

within a Caribbean context, the extent to which it may be influencing the development of the

enab ling regional a nd national environment, and the prospects for the more widespread

adoption of appropriate management instruments to underpin eq uitab le, efficient, and

susta inable pra ctices.

The geogra phic area of interest of this paper is confined to the 15 States in English-speaking

Caribbean.1 The choice of the Ca ribbea n region as the focus of interest of this paper is outlined,

a nd the region described. This a rea has some of the most vulnerab le sta tes and territories, in

terms of the fragility of the respective economies, the impact of climate change, and

constra ined development opportunities. While these factors, a long with the unifying effects of

the sha red language, a nd cultura l and politica l simila rities, ma ke this region a productive focus

for this eva luation, this in no way diminishes the importance of, or interest in, other parts of the

Caribbea n. Indeed Cuba , Dominican Republic, and Ha iti together account for the overwhelming

bulk of the region's popula tion – some 31 million people out of a tota l of 40 million. It does,

however, highlight the sometimes problematic concept of what constitutes the Caribbea n.

1 Anguilla, Antigua a nd Ba rbuda , Baha mas, Barbados , Belize, British Virgin Islands , Dominica, Grenada , Guyana , Jama ica,

Montserrat, Sa int Kitts and Nevis, S aint Lucia, Sa int Vincent and the Grenad ines, a nd Trinidad and Toba go.


13/52

www.gwp.org 13

2 THE CARIBBEAN

2 The Caribbea n

Figure 1. The Caribbean region

The waterscape of the Caribbea n is rich and diverse; it is home to some of the most water-

scarce nations on the pla net, such as Barbados and the Baha mas. Yet in close proximity there

a re countries with a bunda nt freshwater resources, such as Guyana a nd Belize.

The term 'Ca ribbea n region' provides a unifying idea, yet it has multiple uses and masks many

differences among the sovereign states , oversea s departments, a nd dependent territories that

exist within the region (see Table 1). Some of the former colonial powers still hold swa y.

Guad alupe, Ma rtinique, Saint Martin, a nd Sa int Barthélemy are pa rt of metropolitan France.

Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands a re unincorpora ted pa rts of the USA. The United

Kingdom's Overseas Territories consist of Anguilla, British Virgin Islands , Cayman Islands ,

Monts erra t, a nd Turks and Ca icos Isla nds . The Netherlands Antilles include Aruba , Curaça o, a ndSint Maa rten as autonomous countries and Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba a s municipalities

of the Netherlands. The rema inder of the countries beca me independent during the period of

decolonisa tion that las ted from the early 19th century, in the cas e of Ha iti, to the 1980s.

Geographica lly the Ca ribbean is diverse, a nd, given its different geologic histories, it displays a

marked variety of different landforms, from small inhabited islands with populations of a few

thousand people to la rge islands , such as Cuba , with populations in the millions. It ranges from

flat low-lying islands a few metres ab ove sea level, such as the Bahamas , to those with

mountains up to 3,000 metres in height. It includes , a ccording to some cla ssifications,

countries on the mainland of Centra l and South America – Belize, Guyana, and Suriname. The

va rious population mixes, la nguages, a nd cultures reflect the colonial and political histories of

the va rious sta tes and territories. In terms of politica l economy, regionalism and collective

coalitions have provided a means for the Caribbea n States to play an important role in

Source: Adapted from CIA World Factbook (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/)


14/52

2 THE CARIBBEAN

www.gwp.org14

Table 1. Isla nds of the Caribbean

French Departments

and Overseas

Territories

Guadaloupe

Martinique

Saint Barthélemy

Saint Martin

Netherlands

Antilles

Aruba

Bonaire

Curaçao

Saba

Sint Eustatius

Sint Maa rten

United Kingdom

Overseas Territories

Anguilla

British Virgin

Islands

Cayman Islands

Montserrat

Turks a nd Ca icos

Islands

Independent

nations

Antigua and

Barbuda

The Ba ha mas

Barbados

Cuba

Dominica

Grenada

Haiti

Jamaica

Saint Kitts and

Nevis

Sa int Lucia

Saint Vincent and

the Grenadines

Trinida d and

Toba go

United Sta tes

Puerto Rico

US Virgin

Islands

Central a nd

South American

countries

Belize

Guyana

Islands

Suriname

international politics that their individual sma ll size might otherwise have prevented. This is

facilita ted through a number of institutions, such a s the Caribbea n Community (CARICOM), the

Association of Caribbean Sta tes (ACS), the Organisa tion of Eas tern Caribbean Sta tes (OECS),

and others. Thus the term Caribbean region can b e interpreted in differing ways and a s a result

is often deliberately used loosely.

The GWP-C has partners from almost every country and territory in the Caribbean with the

exception of Belize, Bonaire, Cayman Islands , Curaçao, Sa ba , Sa int Barthélemy, Sint Eusta tius,

Sa int Martin, a nd Turks a nd Ca icos Islands . The majority of the pa rtners a re located in English-

spea king countries (GWP-C, 2014a) and mos t of the work of GWP-C is carried out in the English-

spea king Caribbean, with the exception of Suriname. Simila rly, many of the efforts to promote

IWRM by other organisa tions apart from GWP-C have taken place in the English-spea king

Ca ribbean. In the case of both US and French West Indies, given their politica l sta tus,

approaches to wa ter resources management are largely governed by sets of laws, policies, and

regula tions that a re, for the most part, exogenously determined. For the large Spanish-spea king

countries, s hared cultura l a ffilia tions, traditions, and language predispose them to identify moreclosely with La tin America.


15/52

www.gwp.org 15

2 THE CARIBBEAN

2.1 Climate

The Caribbea n is a humid tropical region in which the climate is dete rmined b y the Trade Winds

as well as the inter-tropical convergence, and it varies with both elevation and the size of the

land mass. Temperatures a re strongly eleva tion dependent. In coasta l areas they vary between

32OC and 24OC, but with increasing elevation tempera tures can d rop to 10OC. Tempera tures tend

to vary little throughout the yea r, particularly at sea level, so that for a significant part of the

year eva pora tion ra tes exceed precipitation. There a re two distinct sea sons during the yea r: a

dry sea son (Ja nuary to April) a nd a wet summer hurricane sea son. While hurricanes a re a feature

of the region, with tracks that pas s from south-eas t to north-west, the southern Caribbean ra rely

experiences their effects. Precipita tion varies grea tly, with the windward sides of the islands

receiving much more rain (sometimes up to 5,000 mm per year) tha n the rain-sha dowe d

leeward sides (sometimes less than 600 mm per year) (Cashman, 2013; FRD, 1988–1999). In

the southern Ca ribbean there can be a second mini dry sea son betwee n July and September.

Rain often occurs in short and heavy downpours.

2.2 Geography

A broad geogra phical grouping of the principal islands may be taken as : the Bahamas , the

Grea ter Antilles, the Leewa rd Island s, the Windward Islands, and the Southern Offshore Islands

(FRD, 1988–1999). The Ba hamas are a low-lying archipelago of cora l islands , being no more

than 60 metres above sea level. Wea thering of the cora lline deposits has resulted in ka rstic

formations, with many solution conduits. The result is that ra infa ll run-off infiltra tes q uickly so

that there are no freshwater rivers, but instead, lenses of freshwater that 'sit' on top of more

sa line waters.

The islands of the Grea ter Antilles a re geologically more complex, with sedimentary,

metamorphic, and igneous rocks, the weathering of which had been affected by tectonic

movements as well as other cha nges over geologic time. These islands are more mountainous

and with va ried topography. All have significant rivers and groundwater sources. The Less er

Antillean isla nds (Leewa rd a nd Windwa rd) are predominantly of volcanic a nd s edimenta ry origin

and are characterised by steep a nd sometimes mountainous terrain. They too have a n

ab unda nce of rivers and s treams, but no significant groundwater, except where these might be

a lluvial aquifers ass ociated with river systems. The rivers in genera l a re short in length, dra in

relatively small catchments, a nd thus have lower volumes of water that a re more susceptible to

sea sona l and climatic variations. This is particula rly true in those Grea ter Antillean isla ndswhich have karstic limestone formations which serve to modify surface wate r flow

characteristics.

The islands of the outer Less er Antilles, s uch as Antigua, Ba rbuda , and Barbad os, d o not fit this

pattern. These are coralline islands formed as a result of tectonic uplift at the edge of the

Caribbean plate. As such, they exhibit many of the same geological features as the Bahamas,

but with more pronounced topography and a lack of fresh surfa ce waters. The most significant

of the Southern Offshore Islands a re Trinidad and Toba go, which geologically a re pa rt of South

America . The mountain ra nges consist of metamorphic rocks, with the lower lying a reas formed

from erosional and sed imentary deposits. There a re rivers ass ociated with the mounta inous

areas, but a feature is that once they reach the lower areas they form wetland a reas, many ofwhich have been drained for development purposes . For completeness Belize, Guya na, a nd

Suriname are included, though they a re not part of the insula r Caribbean. All a re continental


16/52

2 THE CARIBBEAN

www.gwp.org16

The Caribbean region is one of the most demogra phically diverse regions in the world.

Historica lly, popula tion growth in the region has largely been via migra tion, but has slowed

markedly since the mid-20th century. This Technical Pa per focuses specifically on the English-

spea king Caribb ea n (Ta ble 2).

2.3 Demographics

countries and all host major transboundary river systems as well as significant groundwater

resources.

Table 2. Demographics for Englis h-spea king Caribbea n countries

Total population (thousands)

343

273

312

104

754

9,993

2741

174

109

1,341

109

Population density (persons/km2)

25

636

14

304

4

360

249

323

282

261

314

Annual population grow th (%)

1.4

0.2

2.1

0.3

0.2

1.3

0.4

1.1

0.1

0.4

-0.1

Country

Bahamas

Barbados

Belize

Grenada

Guyana

Haiti

Jamaica

Sa int Lucia

Saint Vincent and the

Grenadines

Trinida d a nd Toba go

US Virgin Island s

Source: UNDESA Population Division (2013)

According to UN da ta , the Caribbea n population ha s more tha n doubled from 17 million in 1950

to 41 million in 2010, and popula tion density has increas ed by more than 100 percent during

the s ame period (UNDESA, 2013). However, a s a general rule, wa ter distribution infra structure

built in the 19th and early 20th century did not anticipate this growth. This has led to many cases

of water stress and s carcity, particula rly in Antigua a nd Barbuda , Barbados , a nd Saint Kitts and

Nevis (UNEP, 2008). Since a high proportion of the popula tion in many Ca ribbean S tate s a nd

territories live in urba n areas, the re is a two-fold challenge to delivering potab le water to

densely popula ted communities, while a ddressing the stormwater and wa stewa ter challenges

typical of urba n environments. All English-spea king Caribbean islands and territories show a

consistent trend o f migra tion from rura l to urban a reas (UNEP, 2008).


17/52

www.gwp.org 17

2 THE CARIBBEAN

Table 3. Urba n popula tion

Urba n popula tion (%)

100

30

47

84

44

41

100

75

67

69

39

98

Country

Haiti

Jamaica

Martinique

Montserrat

Netherlands Antilles

Puerto Rico

Saint Kitts and Nevis

Saint Lucia

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

Trinida d a nd Tob ago

Turks and Caicos Islands

United Sta tes Virgin Isla nds

Urban population (%)

52

52

89

14

93

99

32

28

49

14

93

95

Country

Anguilla

Antigua a nd Ba rbuda

Aruba

The Ba ha mas

Barbados

British Virgin Islands

Cayman Islands

Cuba

Dominica

Dominican Republic

Grenada

Guadeloupe

Source: UNDESA Population Division (2013); 'Urban Population, Development and the Environment 2011'

2.4 Water resources and wa ter services

A feature of the water resources of the Caribbean is the diversity, from country to country, of the

organisa tional a rrangements which govern them. In Ja maica a nd Guyana , there is a ministry

dedicated to the oversight of water, but in most states, water management forms just one part

of a ministry portfolio, and ra rely enjoys a high degree of prominence. Furthermore,

responsibility for different as pects of water management is dispersed across more than one

ministry, which often results in wa ter q uality and environmenta l mana gement being sha red

between ministries of health and environment and governed sepa rately from water

management (Cashman, 2012; McIntosh a nd Leota ud, 2007).

In most states , wa ter resources management is a function performed by the water service

provider. Only in Ja maica , Sa int Lucia , and Trinida d and Toba go is the responsibility separa ted

from tha t of wa ter service de livery. Wa ter services, whether water supply or wastewa ter, a re

undertaken by government-owned a gencies, usually a government-owned company or statutory

authority, and it is only in a few cas es that there is more than one body responsible for water

services within a country. In Jamaica there is a Na tional Water Commiss ion and a Rura l Water

Supply company, but parish councils and a small number of independent water service

providers hold time-limited licences. In Belize, urba n areas a re supplied by the Belize Water

Services, while rural areas a re handled by the Department of Local Government and Rural

Development. In contras t, Guya na provides wa ter to both urba n and rura l a reas through Guyana

Water Inc., with the compa ny providing support to community-ba sed o rganisa tions (CBOs)

which provide s ervices in those a reas.


18/52

2 THE CARIBBEAN

www.gwp.org18

Table 4. Water resources for the English-spea king Caribbea n islands

Land area (km²)

91

443

13,880

430

22,966

153

263

751

344

214,970

10,991

102

9,104

261

616

389

5,128

616

346

Total average

annual rainfall

(mm)

890

1,030

1,292

1,422

1,705

1,117

135

2,083

2,350

2,387

2,051

1,143

2,054

1,427

2,301

1,583

2,200

559

998

Total renewable

wa ter resources

(mm³/year)

Not given

52

20

80

16,000

Not stated

Not stated

Not stated

Not stated

241,000

9,404

Not stated

71

24

Not stated

Not stated

3,840

Not stated

Not stated

Country

Anguilla

Antigua and

Barbuda

The Ba ha mas

Barbados

Belize

British VirginIslands

Cayman Islands

Dominica

Grenada

Guyana

Jamaica

Montserrat

Puerto Rico

Saint Kitts and

Nevis

Sa int Lucia

Saint Vincent and

the Grenadines

Trinida d and

Toba go

Turks and Caicos

United Sta tes

Virgin Islands

Municipal wa ter

withdrawal

(mm³/year)

Not given

5.3

Not stated

19.8

10.0

Not stated

Not stated

Not stated

Not stated

61.3

274.9

Not stated

904.0

Not stated

9.8

Not stated

173.6

Not stated

Not stated

Tota l water

withdraw al per

capita

(m³/capita/year)

Not given

97.67

Not stated

371.30

Not stated

Not stated

Not stated

244.10

97.09

2,222.00

370.00

Not stated

264.00

Not stated

98.22

Not stated

177.90

Not stated

Not stated

Total renewable

water per capita

(m³/capita/year)

571.40

57.00

291.00

51,779.00

Not stated

Not stated

Not stated

Not stated

317,942.00

3,406.00

Not stated

1,897.00

444.00

Not stated

Not stated

2,842.00

Not stated

Not stated

Source: CIA World Factbook (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/); FAO Aquastat database

(http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/main/index.stm)

Responsibility for ta riffs and economic regula tion is ra rely exercised independently of

ministeria l/cab inet control, with possibly five exceptions – Belize, Guyana, Ja maica, Sa int Lucia ,

and Trinidad a nd Toba go. In each cas e there is a d egree of independent oversight andevaluation of tariff ad justments, a lthough the responsible minister does have the final sa y when

it comes to approving a ny ta riff adjustments. With respect to environmenta l regula tion, each


19/52

www.gwp.org 19

2 THE CARIBBEAN

Table 5. Water ma nag ement responsibilities

Activity

Climatic da ta gathering

Wa ter reso urces monitoring and e valua tion

Wa ter resource q uality monitoring

Abstraction a nd withdrawa l licences

Wa ter production a nd consumption d a ta

Drinking wa ter qua lity monitoring

Discharge licences and environmental regulation

Economic regulat ion

Service regula tion

Principal responsible agency

Meteorological service

Water s ervice provider

Ministry of Environment



Ministry of Health

Ministry of Environment

Minister with responsibility for wa ter

Unclear

country has an established system of oversight of potable water qua lity, usually overseen by the

Ministry of Hea lth, which also ha ndles pollution control. However, in all cas es the existing Water

Acts do vest some responsibility for pollution control, which is seldom if a t a ll exercised , in the

utilities. These remain government functions, a nd, a s a result, the a ctivities of other government

a gencies a re not rigorously held to a ccount. Fa ilures are also evident in the oversight ofdischarge a nd effluent standa rds in the private s ector, though this is primarily because of low

pena lties a nd enforcement rather than a lack of legislation. The use of management instruments

in water ma nagement are limited to the use of volumetric charges and block tariffs for

increas ing levels of consumption, differentia ted water ra tes between domestic and commercia l

users, a nd irrigato rs. Abs traction licences a re req uired, a s a re discha rge permits. These are

relia nt on the use of command a nd control approaches rather than economic incentives.

However, practices a round monitoring, reporting, and enforcement of permit conditions a re

loose and reflect the d ifficulties experienced in enforcement.

The genera l situation with respect to the management of wa ter, including the collection of da ta

a nd regula tion within the wa ter sector, is summarised in Table 5 below. The exceptions to thisgenera lisa tion are noted a bove.

2.5 Politics of water management

The varied history of Europea n colonisa tion in the Caribbea n gave rise to differing lega l

a rrangements with respect to water management. The growth of urba n centres and the diffusion

of ideas ab out providing water services in the middle to late 19 th century influenced the

institutional and legal a rrangements governing those s ervices. The predominant a rrangement

was for island a dministrations to provide water services as a municipal or government

responsibility. Such arrangements survived well into the pos t-colonial period (Cashma n, 2012).

In Barbados, which became independent in 1966, it was not until 1980 that the Barbados WaterAuthority took over from the Waterworks Department. This is not untypica l for the region. In

Jamaica the Na tional Water Commiss ion, responsible for water service provision, a lso ca me into


20/52

2 THE CARIBBEAN

www.gwp.org20

being in 1980. Little distinction was made b etween responsibilities for wa ter services and wa ter

resources management as these were centra lised within the same organisa tion, aga in reflecting

a predominant supply-side paradigm tha t conceived of water resources narrowly as an integra l

extension of water supply services (Cas hman, 2012). One of the features of this dispensation

was the relatively high ra tio of semi-skilled and skilled to professional sta ff, which has tendedto privilege the da y-to-da y operation a nd ma intenance a ctivities. This provided governments

with the means to provide employment opportunities. However, this focus on opera tion a nd

maintenance has resulted in a relative deficiency of resources in the professional cadre, whose

role is to develop the planned, strategic a ctions req uired to ensure the long-term susta inable

management of the services and resources.

The centra lising tendency within wa ter sector ma nagement was underpinned by the politica l

dispensa tions that came into being after independence. These sought to address a legacy of

neglect and marginalisa tion of large sections of the population on the grounds of colour and

race. Part of the measures implemented were progra mmes to greatly expand provision and

access to ba sic services, such as health care, education, and wa ter a nd sanitation. A strongsocial welfa re sta nce characterised governments throughout the region, in which the state

as sumed an important role in the economy and a cted as a provider or guara ntor of essential

services, water being the prime exa mple of this (Portes et al., 1997). Evidence of this can be

seen in the development of varying forms of social partnerships between government, trad e

unions, a nd the priva te sector that sought to improve the conditions of the workforce and

provide a way to mitigate fluctua tions in the economy, particula rly economic downturns,

through a collective shouldering of the burden by ea ch actor (Springer, 2010).

Consequently, the public have come to expect that governments will provide services by

guaranteeing financial support to ensure tha t services a re afforda ble. Almost inevitably, wa ter

services have become politicised (Ba tley, 2004). For example, with the possible exceptions of

Jamaica a nd Saint Lucia, a ny changes in water tariffs have to be approved by the responsible

minister. Hence, it is political rather tha n financia l considera tions that play a significant role in

any decision about price rises. Many wate r service providers were constituted as government

agencies a nd, as such, are governed by boa rds. The boards a re appointed by ministers and a re

req uired to resign at a change of government. In effect, therefore, members of the boa rd a re

politica l appointees whose positions depend on their a cceptability to the incoming regime.

Such a system of governance provides parties with opportunities to forward their particula r

interests a nd ga in fa vour with their electora tes. As one politica l commentator obs erved, " The

Caribbean's politica l culture [is] ba sed on a uthorita rian governance" (Hinds, 2001). It is

characterised by a tendency to centra lise executive power and decision-making within a cab inet

ra ther than in parliament.

This is not to say that the role of politics or of politicians is a bad thing. On the contrary, they

play a necessa ry and vital part in giving leadership, shaping policies, a nd ensuring that a

ba lance is achieved betwe en s ocial, environmental, a nd economic concerns. Through their

accountab ility to their electora te, politicians can ensure that public concerns and sensitivities

a re brought into the boa rdroom of wa ter service providers, which in turn provide a necess a ry

counterba lance to an otherwise technocra tic approa ch.

In terms of governance of the water sector, a distinction ca n be made between the regional level

a nd the national one. There a re a number of dispa rate international bodies that have an interest

in the regional wa ter secto r. They include the Ca ribbea n Development Bank, Inter-American

Development Ba nk (IDB), Europea n Commiss ion, Food a nd Agriculture Orga nization o f the UN

(FAO), US Agency for Internationa l Development and o thers. The ma jority a re primarily funding


21/52

www.gwp.org 21

2 THE CARIBBEAN

bodies operating on a bilateral bas is and generally have had little specific interest in

institutional reform or policy matters, though this may be changing. The exceptions to this a re

UNDP a nd the UN Environment Programme-Caribb ea n Environment Programme (UNEP-CEP),

although the la tter is not a 'donor agency', but acts to support sustainable development. While

FAO opera tes on a bila tera l ba sis UNEP-CEP does have a more regionally focused involvement inwa ter governance through its programmes ass ociated with promoting the Cartagena Convention.

The Convention relates to water governance because it is a regiona l mechanism to as sist in the

ad option of laws and regulations to add ress pollution of the marine environment from land-

ba sed activities, such as wastewa ter discharges. Although this is a regional umbrella

mechanism, implementation occurs a t the na tional levels.

Regional level governance of the wa ter sector is loose a nd periphera l. The key regional

institution, CARICOM, has not been ab le to develop any overa rching influence, though wa ter

matters a re subs umed in the Susta inable Development Directora te. The initiat ive in 2008 to

form the Consortium of CARICOM Institutions on Water, whos e te rms of reference were a pproved

in 2010, had s ought to develop a common wa ter fra mework for the community for wa terresources mana gement (CARICOM, 2011). However, failure to provide the necess a ry resources

has meant that it has had little if any impact on the region. Somewhat more successfully, other

regional institutions have played a direct role in s upporting initiatives at the national level.

These ha ve come a bout either through regional projects that include a portfolio of national-level

interventions or through their involvement in na tional and local projects. Examples include the

other CARICOM institutions such a s the Caribbean Environmenta l Hea lth Inst itute (CEHI), the

Caribbea n Institute for Meteorology a nd Hydrology (CIMH), and the Ca ribbea n Agricultura l

Resea rch and Development Institute (CARDI), as well a s thos e outside of CARICOM, such as

GWP-C, the Caribbean Wa ter a nd Wastewa ter Ass ocia tion (CWWA), and Caribb ea n Water and

Sewera ge Associa tion Inc. (CAWASA).

Regional bodies tend to focus their a ttention on opera tiona l level activities, working within the

current set of governance a rra ngements. This is characterised a s strengthening existing

capa cities, both human resources and opera tiona l infra structure, with a view to strengthening

their efficiency and effectiveness. Occasionally the focus has been on re-ordering the national-

level institutional framework, a nd this was linked to financing infras tructure projects with a

req uirement for structura l adjustment of the governance a rra ngements.

At the nationa l level, water governance is rooted in a sta te-bas ed model of management, with

the majority of the sa lient sta keholders being located within the public sectors. Caribbea n

actors outside the public sector, such as the priva te sector, customers, non-governmenta l

organisa tions (NGOs), a nd community-ba sed organisa tions (CBOs), seldom a chieve the level of

influence tha t can be witnessed in other parts of the world. Furthermore, a feature of this

general arrangement is a lack of a s ystem of checks and ba lances which would allow a degree

of accountability on the part of those responsible for the mana gement a nd provision of water

services. The system of wa ter governance, which has evolved s ince the mid-20th century, has

proved itself to be resilient to change , exhibiting not so much inertia but ra ther 'lock-in' (Neff,

2013). With the exception of Ja maica , Sa int Lucia, a nd Trinida d a nd Toba go there has been little

funda mental reform of the na tiona l institutional frameworks governing wa ter. In Trinida d a nd

Toba go, a process of change is presently being undertaken by the utility sector, with the

intention of separa ting the service function from resource management. However, there a re

various emerging policy cha llenges that demand a number of reforms which ha ve the potential

to change the current sta te of affairs. One of the more important is the cross-cutting issue of

land use a nd land use change, which contributes to land d egrada tion, pollution from

developments and activities, dema nd for services, a nd increas ed levels of flood risk.


22/52

3 POLICYCHALLENGES

www.gwp.org22

3 Policy challenges

The clear implica tion of Article 26 of the Plan of Implementa tion of the World Summit for

Susta ina ble Development in 2002 wa s that IWRM, b ased on the four Dublin Principles, wa s

seen a t the internationa l level as the framework within which countries should seek to organise

a nd mana ge their water sectors. Part of the appeal is that IWRM stresses cross-sector

integration not only as a support to development, but as a process and framework that is

sensitive to country-specific geographic, historica l, cultura l, social, and economic conditions.

The impetus to embark on a process of integra tion is rooted in a recognition that existing wa ter

governance arra ngements within countries a re weak and not capable of ad dressing the water

challenges that they a re facing. These challenges include water scarcity, deteriora ting water

q uality, the impact of extreme events, a nd the provision and maintenance of wate r services

(Cashma n, 2012; UNEP, 2012b ). Critica l issues identified include s upply-driven mana gement,

fragmented a nd subsector approaches to wa ter management, lack of information, ina dequa te

technical competencies, and low levels of inves tment in the water sector (GEF-IWCAM, 2008;

UNEP-DHI, 2007). The conseq uences a re tha t poor ma nagement is impeding economic and

social development and that these deficiencies are most a cute in developing countries which

can least a fford them (Cas hman et al., 2010).

The converse is that good wa ter sector mana gement makes an important contribution to the

goa ls of poverty reduction, improved public health, and environmenta l susta ina bility. It

provides infra structure tha t underpins economic development (WHO, 2004). The implication is

that IWRM is a political process in which societal, developmental, a nd ideological factors have

to be reconciled, a nd one that will involve the resolution of conflicts of interests at many

different levels. Implementation builds on three pilla rs: an enabling environment of a ppropriate

policies, s trategies, a nd legislation; an institutiona l fra mework that a llows the enabling

environment to be opera tionalised; a nd the esta blishment of management instruments that

a llow institutions to do their job.

3.1 Cha llenges for IWRM

Figure 2. The t hree pilla rs of IWRM

Source: GWP (http://www.gwp.org/The-Challenge/What-is-IWRM/IWRM-pillars/)


23/52

www.gwp.org 23

3 POLICYCHALLENGES

Although countries signa lled their intentions to develop IWRM plans through the 2002 JPoI, in

many cases , actually turning intentions into actions required a n a dditional set of dynamics,

which might broad ly be characterised as the realisa tion that the cost of not doing something is

greater than the cost of taking action. In this context, cost is understood to mean more than just

a financia l cost; it includes social, environmental, and political costs as well. The exa ct nature ofsome of those driving forces in the Caribbea n context is ad dressed in subsequent sections.

3.2 Challenges for wa ter security

The long-term availa bility of freshwater has been of concern in the region for at leas t the last 30

years (CEHI, 2002). Given increas ing levels of demand a nd expected changes in ra infall patterns

brought on by climate change, even a s light reduction in ra infa ll would have serious

conseq uences (IPCC, 2007; UNEP, 2003). There is a lread y a gap betwee n the a bility to s upply

and the level of demand in ma ny Caribbea n countries. Ba rba dos is using close to 100 percent of

its a va ilab le water resources, Saint Lucia has a 35 percent water supply deficit, Nevis 40percent, and Trinidad and Toba go ha s had a deficit since 2000 (WASA, 2005). Jama ica is

projected to experience deficits in a reas of important economic activity by 2015 (GoJ, 2011),

Antigua a nd Barbuda is reliant on desa lination to meet demand s, while in Dominica, Grenad a ,

and Sa int Vincent and the Grenadines demand can exceed supply during the dry sea son as a

result of reduced s tream flows (USACE, 2004). The s itua tion is compounded by high levels of

unaccounted for wate r (for exa mple, 67 percent in Jamaica , 40 percent in Trinida d a nd Toba go,

and 50 percent in Ba rba dos). The paradox is that many of these countries have sufficient water

resources to meet demand, but do not have the infras tructure or institutional frameworks to

close the supply–demand ga p. It is only in some of the drier islands, s uch as Antigua a nd

Barbuda , Barbados , and the Baha mas, that the water resources can be considered scarce.

The region as a whole has made significant progress in water supply a nd most countries report

over 95 percent access to improved water supplies. Problems are primarily as sociated with the

q uality of service, maintenance a nd opera tion of existing infra structure, ageing infra structure,

and high levels of unaccounted for water, together with concerns over potab le water q uality. This

suggests difficulties with the ma nagement of water services and with securing the necessa ry

levels of investment to a ddress the supply–demand gap.

The a va ilab ility and security of water is another challenge for the effective management of water

resources. An increas ing threa t to streamflows is the conversion of catchments for development

and a griculture. The urba nisa tion of the upper wa tershed a reas a round Port of Spa in, Trinidad

and Castries, a nd Sa int Lucia has resulted in higher peak flows, d ownstream flooding, an overa lldecrease in base streamflows (Edwa rds , 2011; Williams, 2010), a nd higher sediment loads . The

conseq uences are most keenly felt during the dry sea son and often lead to s ignificant reduction

in water availab ility. In Dominica, this may be as much as 50 percent. Many catchments a nd

watersheds used for water supply are essentially without gauges, and ra infall measurements are

sparse.

Groundwater aq uifer yields are threatened by prolonged periods of low rainfall and abs traction

levels that exceed the sustainab le long-term aq uifer recharge. This is especially the case for

coasta l aq uifers where a bstractions have resulted in 'up-coning' a nd increased levels of sa linity

as the fresh– sa line water interface has migra ted inland. In Saint Kitts and Nevis, s uch concerns

provided the ca ta lyst for government action and intervention in the Bass eterre a q uifer. Highconcentra tions of nitra tes obs erved in a bstractions from the Liguanea a quifer in Kingston and


24/52

3 POLICYCHALLENGES

www.gwp.org24

St Andrew, Jamaica a nd the Belle a rea , Barbados have been attributed to inappropriate sewa ge

disposa l in urba n areas (Manda l a nd Ha iduk, 2011). Such contamination of groundwater makes

it unusa ble unless expensive treatment is provided. A major challenge facing wa ter resources

managers is the difficulty of determining sa fe yields and undertaking assess ments of the yield-

demand b a lance. Often, the req uired da ta, the models, and the s killed personnel a re a ll inshort supply.

One of the reasons for this state of affairs is that responsibility for water resources management

is vested in the water service provider. Only in Ja maica a nd Sa int Lucia , a nd to some extent in

Trinida d a nd Toba go, has it been constituted a s a sepa ra te mana ging body. Another reas on is

the la ck of formal mechanisms for cross -sector collaboration, which would a llow water, land,

and development issues to be coordina ted.

Overa ll wa ter security is an emerging challenge which the present institutional frameworks and

enabling environments a re increas ingly ill-eq uipped to dea l with. In particula r, a ccess to a nd

investment in accepta ble sa nita tion is limited in lower income communities (WHO/UNICEF,2013). Those in coasta l areas underlain by high wa ter tables have issues opera ting on-site

septic systems and hence there is an increased risk of contamina tion of local areas. This

becomes particula rly acute a nd a public health threat during s evere flood events.

3.3 The Carta gena Convention

The Cartagena Convention is a protocol concerning pollution of the Caribbea n Sea from land-

ba sed sources a nd a ctivities (LBS Protocol). This Protocol came into force in 2010 with the

objective of protecting the na tura l resources of the Caribbean Sea (fish stocks, cora l reefs, fra gile

ecosystems, and recrea tiona l wa ters) from ha rm a rising out of activities taking pla ce on la nd.

These a ctivities include pollution from the disposa l of domestic sewa ge, oil refineries, chemica l

industries , mining, and a gro-industries . However, the bigges t threats identified were from

domestic sewa ge and run-off from la nd as a diffuse source of pollution. The objective of the

Protocol is to dea l with the sources of pollution through the use of a ppropriate technologies

and by setting pollution standa rds and water quality objectives. By 2020 all existing domestic

wastewa ter systems (other than community wastewa ter systems) must comply with the

provisions of the Protocol, a nd a ll community systems other than individual household

systems must comply by 2030.

In order to achieve this, a ll countries of the wider Caribbean region will have to es tab lish the

appropriate policies, legislation, a nd regula tions to support the implementation of the Protocol,

create the necessa ry institutional fra mework and capacities, and make a vailable the finances to

put in place the s ewerage infra structure. The Protocol provides a legal framework for regional

coopera tion to achieve the objectives of the agreement, esta blishing regional effluent limita tions

for domestic sewage and manda ting specific pla ns to address agricultura l non-point sources of

pollution. It a lso provides for the future inclusion of other priority sources of pollution and

activities.

The provision of centra lised wa stewa ter services throughout the Caribbean fa lls to the water

service providers a nd, as such, the requirements of the LBS Protocol will have a major impact on

them up to and b eyond 2020. The numbers of people with a ccess to improved sa nita tion in the

Caribbean exceeds 90 percent, in most cas es. However, the numbers with access to centra lised

was tewa ter service systems which collect and treat was tewa ter a re low, ra nging from 3 percent


25/52

www.gwp.org 25

3 POLICYCHALLENGES

in Sa int Vincent to 30 percent in Trinidad and Toba go. In a s itua tiona l analysis, was tewa ter

treatment was considered a low priority by water utility managers a nd sta keholders. Countries

were shown to be failing to take an integrate d a pproa ch to wastewa ter management and there

was inadeq uate provision for infra structure investment, policy reform, and public educa tion. All

these elements present challenges to water managers. But they are also directly relevant to thedevelopment of IWRM strategies and plans a t the national level.

3.4 Challenges related t o climate change

Ca ribbean isla nds a re especia lly vulnerable to the effects of climate change (IPCC, 2007) and as a

result a re likely to experience increas ed wate r stress . The Caribbea n may experience s ea level rise,

temperature rise (2.5 to 3OC rise for the northern a nd s outhern Caribbean a nd 2 to 2.5OC for the

eas tern Ca ribbean from 2075 to 2099), a nd changes in ra infall patterns. An increas e in the

number of days and nights with very high temperatures (in excess of 35

O

C during the day and 25

O

Cat night) is expected. Such changes will have a significant impact on soil moisture and

evapotranspiration.

Rainfall is generally expected to decrease by between 25 and 50 percent by 2080 (Ca mpbell et a l.,

2010), b ut in the Baha mas and Cuba increases are projected. The s easona l rainfa ll distribution

shows significant decreases in the wet sea son a cross the region (UN ECLAC, 2010). The northern

Ca ribbean will experience more intense ra infall a nd fewer ra iny da ys, while the s outhern pa rt will

experience the opposite effect (Campbell et a l., 2010). The reduced we t sea son rainfa ll, es pecia lly

when coupled with the projected higher temperatures, is problema tic, and the likely outcome is

significantly reduced water availab ility.

A bas ic interpretation of the climate change projections suggests that surface water flows will be

reduced a nd, potentia lly, wa ter qua lity will be a ffected, a nd less water will be a vailable for

recharge. But these potentia l impacts req uire much more investiga tion. With water a vailability

already a challenge, the prospect of further reductions in water availa bility because of climate

change only increas es the need for improved management of water resources a nd mechanisms to

ensure that scarce resources are a llocated a nd used in the most efficient and effective manner.

Current institutional a rrangements a re struggling to cope with the existing situation, so they a re

not as fit for purpose as would be desired. The impact of recent extreme events, such as

Hurricanes Tomas (UN ECLAC, 2011) and the regional drought of 2009 to 2010 (Fa rrell et a l.,

2010), ha ve highlighted the vulnerability of the current infras tructure a nd the cha llenges to des ign

standa rds and codes of pra ctice in providing robust a nd resilient infras tructure that can cope with

such events.

3.5 The challenges for regional approaches

The ma in challenge for regiona l approa ches is diversity. The English-spea king Caribbea n is

home to some 5 million people, spread a cross 15 island s tates and territories. Popula tions

range from a few thousa nd to over 3 million in Jamaica . Land a rea s range from 11,000 km2 to

under 10 km2. Such diversity, a long with the composition and size of the economies and the

press ure on limited human a nd financial resources, presents challenges in underta king

ad equa te management of water resources a nd services. Politicians have long recognised this,and one o f the main reasons for forming CARICOM was to ena ble the region to engage with the


26/52

3 POLICYCHALLENGES

www.gwp.org26

globa l community on a more equa l footing. Regional approaches to water resources management

suggest that the focus should be placed on developing common frameworks and s tanda rds.

Given the development of strong national identities since independence there would be

difficulties in developing mutually acceptable funding arrangements, especially if coopera tion

req uired more than the development of common fra meworks. Sha ring jurisdictions has beenproblematic in the pas t, and there is no tra dition of formal government-level coopera tion in the

wa ter sector.

There a re, however, precedents in the electricity sector, notably in the Organisa tion of Eas tern

Caribbean States (Grenad a , Sa int Vincent and the Grenad ines, Sa int Lucia , Dominica , Antigua,

a nd Ba rbuda , a nd Sa int Kitts a nd Nevis). Nevertheless, the difficulties in securing s ufficient

expertise and the financial cost of providing the orga nisa tional infras tructure a t the national

level a re being increas ingly recognised. This has led some opinion formers to seriously propose

a greater level of regional cooperation between governments on water matters (Fa rrell et a l.,

2007). This change in thinking is being reflected in the level of informal coopera tion between

practitioners, as well as that by NGOs involved in the wa ter sector.


27/52

www.gwp.org 27

4 POLICYDEVELOPMENTS

4 Policy developments

4.1 Regional and sub-regional IWRM developments

A number of policy initia tives which support IWRM have taken place over the pas t six years a t

regional and national levels.

In 2008 a CARICOM resolution to institute a consortium of wa ter institutions was meant to lead

to the development of a Common Water Fra mework for the Community to a ssist member states

with developing and implementing their IWRM plans. It was only in 2010 that the terms of

reference of the cons ortium, which included representa tion from regiona l non-CARICOM

institutional partners, were a pproved. The immediate a ims were to develop a consolida ted work

programme and to s et up a clea ring house and libra ry of wate r resource projects and a s kills

da taba se. In the longer term the consortium was to facilitate the as sess ment of national waterresources, identify priority issues, building up capa city, a nd updating water legisla tion as a

means of moving forward with the development of a common wate r framework. However, the

la ck of a ny available funds and the voluntary nature of the consortium have severely hampered

its ability to address any of the objectives set out in the terms of reference. In 2014 this may

change as GWP-C (one of the regional non-CARICOM institutiona l partners of the consortium)

has committed to provide a t leas t one year's funding for a person to work for the consortium.

Further funding for the consortium's activities may be forthcoming a s part of other regional

initiatives under development by CARICOM consortium partners.

The GEF-IWCAM project , up to its completion in 2011, provided support in developing na tiona l

IWRM plans and a lso reviewed policy, legislat ion, and institutional structures in the pa rtici-pa ting countries (GEF-IWCAM, 2014). The outcome wa s the pub licat ion of a Toolkit fo r

institut iona l, po licy, a nd legisla tive improvements in support o f the GEF-IWCAM project

approa ch in Ca ribbea n SIDS , which provided a platform to a id IWRM implementa tion a nd

specifica lly the LBS Protocol of the Cartagena Convention. The Toolkit was designed for

technocra ts, policy-makers, planners, developers, a nd legisla tors and provided model examples

and la ws , including legisla tive drafting guide lines for the GEF-IWCAM project. In add ition,

national and sub-national IWRM roa d maps were prepared in Antigua a nd Barbuda , Ba rba dos ,

Grenad a , Sa int Lucia , and Union Island in Saint Vincent a nd the Grenad ines. Dra ft policy

sta tements were developed in Antigua a nd Barbuda a nd Dominica, a nd support to dialogue

and issue papers in Cuba , Jamaica, Sa int Kitts and Nevis, a nd Trinidad .

integrated water resources management in the caribbean

Documents