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Scientific Revolution and

European Enlightenment

 Aira Gaile Macoy

 Andre Miguel D. Magallanes

Ma. Jossel Emmanuelle P. Manalo

Kim Jaziel J. Manuel

 Adrian Maranan

Ellaine Denice H. Marallag

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Scientific Revolution

The scientific revolution as the emergence of modern science during the early modern !eriod"hen develo!ment in Mathematics" Physics" Astronomy" #iology and $hemistry transformedvies of society and nature. The %&cientific 'evolution% refers to historical changes in thought ()elief" to changes in social ( institutional organization that unfolded in Euro!e during *++,-*,,. The scientific revolution of the */th and *th centuries as an e0tremely formative !eriodin the history of human civilization. 1t is im!ortant to em!hasize that the scientific revolution didnot mar2 the )irth of science.

Great Thin2ers during the &cientific 'evolution

3icolaus $o!ernicus as a 'enaissance !olymath res!onsi)le for hat some have called the4$o!ernican 'evolution. He studied astronomy" mathematics" !hiloso!hy and the sciences. 5neof his im!ortant contri)utions as inthe field of astronomy. He discovered heliocentrism throughcareful o)servation of the s2y. Heliocentrism means sun-centered universe. $o!ernicus !lacedthe sun at the center of the universe rather than earth. His )oo2" on the 'evolutions of theHeavenly &!heres 6De 'evolutioni)us 5r)ium $oelestium7 ere !u)lished )efore his death in*+89 that is into si0 sections" or %)oo2s%. The first of these )oo2s sets out $o!ernicus:heliocentric theory as the )asis for his cosmology and ongoing calculations; the second )oo2uses trigonometry to solve various motions of heavenly )odies in the s2y; )oo2 three loo2s atthe motion of the Earth; )oo2 four" the motion of the Moon; and )oo2s five and si0" the motionsof the !lanets.

  The Princi!al of heliocentrism is defined )y<

*. There is no center of all circles or s!heres=. The center of the earth is not the center of the universe" )ut only of gravity and lof the lunar s!here  9. &un is the center of the universe  8. The Earth-&un distance is negligi)le com!ared to the distance to the stars.  +. Earth>s rotation accounts for the a!!arent daily rotation of the stars  /. The a!!arent annual cycle of movements of the sun is caused )y the earth or)iting it.  . The a!!arent retrograde motion of the !lanets is caused )y the motion of the Earth fromhich one o)serves the !lanets. $o!ernicus: ideas ere claimed to )e the start of scientific revolution. He influenced many!hiloso!hers and scientists hen his theories ere !u)lished.

Tycho #rahe is an eminent Danish astronomer and alchemist. He as called %aman ith agolden nose.% He is 2non for his !recise and com!rehensive astronomical and !lanetaryo)servations" hich heavily influenced future discoveries. He accurately !redicted !lanetarymotion and classified hundreds of stars )efore the telesco!e as invented.He also madeinstruments including a )uilding-sized ?uadrant for measuring the angle of stars. He alsodiscovered a ne star in the constellation $assio!eia. #ecause of this" he received many offersof scientific !ositions all over Euro!e.#rahe as an active !artici!ant to the de)ates on thenature of the @niverse. Although )etter 2non as a famed astronomer" Tycho #rahe also !layeda crucial role in the develo!ment of geodesy and cartogra!hy. His assistant" Johannes Ke!ler"

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used his ma!s of stars to ma2e his las of !lanetary motion. 5ne of Tycho #rahe:s greatachievements as He first o)served a su!ernova using his na2ed eye.

Johannes Ke!ler as a German astronomer and mathematician. He as interested inastronomy from an early age" this interest as further !i?ued hen he itnessed )oth a cometin *+ as ell as a lunar ecli!se in *+,. He discovered that the Earth and !lanets travel a)out

the sun in elli!tical or)its. He rote a )oo2 entitled %Astronomia 3ova% that contains his ten-year-long investigation of the motion of Mars and !rovided strong arguments for heliocentrismand contri)uted valua)le insight into the movement of the !lanets. Ke!leris also 2non for formulating the 9 las of !lanetary motion.

Ke!ler:s 9 las of !lanetary motion<

  *. The Ba of 5r)its C states that all !lanets move in elli!tical or)its" ith the sun at onefocus. The &un is not at the center of the elli!se" )ut is instead at one focus. The !lanet thenfollos the elli!se in its or)it" hich means that the Earth-&un distance is constantly changingas the !lanet goes around its or)it.

=. The Ba of Areas C states that the line connecting the sun and a !lanet see!s out an

e?ual area in an e?ual amount of time. &o" hen !lanets are closer to the sun" it moves faster.#ut if it:s further" it moves sloer.

9. The Ba of Periods - The ratio of the s?uares of the !eriods of any to !lanets is e?ual tothe ratio of the cu)es of their average distances from the sun. 1t means that the further aay the!lanet is from the sun" the longer it ta2es to or)its; The closer the !lanet is from the sun" the?uic2er it or)its.

Galileo Galilei as an 1talian astronomer" mathematician and !hiloso!her hose or2s greatlycontri)uted to the &cientific 'evolution. He is considered as the%ather of Modern &cience"%%ather of Modern Physics"% and %ather of 5)servational Astronomy.% He is one of the !ioneersof the scientific method. He !ro!osed the theory of inertia hich means that an o)ect moves or 

rests until something outside of it changes its motion. He invented an im!roved telesco!e thatlet him o)serve and descri)e the moons of Ju!iter" the rings of &aturn" the !hases of Fenus"suns!ots and the rugged lunar surface. He also had a conflict ith the church )ecause of demonstrating the validity of $o!ernicus: heliocentric model of the universe. 1n doing so" hehel!ed to revolutionize our understanding of the cosmos" our !lace in it" and hel!ed to usher inan age here scientific reasoning trum!ed religious dogma.

1saac 3eton as an English natural !hiloso!her" generally regarded as the most original andinfluential theorist in the history of science. He rote the Principia" one of the most im!ortantscientific )oo2s ever ritten; in it he used mathematics to e0!lain gravity and motion. He alsoformulated the 3eton:s three Bas of Motion hich are Ba of 1nertia" Ba of Acceleration andBa of 1nteraction. He also formulated the Ba of @niversal Gravitation" hich means all o)ectsattract each other ith force of gravitational attraction.He also hel!ed $o!ernicus in theconfirmation of Heliocentric vie of the universe.

rancis #acon" also called Bord Ferulam" as somehat less renoned and less successfulthan Descartes" )ut nevertheless highly influential. #acon advocated the collection of all!ossi)le facts and !henomena and the !rocessing of these through a sort of automatic logicalmill. #acon as an early !ioneer of the scientific method ho created 4em!iricism and ins!iredthe scientific revolution. rancis #acon is often called the father of modern science. He initiateda massive reformation of every !rocess of 2noledge for the advancement of learning divine

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and human. As the creator of em!iricism" rancis #acon formulated a set of em!irical andinductive methodologies" for setting off a scientific in?uiry" 2non as the #aconian method. Hiscall for a !lotted !rocedure of in?uiring things" ith an em!iricist naturalistic a!!roach" had a!rofound im!act on the rhetorical and theoretical frameor2 for science. #acon also served asthe !hiloso!hical ins!iration )ehind the !rogress of the 1ndustrial age. He alays suggested thatscientific or2 should )e done for charita)le reasons" and for relieving man2ind>s misery ith

the invention of useful things. #acon also authored several )oo2s and essays that advocatedreformations of the la" and many of them regarding religious" moral and civil meditations.

'en Descartes as a highly influential rench !hiloso!her" scientist and mathematician" ho is

idely considered to )e one of the cele)rated geniuses of the *th century. His legendary

e0!eriment of !resenting geometrical !oint using !air of ordered num)ers 6no called

coordinate geometry7 almost 2ic2 started modern mathematics. The famous s2e!ticism of 

Descartes" that distrusted every )elief )ut his on conscious thin2ing" is usually credited as the

terminus a ?uo for modern !hiloso!hy. He is also 2non as the 4ather of Modern Philoso!hy.

Descartes as one of the most influential !ersons in the &cientific 'evolution. He virtually

condensed the range and variety in the Iorld )y his ell-2non !hrase; 4matter in motion. He

rote various )oo2s and !a!ers a)out o!tics" and e0amined the rain)os. He declared there

as no vacuum" )ut su!!orted momentum conservation. Descartes also devised the !rinci!le of 

inertia. A su!!orter of the ave theory of light and vorte0 theory for !lanets" he thought of the

universe and the human )ody as a giant machine. He is also descri)ed as the father of 

analytical geometry. His most significant !hiloso!hical !osition as connected ith the mind-

)ody dichotomy. Descartes e0!lained that mind as e0ternal to the !hysical )ody into hich it

entered through the !ineal gland. He thought that science is an activity of the o)serving mind

6res cogitans7 to !erceive an o)served o)ective reality 6ref e0tensa7. @sing one concise !hrase"

4cogito ergo sum 61 thin2" therefore 1 am7" he changed the hole direction of Iestern

!hiloso!hy. Descartes is credited as the first thin2er to offer a !hiloso!hical frameor2 for the

natural sciences. His theological )eliefs )ecame controversial at the time and faced directo!!osition from the Po!e. The theories and treatises of Descartes immensely influenced

countless as!ects of the !hysical and scientific orld.

$auses of the &cientific 'evolution

The scientific method uses o)servation and e0!erimentation to e0!lain theories on the or2ings

of the universe.

- 3icolaus $o!ernicus develo!ed the heliocentric model of the universe.

- Galileo continues $o!ernicus: or2 )y o)serving the s2ies ith a homemade telesco!e.

- 1saac 3eton )uilt u!on the earlier or2 of $o!ernicus and Galileo and used mathematics to

descri)e gravity as the force that 2ee!s !lanets revolving around the sun.- The invention of the !rinting !ress created numerous )oo2s and nesletters to 2ee! !eo!le

informed of science.

- Poerful leaders of nation-states funded scientific develo!ment.

- $onstant arfare among nation-states !ushed for scientific develo!ment )y !lacing an

im!ortance on technology. - Great advances made )y Portuguese navigators fueled an interest

in learning more a)out the stars.

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- King John funded mathematics in Portugal" ueen Eliza)eth created Gresham $ollege" and

King $harles 11 hel!ed start the 'oyal &ociety and the 3aval Ba)oratories.

- 'eformation led to the ?uestioning of religion

$onse?uences of the &cientific Method

- The use of the &cientific Method resulted in discoveries in medicine" !hysics" and )iology.

- The Enlightenment changed the ay !eo!le lived as !olitical and social scholars )egan to

?uestion the or2ings of society and government.

- 'ene Descartes said that human reason as ca!a)le of discovering and e0!laining the las

of nature and man.

- Thomas Ho))es )ased his theories on government on his )elief that man as )asically

greedy" selfish" and cruel.

- John Boc2e:s theories ere that all men have natural rights of life" li)erty" and !ro!erty.

- #aron de Montes?uieu states that government should divide itself according to its !oers"

creating a udicial" legislative" and e0ecutive )ranch.

- Foltaire )elieved that freedom of s!eech as the )est ea!on against )ad government.

- Jean Jac?ues 'ousseau stated that !eo!le ere )asically good" and that society" and its

une?ual distri)ution of ealth" ere the cause of most !ro)lems.

- Peo!le )egan to ?uestion religion and loo2ed to math and science to e0!lain the universe.

- Iomen )ecame more involved ith the ne science.

- &cientific colleges ere created

The Age of Enlightenment

The Age of Enlightenment" 6rench 4siècle des Lumieres, literally 4$entury of the Enlightened7"is a Euro!ean intellectual movement of the * th and *th centuries in hich ideas concerning

God" reason" nature" and humanity ere synthesized into a orldvie that gained ide assentin the Iest and that instigated revolutionary develo!ments in art" !hiloso!hy" and !olitics.$entral to Enlightenment thought ere the use and cele)ration of reason" the !oer )y hichhumans understand the universe and im!rove their on condition. The goals of rationalhumanity ere considered to )e 2noledge" freedom" and ha!!iness.

The influence of the &cientific 'evolution s!read even outside the alls of science. 1saac3eton as !raised )y !hiloso!hers )ecause of his use of reason to e0!lain las concerningnature. Humans also started to discover ideas and e0!lanations that could e0!lain a human)eing>s character. They ho!ed that the scientific method and reason can )e used in terms of !olitics" economics" religion and education. 1n this ay" the &cientific 'evolution !aved ay to ane era called the Age of Enlightenment.

Causes of the Enlightenment

5n the surface" the most a!!arent cause of the Enlightenment as the Thirty ears> Iar. Thishorri)ly destructive ar" hich lasted from */* to */8" com!elled German riters to !enharsh criticisms regarding the ideas of nationalism and arfare. These authors" such as HugoGrotius and John $omenius" ere some of the first Enlightenment minds to go against traditionand !ro!ose )etter solutions.

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 At the same time" Euro!ean thin2ers> interest in the tangi)le orld develo!ed into scientificstudy" hile greater e0!loration of the orld e0!osed Euro!e to other cultures and !hiloso!hies.inally" centuries of mistreatment at the hands of monarchies and the church )rought averagecitizens in Euro!e to a )rea2ing !oint" and the most intelligent and vocal finally decided to s!ea2out.

The Beginnings of the Enlightenment

Thomas Hobbes’ and John oc!e’s t"o different vie"s about the government

Thomas Ho))es as an English !hiloso!her in the */,,s. After he sa hat ha!!ened duringthe English $ivil Iars" he !ro!osed the idea that a)solute monarchy is the )est form of government. He )elieved that humans are naturally violent; thus" he needed an a)solute leader to control these. He rote the )oo2 entitled “Leviathan” " in hich he descri)ed a society hichhas no leader" resulting to a chaotic society.

John Boc2e has one of the most influential ideas a)out the government during the

Enlightenment era. His ideas ere contrary to that of Ho))es. He )elieved that humans ere)orn neither good nor evil; his e0!eriences mold his character. He said that humans can learnfrom their e0!eriences and he can change. His articles on his 4To Treatises of Governmentinfluenced the hole of Euro!e.

1mmanuel Kant as a rationalist ho as also familiar ith develo!ments in #ritish !hiloso!hyand science and introduced Kant to the ne mathematical !hysics of  1saac 3eton.  He madean im!ortant astronomical discovery a)out the nature of Earth:s rotation" for hich he on the#erlin Academy Prize in *+8. That according to Bord Kelvin< %Kant !ointed out in the middle of last century" hat had not !reviously )een discovered )y mathematicians or !hysicalastronomers" that the frictional resistance against tidal currents on the earth:s surface mustcause a diminution of the earth:s rotational s!eed. This immense discovery in 3atural

Philoso!hy seems to have attracted little attentionLindeed to have !assed ?uite unnoticedLamong mathematicians" and astronomers" and naturalists" until a)out *8," hen the doctrineof energy )egan to )e ta2en to heart.%

 Adam &mith" laissez-faire 6les-ay-fair" lay-zay-fair7N rench for 4Bet 6!eo!le7 do 6as theychoose7. 1t descri)es a system or !oint of vie that o!!oses regulation or interference )y thegovernment in economic affairs )eyond the minimum necessary to allo the free enter!risesystem to o!erate according to its on las. economic system in hich transactions )eteen!rivate !arties are free from government interference such as regulations" !rivileges" tariffs" andsu)sidies.

The 'ole of &alon" the rench salon" a !roduct of The Enlightenment in the early *th century"as a 2ey institution in hich omen !layed a central role. A salon is a gathering of !eo!leunder the roof of an ins!iring host" held !artly to amuse one another and !artly to refine thetaste and increase the 2noledge of the !artici!ants through conversation. &alons" commonlyassociated ith rench literary and !hiloso!hical movements of the *th and *th centuries"ere carried on until recently in ur)an settings. 1t as an 1talian invention of the */th centuryhich flourished in rance throughout the *th and *th centuries. 1t as 5ne im!ortant !lacefor the e0change of ideas. O from the 1talian ord salone" itself from sala" the large rece!tion hallof 1talian mansions. These gatherings ere fre?uently held in the )edroom 6treated as a more!rivate form of draing room7

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D1DE'5T>s E3$$B5PED1A. The Encyclopédie is most famous for re!resenting the thought of the Enlightenment. According to Denis Diderot in the article %Encyclo!die%" the Encyclopédie' saim as %to change the ay !eo!le thin2%. The or2 com!rised = volumes" ith *"* articlesand 9"*= illustrations. The first seventeen volumes ere !u)lished )eteen *+* and */+;eleven volumes of !lates ere finished )y *=. O the Encyclo!die caused much controversyin conservative circles" and on the initiative of the Parlement of Paris" the rench government

sus!ended the encyclo!edia:s privilège in *+. Bi2e most encyclo!edias" the Encyclopédie attem!ted to collect and summarize human 2noledge in a variety of fields and to!ics" rangingfrom !hiloso!hy to theology to science and the arts. The Encyclopédie as controversial forreorganizing 2noledge )ased on human reason instead of )y nature or theology.

The or2 com!rised = volumes" ith *"* articles and 9"*= illustrations. The first

seventeen volumes ere !u)lished )eteen *+* and */+; eleven volumes of !lates ere

finished )y *=. #ecause of its occasional radical contents 6see %$ontents% )elo7" the

Encyclo!die caused much controversy in conservative circles" and on the initiative of the

Parlement of Paris" the rench government sus!ended the encyclo!edia:s privilège in *+.

Des!ite the sus!ension" or2 continued %in secret"% !artially )ecause the !roect had highly

!laced su!!orters" such as Malesher)es and Madame de Pom!adour . The authoritiesdeli)erately turned a )lind eye to the continued or2; they thought their official )an as

sufficient to a!!ease the church and other enemies of the !roect.

During the %secretive% !eriod" Diderot accom!lished a ell-2non or2 of su)terfuge. The title

!ages of volumes * through " !u)lished )eteen *+* and *+" claimed Paris as the !lace of 

!u)lication. Hoever" the title !ages of the su)se?uent te0t volumes" through *" !u)lished

together in */+" sho 3eufchastel as the !lace of !u)lication. 3eufchastel 6no 3euchQtel7 is

safely across the rench )order in &itzerland" here official !roduction of the Encyclopédie 

as secure from interference )y agents of the rench state. 1n !articular" regime o!!onents of

the Encyclopédie could not seize the !roduction !lates for the Encyclopédie in Paris )ecause

those !rinting !lates ostensi)ly e0isted only in &itzerland. Meanhile" the actual !roduction ofvolumes through * ?uietly continued in Paris. 1n *+" $harles Jose!h Panc2ouc2e o)tained

the rights to reissue the or2. He issued five volumes of su!!lementary material and a to-

volume inde0 from */ to *,. &ome scholars include these seven %e0tra% volumes as !art of

the first full issue of the Encyclopédie" for a total of 9+ volumes" although they ere not ritten

or edited )y the original authors.rom *= to *9=" Panc2ouc2e and his successors !u)lished

an e0!anded edition of the or2 in some *// volumes as the Encyclopédie méthodique. That

or2" enormous for its time" occu!ied a thousand or2ers in !roduction and ="=+, contri)utors.

ranRois-Marie Arouet" )etter 2non )y the !en name" Foltaire- he as a rench intellectualho rote and lectured a)out freedom of s!eech. Foltaire is )est 2non for saying" %1 do notagree ith a ord that you say" )ut 1 ill defend to the death your right to say it.% He )elievedthat freedom of s!eech as the )est ea!on against )ad government. He also s!o2e outagainst the corru!tion of the rench government and the intolerance of the $atholic $hurch andso he rote Bi)eral ritings and satires on the $hurch and the &tate. 6#elieved in God )ut not inmiracles" dogma" and clergy7

Paul Henri Thiery" #aron d:Hol)ach - he as the first riter of o!enly atheistic or2s in modernhistory Deterministic vie of human )eings. The free ill" God and immortality of the soul are

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foolish myths. He ran2s as one of the most radical !hiloso!hers of the Enlightenment. AGerman )y )irth 6Paul Heinrich Dietrich7" he as raised in rance and inherited his uncle:sfortune and title there. Hol)ach as a close friend of Denis Diderot" and colla)orated ith himon Diderot:s famous Encyclopédie. The ystem o! "ature 6*,7 nic2named %The Atheist:s#i)le% and first !u)lished under the name of Mira)aud. 5ther thin2ers re!elled )y this infle0i)leatheism" his )oo2s aroused much controversy and attracted re)uttals even from deistic free

thin2ers such as Foltaire and rederic2 the Great.

Jeremy #entham -He learned to read at the age 9" learned Batin at 8" rote Batin at +" learnedrench at / and too2 Foltaire for light reading at ...a genius. 1n his #ntroduction to the Principleso! $orals and Legislation he argued that the creation of the greatest ha!!iness for the greatestnum)er of !eo!le should )e the )asis for )oth !ersonal ethics and state acts - a !hiloso!hy thatould come to )e 2non as @tilitarianism. Ha!!iness is the main focus of his ideas. He)elieved that 3ature has !laced man2ind under the governance of = sovereign masters< !ainand !leasure. 1t>s for them alone to !oint out hat to do.

#aron de Montes?uieu as an Enlightenment thin2er from rance ho rote a )oo2 called" The&!irit of the Bas in *8. 1n his )oo2" Montes?uieu descri)es hat he considers to )e the )est

government. He states that government should divide itself according to its !oers" creating aJudicial" Begislative" and E0ecutive )ranch. Montes?uieu e0!lained that under this system each)ranch ould $hec2 and #alance the others" hich ould hel! !rotect the !eo!le:s li)erty. Theideas of &e!aration of PoersPoers of the government should )e se!arated in order to!revent a !erson from gaining too much !oer 

David Hume-His name as originally David Home hoever the English had trou)le !ronouncing4Home )it in the &cottish ay" so he )ecame David Hume in *98. Politically he as a Shig> 6amem)er or su!!orter of a #ritish !olitical grou!7 hich means that he ultimately anted toreduce the !oer of the monarchy 62ing ( ?ueen7. He as the * st !hiloso!her related to thematter of em!iricism. 1t means it is here all human 2noledge came from e0!eriences. He asone of the first !hiloso!hers in the modern time to have a com!letely naturalistic vie of thingsand reect the idea that e are made in the image of God. He as also very s2e!tic toardsreligious teachings-meaning he as very dou)tful of their validity.

Jean Jac?ues 'ousseau -he )elieved that !eo!le are good )ut corru!ted )y society and he also)elieved in Direct Democracy.or him" !eo!le are not truly free if they don>t ma2e their on decisions.

%&iscourse on the rigins o! the #nequality o! $an(ind 

Peo!le have ado!ted las and governors in order to !reserve their !ro!erty. &uch causedenslavement of the !eo!le )y the government.

%The ocial )ontract *+-/

• 4Men as )orn free" )ut is no everyhere in chains. The lost freedom as theresult of the evils of civilized society.

• Po!ular sovereignty C men enter into a contract in hich they voluntarily

surrender their individual li)erty to a government for the elfare of all and theychose the one to rule them; this contract can )e changed at ill. 1f the individual!uts his !articular ill 6self-interest7 a)ove the general ill" he should )e forcedto a)ide )y the general ill" forcing him to )e free. This can result to a failure inrecognizing minorities and can !romote tyranny to the maority.

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Enlightened Des!otism 6)enevolent des!otism7 An enlightened monarch ould advance the society of his state )y fosteringeducation" economic freedom" and social ustice. 1n general the ruler used his !oer to !romote the good of the !eo!le )ecause heshe 2ne )est

rederic2 the Great

Prussia a maor Euro!ean !oer 6merged into Germany7 1nfluenced )y Foltaire>s ideologies on domestic reforms" im!roved education"

codified las" industry and immigration" religious tolerance$atherine the Great

'ussian ruler 

instituted enlightened !olicies in 'ussia

Maria Theresa and Jose!h 11

 Austria

Theresa !romoted free trade and limited the !oer of the no)ility

Jose!h 11 !rovided freedom of the !ress and dismantled the remnants of serfdom-The !ro)lem ith enlightened des!otism is that it as" in general" all rong. An a)solute ruler 

ho controlled !eo!le>s freedom asn>t hat many thin2ers envisioned the Enlightenment to )e

a)out. The !eo!le anted more control over their freedoms and they ere not going to ta2e no

for an anser; no matter ho enlightened the ruler claimed to )e.