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Intelligence IntensificationTechniques to grasp and memorize

information


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Contents

Articles

Intelligence Intensification 1

Intelligence Intensification/Introduction 3

Intelligence Intensification/Information Sifting 4

Intelligence Intensification/Information Grasping 6

Intelligence Intensification/Memory Techniques 7

II Speed Reading 10

Intelligence Intensification/General Tips For Practicing 12

Intelligence Intensification/Creativity Techniques 14

Intelligence Intensification/Memory Techniques/Memorizing Numbers and Digits 16

Intelligence Intensification/Proofs 20

Intelligence Intensification/Repetition 26

Intelligence Intensification/Speed Reading 27

Intelligence Intensification/The Concept of Change 28

Intelligence Intensification/The Theoretician Versus the Practician 29

Intelligence Intensification/Visualization 30

Intelligence Intensification/Memory Techniques/A Longer Peglist 31

Intelligence Intensification/Memory Techniques/Memorizing Playing Cards 32

References

Article Sources and Contributors 34

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 35

Article Licenses

License 36


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Intelligence Intensification


Introduction | Information Sifting | Information grasping

Information Evaluation | Information Invention |

Information Utilization

Contents

/Introduction/

The need of a book on this subject

/Information Sifting/

/Speed Reading/

/Information Grasping/

Memory Techniques

1. Visual Techniques

2. Phonetic Techniques

3. Kinaesthetic Techniques

4. Exercises

5. Drugs and Vitamins

Repetition

Visualization

/Information Evaluation/

Proofs

1. Different levels of proof

2. Scientific proof

/Information Invention/

Idea Generation Techniques

1. The trivial cases

2. Brainstorming

3. Variations on a theme

4. The ludicrous cases

Idea Charting Techniques

1. Idea Mapping and Associative Grouping

2. Building Layered Abstraction Structures

/Information Utilization/

The Theoretician Versus the Practician

The Concept of Change

General Tips For Practicing
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See Also

Contemporary Educational Psychology/Chapter 2: The Learning Process WikibooksVarious theories of

learning, including constructivism, that are important to intelligence intensification.

External Links

Project: Abolish Stupidity[1]

Buildfreedom.comAn excellent resource on intellectualism.

Programming and Metaprogramming in the Human Biocomputer[2]

John C. Lilly, MDIsolation and LSD

research

Sense-Think-Act.org[3]

A resource similar to this wikibook

Cognitive Enhancement - Methods, ethics and regulatory challenges[4]

Nickbostrom.com

How to Memorize Verbatim Text[5]

Productivity 501The first-letter technique

Memorizing Lines[6]

Grace FlemingUsing multiple senses

Memorize This7 Ways to Memorize Anything![7]

Gideon AddingtonFor learning languages

How to Memorize a Book[8]

eWonkVisualization and remembering stories

How to Memorize Anything

[9]

John PlaceRote memorization by stackingPreventing stress How to Memorize a Poem

[10]Sheila HagemanLearning poems and napping in between

How to Memorize Lines[11]

HowcastVideo

How to Memorize Using Mnemonic Devices[12]

Book Rags

How to Memorize Using Notecards[13]

Book Rags

10 Sure Fire Techniques to Memorize Anything[14]

Study Skills10 different methods

How We Remember[15]

California Polytechnic State UniversityLearning from multiple angles

Memory Techniques[16]

Strategies for SuccessVisual vs. Auditory

Method of Loci[17]

Ludism.orgBased on places, used by the ancient Greeks for oration.

Authors DanielJanzon

Mike Hebel

References

[1] http://www.buildfreedom.com/stupidity/abolish_stupidity.html

[2] http://www.futurehi.net/docs/Metaprogramming.html

[3] http://www.sense-think-act.org/index.php/Main_Page

[4] http://www.nickbostrom.com/cognitive.pdf

[5] http://www.productivity501.com/how-to-memorize-verbatim-text/294

[6] http://homeworktips.

about.

com/od/speechclass/a/memorizing.

htm[7] http://web.archive.org/web/20080206235919/http://www.mindfulink.com/2008/02/04/memorize-this-7-ways-to-memorize-anything/

[8] http://editfont.wordpress.com/2007/09/07/how-to-memorize-a-book-part-1-every-word-or-certain-passages/

[9] http://johnplaceonline.com/study-smarter/how-to-memorize-anything/

[10] http://www.essortment.com/all/howtomemorize_rjzb.htm

[11] http://www.howcast.com/videos/5335-How-To-Memorize-Lines

[12] http://www.bookrags.com/articles/25.html

[13] http://www.bookrags.com/articles/26.html

[14] http://www.study-habits.com/blog/2007/06/05/how-to-memorize-fast/

[15] http://sas.calpoly.edu/asc/ssl/memorization.html

[16] http://www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/ACCDitg/SSMT.htm

[17] http://www.ludism.org/mentat/MemoryPalace
http://www.ludism.org/mentat/MemoryPalacehttp://www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/ACCDitg/SSMT.htmhttp://sas.calpoly.edu/asc/ssl/memorization.htmlhttp://www.study-habits.com/blog/2007/06/05/how-to-memorize-fast/http://www.bookrags.com/articles/26.htmlhttp://www.bookrags.com/articles/25.htmlhttp://www.howcast.com/videos/5335-How-To-Memorize-Lineshttp://www.essortment.com/all/howtomemorize_rjzb.htmhttp://johnplaceonline.com/study-smarter/how-to-memorize-anything/http://editfont.wordpress.com/2007/09/07/how-to-memorize-a-book-part-1-every-word-or-certain-passages/http://web.archive.org/web/20080206235919/http://www.mindfulink.com/2008/02/04/memorize-this-7-ways-to-memorize-anything/http://homeworktips.about.com/od/speechclass/a/memorizing.htmhttp://www.productivity501.com/how-to-memorize-verbatim-text/294http://www.nickbostrom.com/cognitive.pdfhttp://www.sense-think-act.org/index.php/Main_Pagehttp://www.futurehi.net/docs/Metaprogramming.htmlhttp://www.buildfreedom.com/stupidity/abolish_stupidity.htmlhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:MikeMikehttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:DanielJanzonhttp://www.ludism.org/mentat/MemoryPalacehttp://www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/ACCDitg/SSMT.htmhttp://sas.calpoly.edu/asc/ssl/memorization.htmlhttp://www.study-habits.com/blog/2007/06/05/how-to-memorize-fast/http://www.bookrags.com/articles/26.htmlhttp://www.bookrags.com/articles/25.htmlhttp://www.howcast.com/videos/5335-How-To-Memorize-Lineshttp://www.essortment.com/all/howtomemorize_rjzb.htmhttp://johnplaceonline.com/study-smarter/how-to-memorize-anything/http://editfont.wordpress.com/2007/09/07/how-to-memorize-a-book-part-1-every-word-or-certain-passages/http://web.archive.org/web/20080206235919/http://www.mindfulink.com/2008/02/04/memorize-this-7-ways-to-memorize-anything/http://homeworktips.about.com/od/speechclass/a/memorizing.htmhttp://www.productivity501.com/how-to-memorize-verbatim-text/294http://www.nickbostrom.com/cognitive.pdfhttp://www.sense-think-act.org/index.php/Main_Pagehttp://www.futurehi.net/docs/Metaprogramming.htmlhttp://www.buildfreedom.com/stupidity/abolish_stupidity.htmlhttp://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_Educational_Psychology/Chapter_2:_The_Learning_Process


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Intelligence Intensification/Introduction





The need of yet another book on this subject

All books on this subject I have come across have either one or both of the following disadvantages. Firstly, many

books are filled with advertisements for useless products, workshops and so on. They are designed for personal

development junkies who only want to feel the joy of reading books, listen to tapes and buy devices which could

have helped them if only they were willing to work hard. The second disadvantage is that most books are thin on

informationwhat could be explained in a couple of pages of text is explained in hundreds of pages. This book will

be different. The information in the book is dense and only intended to inspire the reader's own thinking and

experimentation.

I suppose the author's desire for yet 'another book on this subject' is more a result of the need to define his topic than

a dearth of information. A serious attempt at this endeavor would be better served by one with a little more education

on the subject. An introduction of this topic more than most others, would benefit from defining your goal and

organizing an approach. As with any discussion of intelligence, definitions, frames of reference, processes,

development (natural or guided), the relationships between original, developed, derived, summarized, or compiled

knowledges, cultural variation, and scales of valuing would be some primary considerations for interactive

descriptions. Many references exist for each of these subtopics, and one anticipated problem will be debates on

defining intelligence first, then (and possibly unnecessarily) discussion on measuring. Post-graduate (as fair a

starting point as another) studies of assessment deal with the evolution of the qualitative/quantitative measuring ofintelligence (and primarily within educational or legal/social contexts). All of this would be logical to establish a

platform from which one explores methods of intensification or development of intelligence.--Jeffyorns (talk) 17:24,

21 July 2008 (UTC)

I envision two directions for an introduction, one evolutionary and the other categorical, with a strong allowances for

aristotlean vs. oriental processes of perceptualization/development of understanding. --Jeffyorns (talk) 17:24, 21 July

2008 (UTC)

Binet, Gardner,

Cut the Crap

In keeping with the aim described in the preceding paragraph, this book will not contain affirmations that these

techniques will workeven for you and so on. No unscientific testimonials will be included. In a world with a lot of

information it is of utmost importance that the information is compact, concise and to the point.

1. Read table of contents of books FIRST to see if it mentions whatever topic you are looking for. If it doesn't, you

don't need to read it. If it does, great!

2. Bibliographies, or sources cited at the end of white papers give you clues to other places you can direct your

search.
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Spread the Word

The title Intelligence Intensification establishes that the goal of this text is to intensify intelligent thought in the

reader. Perhaps more importantly, the book aims at the greater goal of increasing intelligence all over the worldfor

joy and for the benefit of all humanity. This book is inspired by Timothy Leary's 20th Century concept: "Every

citizen a Scientist".

What's your vision?

The following is a quotation from the book The Art of Doing Science and Engineering: Learning to Learn by

Richard Hamming. He models a life with or without a vision with random walks.

"It is well known the drunken sailor who staggers to the left or right with independent random steps will, on

the average, end about steps from the origin. But if there is a pretty girl in one direction, then his steps

will tend to go in that direction and he will go a distance proportional to . In a lifetime of many, many

independent choices, small and large, a career with a vision will get you a distance proportional to , while

no vision will get you only the distance ."

Before or while reading this book and practicing its contents, try to grow a vision of your life.

Intelligence Intensification/Information Sifting





Working in the IT field I come across an unimaginable amount of data on a regular basis in just dealing withday-to-day issues.Any task is like that these days - and especially to someone who knows nothing of the task until

it's presented.

The main thing to remember here is organization. The method you use to organize the data is not important - only

that you stick to it for the most part. If something doesn't fit then you either change the item you're having a problem

with...or you change your system of organization.

Ever watch a flock of birds? One thing you'll notice is that if you try to focus on all the birds at once you'll most

likely get confused. If you focus on, say, one bird out of the flock, then you've mentally organized that one bird out

of the flock. Guess what...if you keep adding birds out of the flock until you've looked at them all then you've

organizedthe flock in your mind. Information in the day-to-day world is no different.

Breaking down information into chunks you can deal with is absolutely vital to understanding and remembering.

After all, without training you couldn't recall a whole book from memory, right? But you could recall important parts

of it. Eventually, if you keep adding to those parts then you would at some point recall the entire book. In another

context, this techique has been known for roughly two millenia. Remember the Latin phrase divide et impera (divide

and rule)?

Now, how this relates to sifting is most of the time pretty simple. Organize the data, but focus on the stuff you want.

For instance if you want to observe only the red birds in the flock then focus on the color red. Sounds pretty easy

right? Well...yes and no.

When dealing with large amounts of data you have to do a little estimation of chance up front.

What's that mean? Let's say your family bakes a pie with a ring in it for the holiday. Whoever gets the ring wins a

prize. You really want that prize so you focus on the ring. Thus you ask some questions of yourself:
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Intelligence Intensification/Information Sifting 5

Does the ring have any special properties I can use to identify it?

Does the ring affect the piece of pie it's in in any way?

Is there anywhere in the pie Iknow the ring is not located?

Suppose the ring is copper and turns the pie green. Then you know that any piece of pie that is the normal color is

less likely to have the ring in it.

That narrows your focus by a certain amount.

Suppose the ring is also pretty big, so the pie bulges where the ring is. Then you know that any flat piece of pie will

not have the ring in it.

That narrows your focus again.

You keep going with this method until you've found the ring.

Some things that help this process:

Learning to speed-read. There are plenty of courses out there for this.

Good language skills for the materials you're searching.

Frequent breaks. Spending too much time sifting often blurs your focus.

Focus on one thing at a time. You get more done that way. Remember, sunlight spread out only warms things up, but

sunlight focused on one place with a magnifying glass can burn holes in things.

Know what you want. Know what you are looking for. If you don't know, how will you know if you find it?

Delegate. Get people to help you. Parallel searching is helpful, as long as you make sure they know what they are

looking for.

It's horribly cliche, but big mountains are just piles of pebbles stacked on top of each other. Information is the same...

Next

Speed Reading


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Intelligence Intensification/Information Grasping 6

Intelligence Intensification/Information Grasping

Vocabulary

Learn to be cognizant of words that you do not yet understand. Cognizant means to be consciously informed.

It is generally known that it is easier to learn something which you want to learn. When do we want to learn? One

situation when we usually want to learn is when we have to in order to solve a concrete problem. This leads to the

concept of information availability. If you have access to information when you need it, you will learn more. For

instance, if you need to understand a word and have a handheld computer with a dictionary, you will probably look it

up. If you haven't any dictionary available, and the need of knowing the word cease to exist, you never learn the

word.

We also learn when we are curious. If you can access the information you need, again maybe using a handheld

computer, you can learn while you are curious. Later in the day you might feel that other things are more important.

MetaphorAccording to some cognitive scientists, notably George Lakoff, most abstract concepts are founded on metaphor.

The number line represents quantity as distance, for example, and the Cartesian coordinate system generalizes that

same metaphor to function in two dimensions. Ren Descartes did not invent this metaphor: people from many

cultures say "the price went up" (or the equivalent), regardless of their native language. The metaphor "more IS up"

(in Lakoff's notation) is quite old, but Descartes did formalize and extend it, allowing it to be applied to a new array

of intricate concepts.

But a metaphor can only be extended by a certain amount, after which it loses its meaning. Much of the power of

mathematics comes from systematic and well-documented limits to the application of its metaphors. As soon as a

new metaphor is added to the field, mathematicians thoroghly test exactly where it does and does not apply, and

record their results explicitly in theorems that guide future work.

The convention in other fields is to give metaphors much less explicit limits, forcing the reader or listener to find

them out by trial and error. Returning to the "more IS up" example, some quantities tend to go up only with difficulty

but go down quite easily, or vice-versa. In these cases, your intuitive understanding of gravity can be added to the

metaphor, if you imagine that some quantities sink, while others float. If this doesn't apply, then the metaphorical

"weight" of a quantity won't help your understanding.

Some teachers are cognizant of the role that metaphor plays in learning, but in many courses, the metaphors behind

the concepts presented are only vaguely hinted at. Actively searching for them and thoroughly testing their limits as

early as possible can be quite helpful.
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Intelligence Intensification/Memory Techniques





Visualization

Have you ever seen or heard of a person with a super memory? Did he remember all the cards in a deck in perfect

order? Maybe he claimed that he had a photographic memory. That, however, is probably not the case. Rather, he or

she used simple techniques which you can master too, with little practice (say, 100 hours). After half an hour of

practice, you will see fantastic results. The memorizing time is directly related to the number of things to memorize.

If you need five minutes in order to remember ten foreign words, you'll need ten minutes in order to remember

twenty.

It should be stressed that you will not get a photographic memory. You will be able to remember faces, foreign

words, telephone numbers and much more. But you will not be able to look at a picture and then immediately

remember every detail in your inner vision. Search the web for books on memory improvement and you will find

lots of books claiming that they will give you a photographic memory. This is generally a lie. The systems you will

learn on this page, however, are extremely practical and simple to use. And best of all, they work!

The basic theory is that your brain associates everything you learn with what it already knows. Using the memory

techniques to follow, you consciously make those associations (in addition to the ones made unconsciously). The

other cornerstone used in the techniques is that the brain remembers strange things better than mundane things. This

is the absolute essence of memory techniques. Lets see what comes out of it!

Remembering a list of items

The two basic methods used for remembering a list are linking and pegwords

Linking

After visualizing the first item on your list, visualize it associated with the next item, then visualize that item

associated with the third, and so on. For example, to remember a list like "apple, fish, lady, star, stop sign, pencil ..."

imagine an apple. Now you shall link this apple with a fish by visualizing (for instance) an apple tree with fishes

instead of apples-you could even imagine a fish falling on Newton's head or Eve handing Adam a fish. Remember

that it should be weird. Next link the fish with lady by visualizing a mermaid. Next item: Visualize a night sky withshining ladies in the sky instead of stars. Link to stop sign by visualizing a falling star landing on the ground-only

instead of a star, when you get up close it's a stop sign, link "stop sign" with "pencil" by imagining a stop sign which

is held up not by a metal post, but by a giant pencil.
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Pegwords

Pegwords are used if remembering the position of each item is helpful; for example, if you would like to be able to

recall the fifth U.S. president. In this system, a list of pegwords is pre-memorized. The pegwords are designed to be

easy to visualize, and to associate with a number. For example memorize this list of pegwords. Try to form a mental

image of each one.

1 gun associate your first item with a gun

2 zoo form a mental image of a zoo

3 tree Associate 3rd item with a tree

4 door

5 hive Associate with bees

6 bricks

7 heaven

8 plate

9 wine

10 hen

And then to remember any list of 10 items you associate the items to be remembered with their pegs. To memorize

the grocery list: apples, butter, razor blades, soap, bread, milk, cat food, bacon, batteries, and orange juice,

1. you visualize the first item (an apple) being fired from a cannon,

2. Link the second item (butter) with zoo by imagining a gorilla stomping up and down on a stick of butter,

3. Link third item (razor blades) with tree by imagining a tree with razor blades for leaves,

4. a door made of soap

5. a swarm of bees flying from a loaf of bread as if it is a hive

6. a building which uses milk jugs in place of bricks

7. an open can of cat food with angel wings and a halo (imagine its smell)

8. bacon on a plate

9. a wine glass filled with batteries

10. a hen being squeezed and orange juice coming out.

Sound obscure? Close your eyes and try to remember the list.

Method of Loci

The Method of loci was used by the ancient Greeks for oration; that is, for memorizing speeches. It involves

mentally transversing a familiar place, for them, a temple, stopping at certain points, and associating those pointswith sections of a speech.

/Memorizing Numbers and Digits/

A system known as the mnemonic major system used to convert numbers into words. See module for details.

Techniques Which Combine Pegwords With the Number System

/A Longer Peglist/

While rhyming peglists are simple to learn they are severely limited in the number of pegs that can be created. 7rhymes with 11, 21 rhymes with 31 rhymes with 41, etc. Using the major system, rather than rhymes, you can create
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as many pegs as you want with no ambiguity. This module currently has 116 pegs- enough to accommodate the

periodic table.

/Memorizing Playing Cards/

This module combines the major system with the pegword systems to do some pretty amazing things with cards. It

does require a lot of practice, and requires you to be adept at both systems, but you will be surprised with what youcan accomplish.

/The Periodic Table/

An example of just how powerful this system can be. Pegs for the atomic numbers linked to a pun on the element

names or their symbols linked to a phrase describing the atomic mass. This module has yet to be written. You can

help.

Remembering foreign words

In order to remember a foreign word, or a native word you don't know, all you need to do is to make it concrete inyour native language, and then link it with its meaning (which maybe has to be made concrete too). To remember the

French word for horse, cheval, make it concrete in english by thinking of the word chew (which is a concrete verb).

Then link a horse with chew. Maybe you vividly visualize that you are watching a big, big horse chew some trees

from the comfort of your hammock. Then he picks up the trees your hammock is swinging between. Your blood

splashes in your face as your bones crunch and you are racked with pain. You curse the horse for chewing you up.

So when you think of horse, you immediately think chew, which reminds you of cheval.

In order to remember the Swedish word for luck, tur, you also need to make the native word luck concrete. One easy

way is to think of winning a lottery. But emphasize the middle syllable of "lottery": lot-TUR-ry. Think about how

much TUR you need to win the lot-TUR-ry.

Remembering faces, art works etc

This is easy if you know any of the other techniques. To connect a face with a name, pick out something in the face

and link whatever you picked out with the name. If you meet a girl whose face is shaped like a heart, link a heart

with her name. So if her name is Angela, you can imagine an angel descending from heaven, who violently rips out

her heart. Imagine her screaming, the blood spraying everywhere, and her squishy heart still beating while falling

down to the muddy earth. If you meet somebody with a funny nose, it's easy. If you don't find anything special (but

isn't everyone special in some way?) just pick something. What do the lips look like? The ears? The total

impression?

The technique to remember the author of a painting is analogous. Only by trying to find something special you areforced to really look, which helps remembering.
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How to remember whatever you want

Combine the above techniques, use them as a basis to construct your own personal techniques and remember the

essence: Use weird, vivid visualizations; use all your senses (taste, smell, etc); associate what you want to remember

with as much as possible. See Wikipedia's list of mnemonics.

Drugs and Vitamins

Some diet supplements, vitamins, herbs and amino acids may also improve your memory and alertness, though very

few if any have been scientifically studied for effects on memory. These include the B vitamins, caffeine, amino

acids like phenylalanine, (though an overdose can be deadly) melatonin, ginseng, ginkgo biloba, and many others.

There are also a number of prescription-strength drugs which might be legal, but will have many side-effects, so they

should all generally be avoided. Some of these alleged "smart drugs" include Vasopressin, Hydergine, and

Piracetam, and DHEA.

You should consult your physician before taking any drug or supplement, especially if you are taking any other

medications. Current research suggests the best ways to keep your memory healthy as you age are to use it

frequently (read non-fiction, engage in political conversation, etc.), eat a well-balanced diet, take antioxidant

supplements (though overdoses of selenium and vitamins A and E could be fatal), and possibly increase the

proportion of omega-3 fatty acids in your diet.

II Speed Reading





Classical Speed Reading

If you have never thought about how you can increase your reading speed, you will find these tips very interesting.

You can probably read at much higher rates without losing understanding. Your brain is faster than your eyes. If

you're still skeptical about increasing your reading speed, consider the following. This technique does not have to be

used to increase your reading speed. You could choose to continue reading at your old speed, but have more time to

understand the text, with less time used interpreting symbols. It is also strange that many people say that they don't

need to read faster, but nobody wants to read slower.

Speed reading is not suitable for many types of written material. Text with complex mathematical concepts or

equations, for example, needs to be read many times, slowly. Written material describing a complex historical

scenario likewise may be too complicated to be understood quickly. However, when the reading speed is slow and

the information is not interesting, the mind tends to wander.

Speed reading poetry will not improve one's appreciation of it, partly because in reading it too quickly, one loses

much of the nuance of poetical metre. This is also true if you try to recite poetry at 700wpm. Speed reading tends to

be a useful technique for light material such as easy-reading novels or magazine columns. The best idea is to speed

read slowly. That is, use a perfect reading technique, but do it at a rate appropriate for the appreciation of what you

are reading. Using a bad technique doesn't increase the appreciation of poetry, or the understanding of mathematical

formulae. Speed reading the small print of speed reading course contracts (or any contract, for that matter) is also not

a good idea.

In order to increase your reading speed, do this:
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II Speed Reading 11

1. Never pronounce the words. Your mouth should be absolutely still.

2. Don't move your head. If you try to read at a breakneck speed, you will hurt your neck. Move your eyes instead.

3. Practice not looking back at words. This is extremely important. Read a text, and note how your eyes tend to look

back and read the same words repeatedly. In the beginning it takes a lot of concentration to read with a steady

flow. The eyes will read a chunk of words, then another, and so on. However, don't get hung up on this: recognize

that some texts simply require reading, rereading, and rereading again before comprehension begins to settle in. If

you didn't understand something that you have just read, read it again (and again and again if necessary) before

moving on. Well-written text repays close attention; but (of course) trashy novels or suchlike may be read using

speed reading techniques with no loss. Remember that the goal of speed reading (or indeed any type of reading) is

comprehension, not speed.

4. At the end of the row, the eyes should move diagonally (the shortest path) to the next row.

5. You can't read while your eyes are moving. When you read, your eyes should grasp a couple of words, then your

gaze should jump forward in order to read the next couple of words. When you actually read, your eyes are not

moving. In order to read as quickly as possible, read as many words as possible in each glance. Reading research

shows that it is possible to read as many as two words at one time. So keep practicing.

Aiding Software

The key to success is concentration and therefore discipline. If you really want to practice the last point, reading as

large chunks of words as possible, you can create a computer program which writes two words on the screen with a

space between them. Both words should be read at once, not one after the other. As you practice, enlarge the space

between the two words. Another idea is to write a program which shows a text and as you press the space bar it

begins to make the text invisible one word at a time (or maybe x words at a time). In that way, you are forced to

continue reading, you cannot look back. If you write any of these programs, which shouldn't take more than a couple

of hours, please make them available for everyone here. (Shouldn't the code be posted to Wikisource, under Source

Code?)

Yet another option which may be more viable for some is using available speed reading software package. Among

the best are The Reader's Edge[1]

, RocketReader[2]

and AceReader[3]

, though of course many others exist. Most of

these programs will have grouping, flash, memory, speed reading, and shadow exercises.

References

[1] http://www.readfaster.com

[2] http://www.rocketreader.com

[3] http://www.acereader.com
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Intelligence Intensification/General Tips For

Practicing





Information Ecology Practices

Principle 4: understanding is enhanced by intelligent practice

The transition to a knowledge-based digital environment has been vital to the transformation of the nature of

information ecosystems and a global dynamic of the intensification of intelligence. The emerging holistic life science

of Information Ecology incorporates principles, disciplines and protocols that facilitate the emergence of a common

collective intelligence:

Be mindful that information has:

Zero mass

Zero physical size

Virtually zero travel time

Be mindful that these zero-based properties - combined with advances in technology - open up a new, infinite,

digital universe

Discover how information properties make possible - as never before - a new digital commons and

Enable common access to properties of the whole Be mindful of the power of zero

addition & subtraction - it does nothing

multiplication - reducing any number to zero

division - raising any number to an immeasurable, infinite number

exponential power - bringing all numbers to one

Be mindul of zero's synonyms: nothing, none, null, empty, void, the unknown

Be mindful that information obeys the following principles:

value is enhanced by intelligent organization

management is enhanced by intelligent protocols

flow is enhanced by intelligent networks

understanding is enhanced by intelligent practice

Observe the intelligence and value of each information ecosystems with which you interact

Pay attention to the boundaries of information ecosystems

Pay attention to the interactions between information ecosystems

Discern and observe the architecture of information ecosystems

Be mindful ofendangered information species and patterns of dominance

Observe your organization's information habitats and their dynamics. Are they in design and use?
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Engage in an ongoing collective process of observing, enhancing and fine tunic the internal flow of

information

Observe your personal information habitats. Are they for you?

Integrate, enhance and fine tune your personal information habitats

Seek virtually effortless interaction with your information habitats

Focus on hand and 'eye movement alone

Save keystrokes whenever possible

Align in style with cascading styles

Observe the Tao of information

Choose Wikibooks as your default platform for writing

Doing One Thing At a Time

In karate, practicing the basic strike demands that

1. The opponent should be vividly imagined2. The look should be steady and directed to the chest of the imagined opponent

3. The elbow of the arm not striking should strike backwards with equal force

4. The hip should rotate in order to enhance the strike

5. The exhale should take place in the moment of impact

6. The wrist must be straight during the strike

7. The arm should not be streched out entirely (in order not to wear out the elbow joint)

8. The fist should rotate just before the moment of impact

Having all this in mind when practicing is very difficult. A better idea is to concentrate on one thing at a time. Iterate

over the list of things to practice. Let the other things happen by themselves or go wrong, as the case may be. This

method of practicing is of course applicable in all kinds of training.

Choosing to Focus on the Practice

Another useful technique to use when practicing, also inspired by martial arts, is to enter a meditation position before

and after the training.

Before the training, enter the position and

1. Consciously remind yourself that you choose to do this training

2. Affirm that you will be concentrated and use the time effectively

3. Visualize yourself doing what you are going to do, feel that you are relaxed and that it is fun to practice

After the training, enter the position and

1. Visualize what you practiced and visualize yourself doing everything perfectly

2. Thank yourself for being concentrated and feel the joy of development


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Intelligence Intensification/Creativity Techniques





The techniques described here are not very useful for a musician or a painter (or they are, but not directly). The goal

is to get new ideas and break old thinking habits. The essence of the theory is as follows: Usually your mind is in a

rut. In order to move your thinking wagons out of the rut, you provoke it. You will find it to be very simple and it

will work immediately. With practice, it will work even better!

(Here it would be nice with a picture with thinking wagons stuck in a rut. Can you draw one?)

Sometimes the brains seems to be slow, lacking energy and wit. Maybe you have to finish an article before you go to

bed. Ideas don't flow easily. To get the brains into full swing so thinking goes with a bang, you might try the

following exercise:

Point at an object in your surroundings and call it by another name. Point at a lamp, and say snake! Point at a floppy

disk, say spoon! A book -- dance! Table -- Swimming! Etc. Try to increase the speed until you cries out weird words

immediately when you point at something.

I will not say how it feels afterwards. Do it and you will know! You might observe that it is easy to slip into patterns,

like "Cow! Milk! Breakfast! ...". Practice a little bit more to get rid of these patterns.

Now I will give you two good techniques to get new ideas. I think it's all you need. There are thick books about this,

and you may read them if you think it is interesting. But if you are intelligent, understanding the essence is all you

need (everywhere, always, in every theory. Am I overenthusiastic?)

The first one is to simply have something to think of. Instead of looking at the whole problem at once (if you have a

problem), look at a tiny detail. If you walk down the street, force yourself to only look at -- for instance -- a lamppost

or maybe even only at the hold or the very lamp. Then think, how could this be done better? Compare this to looking

at the whole street at once, thinking "Can anything be done better here?". Make this a habit if you wish to be the guy

or girl who always have new and funny ideas. It is like a burning glass which produces a warmer spot if the spot is

smaller. So have a small focus point!

The second thing, which you can combine with the above idea to get good results is to have a thought in mind, a

thought you want to develope. Then provoke your brain with a random word, like "pancake batter!" or "machete!".

Then let this word bring new ideas. Often all you need is to be provoked. The very provocation, the weird word, is

only needed to bring the thinking out of the rut.

Here is an example: In my hands I've got a CD case. I want to make it better. As a focus point, I choose the hold. Ineed a provocation word. FROG! Frog? They are slimy... Gluing the disk is not a good idea... But one could hold the

disk with suction cups! There is actually free space on the plastic of a CD where no data is written, so leaving

suction marks doesn't matter.

Maybe this is a very stupid example, but this is how it works even when you're thinking of not so stupid things.

Remember the essence! You must provoke your brains. People who haven't provoked their brains in years get dull

and robotic. People who provoke their brains often get creative and non-robotic.

Additional Techniques for Provoking Creativity and Intelligence

Random associations. The point of this exercise is to be able to state how a ___________ is like a

________________. Use whatever method you choose to fill in the blanks and state how the two are alike.

For example, suppose you want to make a game of this with a child. Place assorted objects into a bag. Gather the

objects from various places, so that they are not all related by location, toy figures count as well. Then have the
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child, without looking and, doing so quickly as not to select by feel, pull out two objects. Then have the child

describe how the two objects, say a bottle opener and a (toy) giraffe are alike.

Additional ways of filling in the blank might be to randomly select words from a dictionary of telephone yellow

pages, select images from advertisements or commercials (it takes some of the mindlessness out of television

watching), with multiple people have each select a word individually secretly (nouns work best) then fill in the blank

with the two word and see who can come up with the most connections.No-name naming. Describe a scene, or the room that you are in without using nouns, except for the names of

geometric shapes. Use only adjectives and verbs. Try describing a specific picture from a group of pictures that are

not too dissimilar with enough detail that another person can pick out the one you are describing.

Smallest differences. From a group of 4-6 similar objects, such as lemons, oranges, eggs, unsharpened pencils,

choose one specimen. Spend 5-10 minutes getting to know your specimen. Then return it to the group and mix them

up. Test yourself to see if you can differentiate yours from the rest. (This is a useful skill when doing magic tricks

with cards. If you can discern small differnces, every deck of cards becomes a marked deck with use.)

Observation. This is the most basic skill of all, and the one others are based upon, the ability to observe. Where ever

you are, take time to observe and verbalize (even if only internally) what it is you observe. Start with one sensory

channel, such as visual, then proceed to auditory, then kinesthetic, and olfactory.

Looking at things upside-down. Or sideways. Turn your head so that you look at things upside down. Think about

what would happen if suddenly gravity changed directions. Or imagine the building you are in suddenly turned over

on its side and imagine how you would climb out.

Sudden difference. Look at something and imagine what it would be like if a particular detail about it changed to its

opposite. For instance, what if CDs were suddenly square?

Different use. Think of alternate ways to use things than for the original purpose for which they were intended. For

example, children often consider their parent's bed a trampoline instead of a bed. Kitchen sink could be used as a

mixing bowl. For that matter, mixing bowls could be made into sinks! CDs could be used as frizbees.. or light

catchers... or christmas tree ornaments. I've heard of people using doors as desk surfaces. (This kind of exercise is

particularly helpful for conserving money in times of unemployment.)

Supplement:

Creativity is simply making new intellectual connections. Everyone has some potential to be more creative than they

are now; it just takes a willingness to allow their minds to wander in an unforeseen direction. When an unusual

thought enters many people's heads, they dismiss it as silly or pointless. They may be right, but that's beside the

point. By judging these spurs of creativity before the mind is given a chance to follow them to their conclusion, they

are closing themselves from creative thoughts that may be relevant, useful, or entertaining at the very least.

Next time you get an odd idea, run with it. If you see a man walking his dog in the park and you begin to wonder

how things would be if the dog were instead walking the man, follow that thought and see where it takes you. It may

sound silly, but sharpening your creative process for these simple observations will sharpen your ability to come up

with original solutions to things more relevant to your life too.

Be creative! You have nothing to lose and only a sense of humor, a newfound ability to express yourself, and an

ability to solve problems better to gain.


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Intelligence Intensification/Memory

Techniques/Memorizing Numbers and Digits

Numbers are frequently encountered that a person would do well to memorize, and yet the fact that numbers involve

abstract and usually random patterns can make this difficult. However, using the following system (known as themnemonic major system) they can be converted into much easier-to-remember words and phrases:

0 z, s, soft c "z" is the first letter of zero. The others have a similar sound

1 t, d t has one downstroke d has a similar sound(some variants include th)

2 n n has two downstrokes

3 m three downstrokes, also "3" looks like "m" on its side

4 r last letter of four

5 l L is the Roman Numeral for 50

6 j, sh, ch, soft g a script j has a lower loop / g is almost a 6 rolled around

7 k, hard c, hard g, q,

qu

capital K contains two sevens

8 f, v script f looks like a figure-8

9 b, p P is a mirror-image 9, b sounds similar

Unassigned Vowel sounds, w,h,y These can be used anywhere without changing a word's number value

Similar sounds are grouped together. Since you do almost exactly the same thing with your mouth to produce the

s sound as to produce the "z" sound they are treated the same. Likewise for the other groupings

This system uses sounds, NOT spelling. So "Pitch" will be 96 not 916 because "thc" makes a "ch sound" like

"peach","funny" is 82 not 822 because the double n is pronounced the same as a single n, and "mix" is 370

because "x" makes a "ks" sound.

Simple Examples

Words Into Numbers

hindquarters=2174140

major system=3640013

daffy duck=1817 (the double f is 8 not 88 because it is phonetic)

Tax dodger=170164 (X has the KS sound dg has the j sound) "Motherhood will be no joy. All my life-puke!" =3.1415926535897- the first 14 digits of pi

"Motrhead will be a no-show. Lemmy helluva puke!" =3.141592653589- another mnemonic for pi- imagine the

band canceling because the singer is sick.


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Numbers Into Words

3141592 = "meatier tailbone" (first seven digits of pi)

6535897 = "Shalom live big" next seven digits of pi

9323846= "bemoan movie roach" (next 7 digits) -visualize PETA feeling sorry for the 6-legged animal actors

who got stomped

90210 = bassinets

notice I broke pi into 7 digit sections- that is to demonstrate what this can do for phone numbers.

Flexibility

For an example of this system's flexibility, consider the sequence 5121734395 (the numbers were taken from a

lottery draw 5-12-17-34-39-mega5,but could just as easily represent any 10-digit number)

Breaking it as 5121 734 395 yields:

5121 = latent,lightened,Aladdin would,Old Ned,etc

734 = camera, Gomorrah, Gomer, gamer, comer, come-here,came here etc

395 = ample, employ, employee, humble, humbly, immobile, impala, imply, etc

simply combining the words listed above yields 4x7x8=224 possible phrases such as "latent camera employee",

"Aladdin would come here humbly", or "Old Ned came here immobile". The fact that this list is far from complete

and only shows one possible way to break the numbers demonstrates power and flexibility of this system.

Uses

The major system can make otherwise random numbers surprisingly easy to remember, and as such it is useful for

memorizing phone numbers, PIN numbers, addresses, dates for world events, etc. Using just such an approach it

becomes possible for some people to construct epic stories that catalog thousands of digits of pi, or hundreds of

telephone numbers, or whatever else might be needed or desired out of the system.This system is particularly powerful when combined with the pegword system. It can be used to generate pegword

lists longer than are possible with rhymes. It can also be combined with a pegword system to memorize more

structured data such as charts.See parent module for an explanation of pegwords. See A Longer Peglist for a

major-system derived peglist. See Memorizing Playing Cards for a technique that applies this system to cards. When

combined with peg systems it can be used to memorize more organized and structured data such as charts seeThe

Periodic Table for an example (currently under construction- you can help).

Practice

Take words from any source and convert them into numbers. Continue until you no longer have to keep looking at

the chart.

Take 20 phone numbers, come up with words for them, and visualize the words associated with the person.

Images that are funny and/or insulting work best.

With a little practice this system becomes automatic.
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Lottery Examples

As lotteries involve random number patterns, they can be used for practicing this system. They also allow more

advanced practice by linking the numbers of the draw to the date.

For example on February 5, 2003, right after the destruction of Space Shuttle Columbia the lottery numbers were

5-26-30-14-33 with mega number 5. This translates exactly into the phrase "a launch mystery, my oh my - oh well".

Since lotteries involve sets of single and two digit numbers and the draw order does not matter, you could just as

well imagine saying to a parent: "Well mom, I enjoy dreams." which yields the same set of numbers, but in a

different order, i.e., 5-33-26-14-30 with the same mega number 5.

On February 20, 2008, the day a total lunar eclipse was visible over much of the world, the numbers for the

California Super Lotto were 2-6-17-41-45 with mega number one. The sequence 261741451 would be easy to

remember, and associate with the eclipse as the phrase "I ENJOYED A GREATER LIGHT".

With practice it becomes straightforward to link news events, to lists of numbers, to specific winning combinations.

Consider for example the Laci Peterson missing persons case. The phrase "my love may be near the bay" yields the

sequence 3-5-8-39-24 with mega number 19, which was actually drawn on March 5, 2003 - about the time that the

Laci Peterson case was officially classified a homicide. Likewise the June 28, 2003 draw was 1-5-11-13-18 and 22which yielded "die - he will die die die - he might have no one ."

Another example of flexibility

For demonstration, another set of examples for the California Super Lotto will be presented, using the results from

the draw on Valentines Day 2004. As can be seen, is is often possible to construct a rather large variety of

grammatically correct English sentences or phrases which will cipher into an indicated set of numbers. This is

especially true when memorizing numbers where there is some flexibility in which the numbers are ordered, i.e. for

most Lottery type games. There are of course situations where the numbers must be remembered only in an exact

particular order, and the system will not be as flexible in those cases.

For the numbers 31-21-36-22-45 mega 10

ANYONE MAY WISH - HE MIGHT KNOW WHAT REALITY IS.

I IMAGINED REALLY MAD INNUENDOS.

A NEWTONIAN MESH? REAL METHODS.

A NEWTONIAN MESH - MATH REALITIES.

I MADE A NEWTONIAN MESH. REALITY IS.

A REAL NEWTONIAN MESH MADE WHAT IS.

WE ARE ALMIGHTY NEWTONIAN MIDGETS.

HE WONT MATCH ANYONE. REALLY MAD AT US.

YOU REALLY MIGHT NOT MATCH ANYONE: WHO DOES?I MIGHT NOT MATCH ANYONE - WHO REALLY DOES?

YOU REALLY MIGHT NOT MATCH ANYONE WITH US.

I WANT A MATE. MY WISH: A MATCH. NO ONE REAL? I WOULD SIGH.

ANYONE REALLY WANT A MATE? A MATCH DOES.

IN TIME SHE MIGHT KNOW WHEN REALITY IS.

MY WISH? - I WANT A REAL MATE. ANYONE?

NO ONE REALLY MADE MY WISH - I WANT WHAT IS!

I REALLY MADE A MATCH IN ONE NIGHT. TWICE!

IN ONE NIGHT I MADE A REAL MATCH. DO YOU SEE?

EARLY ON, ONE NIGHT I MADE A MATCH. TO US!


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Making Exceptions to the rules

Sometimes situations will arise where it is better to deviate from the system. If a perfect phrase comes very close to

fitting the numbers, or if certain number combinations just will not yield good words, you may choose to make

exceptions to the rules.

For the first example, the phrase KATRINA IS NOT OUR CONCERN would translate into the sequence

7142021472042, which would ALMOST match the winning numbers for the another winning combination that

actually came up on the California Lottery some time not too long after hurricane Katrina, i.e. as the set

7,14,20,21,47 and 42, except for the fact that that the mega number on the California Super Lotto only goes as high

as 27, and the actual mega number when that particular set came up was 24, not 42! However there is an extra

leading zero inserted into the stream that contains the comment about hurricane Katrina, just before the 42. Thus, this

phrase serves as an example of how it is sometimes useful to bend the system slightly. If a pass phrase is discovered

that is too good to resist, but it otherwise involves a nonsensical transposition, then it is often best to use the

nonsensical transposition anyway - because the mental image is so strong.

Another case often arises with difficult telephone interchanges such as 838 or 552, or with repeated numbers such as

"55" or "00" combinations. Sometimes it can be very difficult to make meaningful words out of these numbers. If

you live in an area with one or two "problem" interchanges you may wish to make special rules for these particular

numbers. For example, if the list of phone numbers you wish to remember has a lot of 552 numbers, then for those

numbers you may choose to memorize only the last 4 digits. When recalling phone numbers, if the catchphrase only

yields a 4-digit number, you will automatically know you are dealing with a 552 number. Some people may wish to

reserve the letter "x" for double-zero combinations. While the sound produced is "ks" (70), if a person were to

reserve words SPELLED with "x" for the double-zero sound, that person would have an exception which works for

him or her. Some words (for example "ing" verbs) can be intentionally mispronounced turning words like "fishing",

and "fighting" into "fishin'" and "fightin'".

There are of course other examples where it is important to remember a lot of numbers quickly, but it is not critical

to remember the exact order. Lottery numbers are one example where the exact order is not always important, andsome of the examples on this page show that. Another example is in playing cards. When keeping track of which

cards have been played and which cards remain, the order is not important. On the page Memorizing Playing Cards

the section destroying shows a method to track dealt cards without regard to the order.

As this system is a memory aid for your own mind, it is generally better to use whatever works best yourself than to

insist on rigidly following the system's rules.
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Intelligence Intensification/Proofs





Different levels of proof

There are many different levels of proofs. Some people tend to regard everything as a proof, others nothing. Having

a good ability to decide what consitutes a good proof is a clear sign of high intelligence. A person who doesn't know

anything about scientific proofs is not able to see through pseudo-scientific proofs and might therefore walk around

believing things which are not true. One measure of intelligence is the correspondence of a person's models of reality

with reality itself.

Elements of a scientific method

The above is a hypothetico-deductive method, and includes observation in the first and fourth steps. Each step is

subject to peer review for possible mistakes.

Characterization

A scientific method depends upon a careful characterization of the subject of the investigation. (The subjectcan also

be called the problem or the unknown.) For example, Benjamin Franklin correctly characterized St. Elmo's fire as

electrical in nature, but it has taken a long series of experiments and theory to establish this. While seeking the

pertinent properties of the subject, this careful thought may also entail some definitions and observations; the

observation often demands careful measurementand/or counting.

The systematic, careful collection of measurements or counts of relevant quantities is often the critical difference

between pseudo-sciences, such as alchemy, and a science, such as chemistry. Scientific measurements taken are

usually tabulated, graphed, or mapped, and statistical manipulations, such as correlation and regression, performed

on them. The measurements might be made in a controlled setting, such as a laboratory, or made on more or less

inaccessible or unmanipulatable objects such as stars or human populations. The measurements often require

specialized scientific instruments such as thermometers, spectroscopes, or voltmeters, and the progress of a scientific

field is usually intimately tied to their invention and development.

Measurements demand the use of operational definitions of relevant quantities. That is, a scientific quantity is

described or defined by how it is measured, as opposed to some more vague, inexact or "idealized" definition. Forexample, electrical current, measured in amperes, may be operationally defined in terms of the mass of silver

deposited in a certain time on an electrode in an electrochemical device that is described in some detail. The

operational definition of a thing often relies on comparisons with standards: the operational definition of "mass"

ultimately relies on the use of an artifact, such as a certain kilogram of platinum kept in a laboratory in France.

The scientific definition of a term sometimes differs substantially from their natural language usage. For example,

mass and weight are often used interchangeably in common discourse, but have distinct meanings in physics.

Scientific quantities are often characterized by their units of measure which can later be described in terms of

conventional physical units when communicating the work.

Measurements in scientific work are also usually accompanied by estimates of their uncertainty. The uncertainty is

often estimated by making repeated measurements of the desired quantity. Uncertainties may also be calculated by

consideration of the uncertainties of the individual underlying quantities that are used. Counts of things, such as the
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number of people in a nation at a particular time, may also have an uncertainty due to limitations of the method used.

Counts may only represent a sample of desired quantities, with an uncertainty that depends upon the sampling

method used and the number of samples taken.

Hypothesis development

A hypothesis includes a suggested explanation of the subject. It will generally provide a causal explanation orpropose some correlation.

Observations have the general form of existential statements, stating that some particular instance of the

phenomenon being studied has some characteristic. Causal explanations have the general form of universal

statements, stating that every instance of the phenomenon has a particular characteristic. It is not deductively valid to

infer a universal statement from any series of particular observations. This is the problem of induction. Many

solutions to this problem have been suggested, including falsifiability and Bayesian inference.

Scientists use whatever they can their own creativity, ideas from other fields, induction, systematic guessing, etc.

to imagine possible explanations for a phenomenon under study. There are no definitive guidelines for the

production of new hypotheses. The history of science is filled with stories of scientists claiming a "flash of

inspiration", or a hunch, which then motivated them to look for evidence to support or refute their idea. Michael

Polanyi made such creativity the centrepiece of his discussion of methodology.

Prediction from the hypothesis

A useful hypothesis will enable predictions, by deductive reasoning, that can be experimentally assessed. If results

contradict the predictions, then the hypothesis under test is incorrect or incomplete and requires either revision or

abandonment. If results confirm the predictions, then the hypothesis might be correct but is still subject to further

testing.

Einstein's prediction (1907): Light bends in a

gravitational field

Einstein's theory of General Relativity makes several specific

predictions about the observable structure of space-time, such as aprediction that light bends in a gravitational field and that the

amount of bending depends in a precise way on the strength of that

gravitational field. Arthur Eddington's observations made during a

1919 solar eclipse supported General Relativity rather than

Newtonian gravitation.

Predictions refer to experiment designs with a currently unknown

outcome; the classic example was Edmund Halley's prediction of

the year of return of Halley's comet which returned after his death.

A prediction (of an unknown) differs from a consequence (which

can already be known).

Once a prediction is made, an experiment is designed to test it. The experiment may seek either confirmation or

falsification of the hypothesis. Yet an experiment is not an absolute requirement. In observation based fields of

science actual experiments must be designed differently than for the classical laboratory based sciences; for example,

the observations of the Chaldeans were utilized in the work of Al-Batani, when he determined a value for the

precession of the Earth, in work that spanned thousands of years.

Scientists assume an attitude of openness and accountability on the part of those conducting an experiment. Detailed

recordkeeping is essential, to aid in recording and reporting on the experimental results, and providing evidence of

the effectiveness and integrity of the procedure. They will also assist in reproducing the experimental results. This

tradition can be seen in the work of Hipparchus (190 BCE - 120 BCE), when determining a value for the precession

of the Earth over 2100 years ago, and 1000 years before Al-Batani.
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The experiment's integrity should be ascertained by the introduction of a control. Two virtually identical experiments

are run, in only one of which the factor being tested is varied. This serves to further isolate any causal phenomena.

For example in testing a drug it is important to carefully test that the supposed effect of the drug is produced only by

the drug. Doctors may do this with a double-blind study: two virtually identical groups of w:patients are compared,

one of which receives the drug and one of which receives a placebo. Neither the patients nor the doctor know who is

getting the real drug, isolating its effects.

Once an experiment is complete, a researcher determines whether the results (or data) gathered are what was

predicted. If the experimental conclusions fail to match the predictions/hypothesis, then one returns to the failed

hypothesis and re-iterates the process. If the experiment(s) appears "successful" - i.e. fits the hypothesis - then its

details become published so that others (in theory) may reproduce the same experimental results.

Testing and improvement

The scientific process is iterative. At any stage it is possible that some consideration will lead the scientist to repeat

an earlier part of the process. Failure to develop an interesting hypothesis may lead a scientist to re-define the subject

they are considering. Failure of a hypothesis to produce interesting and testable predictions may lead to

reconsideration of the hypothesis or of the definition of the subject. Failure of the experiment to produce interesting

results may lead the scientist to reconsidering the experimental method, the hypothesis or the definition of the

subject.

Verification

Science is a social enterprise, and scientific work will become accepted by the community only if they can be

verified. Crucially, experimental and theoretical results must be reproduced by others within the science community.

Researchers have given their lives for this vision; Georg Wilhelm Richmann was killed by ball lightning to his

forehead (1753) when attempting to replicate the 1752 kite experiment of Benjamin Franklin.

Reevaluation

All scientific knowledge is in a state of flux, for at any time new evidence could be presented that contradicts a

long-held hypothesis. A particularly luminous example is the theory of light. Light had long been supposed to be

made of particles. Isaac Newton, and before him many of the Classical Greeks, was convinced it was so, but his

light-is-particles account was overturned by evidence in favor of a wave theory of light suggested most notably in

the early 1800s by Thomas Young, an English physician. Light as waves neatly explained the observed diffraction

and interference of light when, to the contrary, the light-as-a-particle theory did not. The wave interpretation of light

was widely held to be unassailably correct for most of the 19th century. Around the turn of the century, however,

observations were made that a wave theory of light could not explain. This new set of observations could be

accounted for by Max Planck's quantum theory (including the photoelectric effect and Brownian motionboth from

w:Albert Einstein), but not by a wave theory of light. Nor, for that matter, by the particle theory. More ...

Peer review evaluation

Scientific journals use a process ofpeer review, in which scientists' manuscripts are submitted by editors of scientific

journals to (usually one to three) fellow (usually anonymous) scientists familiar with the field for evaluation. The

referees may or may not recommend publication, publication with suggested modifications, or, sometimes,

publication in another journal. This serves to keep the scientific literature free of unscientific or crackpot work, helps

to cut down on obvious errors, and generally otherwise improve the quality of the scientific literature. Work

announced in the popular press before going through this process is generally frowned upon. Sometimes peer review

inhibits the circulation of unorthodox work, and at other times may be too permissive. The peer review process is notalways successful, but has been very widely adopted by the scientific community.
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Reproducibility

The reproducibility or replication of scientific observations, while usually described as being very important in a

scientific method, is actually seldom actually reported, and is in reality often not done. Referees and editors

rightfully and generally reject papers purporting only to reproduce some observations as being unoriginal and not

containing anything new. Occasionally reports of a failure to reproduce results are published--mostly in cases where

controversy exists or a suspicion of fraud develops. The threat of failure to replicate by others, however, serves as avery effective deterrent for most scientists, who will usually replicate their own data several times before attempting

to publish.

Evidence and assumptions

Evidence comes in different forms and quality, mostly due to underlying assumptions. An underlying assumption

that 'objects heavier than air fall to the ground when dropped' is not likely to incite much disagreement. An

underlying assumption like 'aliens abduct humans' however is an extraordinary claim which requires solid proof.

Many extraordinary claims also do not survive Occam's razor.

Elegance of hypothesis

In evaluating a hypothesis, scientists tend to look for theories that are "elegant" or "beautiful". In contrast to the usual

English use of these terms, scientists have more specific meanings in mind. "Elegance" (or "beauty") refers to the

ability of a theory to neatly explain as many of the known facts as possible, as simply as possible, or at least in a

manner consistent with Occam's Razor while at the same time being aesthetically pleasing.

Everyone has reason to learn what constitutes a scientific proof. Even if you never do scientific work, it will help

you to evaluate other's work, and to protect yourself against quackery. Maybe even more importantly, it will enable

you to think more clearly in general.

StatisticsWhenever you hear an advertisement saying a new soap or lotion is scientifically proven to have a positive effect in

some sense, statisitics have been used (or they lied about the scientificness of the proof). The philosophical ideas

behind statistical proofs are these:

1. Formulate a hypothesis which can be falsified by experiments (measurement)

2. Decide what level of certainty you want. 95% and 99% are common choices.

3. Perform experiments that might falsify the hypothesis.

Suppose, for instance, that you want to see if there is any connection between drinking alcohol during pregnancy and

the intelligence of the child. Then you might start with the following:

Hypothesis: A mother drinking alcohol during pregnancy does lower the intelligence of her child.This gives rise to the following anti-hypothesis or null hypothesis:

Null hypothesis: A mother drinking alcohol during pregnancy does not lower the intelligence of her child.

Now we want to be 99% sure of our result. That means the risk of error is 1%. After doing a lot of measurements and

putting the measurements through the machinery of statistics, we will be able to conclude either:

1. with 1% risk of error we cannot reject the null hypothesis, or

2. with 1% risk of error the null hypothesis is rejected in favour of the hypothesis.

If 2 is the case, we have 'proven' statistically that drinking alcohol during pregnancy lowers the intelligence of the

child. Of course this example is stylized. What do we mean by drinking alcohol? What amount, and how regularly?

How do we measure intelligence? Those must also be specified.
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The Axiomatic Method

The axiomatic method is fundamental in every mathematical theory. A complete theory is built of axioms and

implications.* Other names for "axiom" are "premise", "postulate", and "assumption". An axiom is always assumed

to be true, without discussion, for the sake of argument. Each time we say 'suppose', we describe an axiom. When a

statement undoubtedly (logically) follows from another statement, we have an implication.

Suppose all human beings have pink eyes. Let that be an axiom. Now suppose that Melinda is a human being. (That's

another axiom.) Then Melinda has pink eyes. Any other conclusion about Melinda's eye color would be wrong,

because the axioms are defined as true (unless one could prove that the two axioms contradict one another, in which

case one would have to be discarded, but that's another story).

People have different axioms. Have a look at this belief: "If we don't throw a pancake in the dragons cave each

morning, the sun will not rise". You might say that this isn't very logical. But it indeed is, with the right axioms.

Axioms:

1. There is a dragon in the cave.

2. The dragon dies if it doesn't eat pancakes.

3. The dragon and only the dragon can make the sun rise.

Now, if nobody gives pancakes to the dragon, then the dragon will die (suppose also that the dragon cannot make his

own pancakes). But if the dragon is dead, then nobody makes the sun rise! This conclusion is logically derived from

the axioms. The point is that even hard core mysticists may use logic in their thinking; only their assumptions are

strange.

Most people don't consciously think about what are axioms and what are implications when they argue with each

other. Also, most people would rather die than change any of their axioms of life. People have the strangest axioms

like "Different configurations of the stars have different easily detectable effects on human beings". Maybe they

have good reasons to have these axioms. However, having these axioms, they think they are thinking rationally, and

they are! As long as the implications follow logically from their axioms, they are thinking rationally! At least,

according to one definition of "rational". Another definition might be "a theory is rational if it has a good correlation

with physical reality". But then many mathematical theories are not rational; for instance, most non-Euclidian

geometries (and ordinary Euclidian geometry too, according to Minkowski-Einstein theory!). And we want

mathematical theories to be "rational", so the latter was not a good definition.

An intelligent being should be aware of the fact that different people and different cultures have different axioms. It

might be a good idea to practice believing in strange things. Be aware of your axioms! Don't believe in them, just

regard them as axioms! Change axioms each time you change underwear, if you change your underwear reasonably

often.

If you have never heard of Occam's Razor, this is the perfect time to learn what it is. It's a principle which roughly

says: If you have to choose between two equally good theories for explaining a phenomena, choose the one with thesmallest number of axioms.

A short repetition:

1. Try not to believe in the axioms you use in daily life, just regard them as axioms which could very well be

changed. This will help you to understand other people.

2. Superstitious people can very well be rational, and they often are. They just have some

intelligence intensified

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