international institutions & trade implications assignment- no

8/14/2019 International Institutions & Trade Implications Assignment- No

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INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS & TRADE IMPLICATIONS

ASSIGNMENT- NO 1

Submitted By:

Richa Gupta (F-54)Richa Khanna (F-55)

Richa Modi (F-56)Ruchi Rachna (F-57)

Sachin Verma (F-58)Saher Riyaz (F-59)Sakar Singh (F-60)


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WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION

The WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION (WTO) is an international organization

to supervise and liberalize international trade. The WTO came into being on 1 January

1995, and is the successor to General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which

was created in1947,and continued to operate for almost five decades as a defacto

international organization.

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only global international

organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations. At its heart are the WTO

agreements, negotiated and signed by the bulk of the worlds trading nations and ratified

in their parliaments. The goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and

importers conduct their business

The World Trade Organization deals with the rules of trade between nations at a near-

global level; it is responsible for negotiating and implementing new trade agreements,

and is in charge of policing member countries adherence to all the WTO agreements

signed by the majority of the worlds trading nations and ratified in there parliaments.

The organization is currently working on a new trade negotiation called the Doha

Development Agenda launched in 2001.

Where countries have faced trade barriers and wanted them lowered, the negotiations

have helped to liberalize trade. But the WTO is not just about liberalizing trade, and in

some circumstances its rules support maintaining trade barriers for example to protect

consumers or prevent the spread of disease.


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The WTO's main activities are:

Negotiating the reduction or elimination of obstacles to trade (import tariffs, other

barriers to trade) and agreeing on rules governing the conduct of international trade(e.g. antidumping, subsidies, product standards, etc.)

Administering and monitoring the application of the WTO's agreed rules for trade

in goods, trade in services, and trade-related intellectual property rights

Monitoring and reviewing the trade policies of our members, as well as ensuring

transparency of regional and bilateral trade agreements

Settling disputes among our members regarding the interpretation and applicationof the agreements

Building capacity of developing country government officials in international trade

matters

Assisting the process of accession of some 30 countries who are not yet members

of the organization

Conducting economic research and collecting and disseminating trade data in

support of the WTO's other main activities

Explaining to and educating the public about the WTO, its mission and its

activities.

Its a set of rules At its heart are the WTO agreements, negotiated and signed

by the bulk of the worlds trading nations. These documents provide the legal

ground-rules for international commerce. They are essentially contracts, binding

governments to keep their trade policies within agreed limits. Although negotiated

and signed by governments, the goal is to help producers of goods and services,

exporters, and importers conduct their business, while allowing governments to

meet social and environmental objectives.


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The WTO has 153 members which represents more than 95% of the total world trade.

The WTO is governed by ministerial conference, which meets every two years; a General

council which implements the conferences policy decisions and is responsible for day to

day administration and a director general who is appointed by Ministerial Conference.

The WTO headquarters is in Geneva, Switzerland.

The WTO agreements cover goods, services and intellectual property. They spell out the

principles of liberalization, and the permitted exceptions. They include individual

countries commitments to lower customs tariffs and other trade barriers, and to open and

keep open services markets. They set procedures for settling disputes. They prescribe

special treatment for developing countries. They require governments to make their trade

policies transparent by notifying the WTO about laws in force and measures adopted, and

through regular reports by the secretariat on countries trade policies.

These agreements are often called the WTOs trade rules, and the WTO is often

described as rules-based, a system based on rules. But its important to remember that

the rules are actually agreements that governments negotiated.

The systems overriding purpose is to help trade flow as freely as possible so long

as there are no undesirable side-effects because this is important for economic

development and well-being. That partly means removing obstacles. It also means

ensuring that individuals, companies and governments know what the trade rules are

around the world, and giving them the confidence that there will be no sudden

changes of policy. In other words, the rules have to be transparent and predictable.

And it helps to settle disputes This is a third important side to the WTOs work.


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Trade relations often involve conflicting interests. Agreements, including those

painstakingly negotiated in the WTO system, often need interpreting.

The most harmonious way to settle these differences is through some neutral procedure

based on an agreed legal foundation. That is the purpose behind the dispute settlement

process written into the WTO agreements.Born in 1995, but not so young

The WTO began life on 1 January 1995, but its trading system is half a century older.

Since 1948, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) had provided the

rules for the system. (The second WTO ministerial meeting, held in Geneva in May

1998, included a celebration of the 50th anniversary of the system.)

It did not take long for the General Agreement to give birth to an unofficial, de facto

international organization, also known informally as GATT. Over the years GATT

evolved through several rounds of negotiations.The last and largest GATT round, was the

Uruguay Round which lasted from 1986 to 1994 and led to the WTOs creation. Whereas

GATT had mainly dealt with trade in goods, the WTO and its agreements now cover

trade in services, and in traded inventions, creations and designs (intellectual property).

WTO AGREEMENTS


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The Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization

Annex 1A: Multilateral Agreement on Trade in Goods

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994(GATT 1994)


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Agreement on Agriculture

On Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Measures

On Textiles and Clothing

Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT)


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Agreement on Trade- Related Investment Measures (TRIMs)

Article VI of the GATT 1994: Anti- Dumping Agreement

Article VII of the GATT 1994: Customs Valuation Agreement

Agreement on Pre-shipment Inspection (PSI)


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Agreement on Rules of Origin

Agreement on Import Licensing Procedures

Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures

Agreement on Safeguards

Annex 1B: General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS)


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Annex 1C: Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights

Annex 2: Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes

Annex 3: Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM)

Annex 4: Plurilateral Trade Agreements

Agreement on Trade in Civil Aircraft


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Agreement on Government Procurement

IS WTO A GROWTH ENGINE FOR DEVELOPED NATIONS

Lack of flexibility by developed nations is holding back the progress on agreements that

would help developing countries benefit from a liberal, multilateral trade regime. The

reality is that the European Union offer on agriculture in the WTO negotiations goes a

very long way to meet the interests of the developing countries. The alternative to

European Union strategy was the globalization strategy of the Cairns Group of countries

and the U.S. to some extent, which would be extremely negative for both the developing

countries and the European union.

The stated aim of WTO is to promote free trade and stimulate economic growth. People

argued that free trade leads to a divergence instead of convergence of income levels

within rich and poor countries. The WTO does not manage the global economy

impartially , but, in its operations, has a systematic bias toward rich countries, and

multinational co-operations harming smaller countries which have less negotiation


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power. The reasons are market access in the industry has not improved. Developed

countries have had no gains yet from the phasing out of textiles quotas, non-tariff barriers

such as anti-dumping measures have increased, and domestic support and export

subsidies for agricultural products in the rich countries remain high. It may be argued

also, that the African countries are being marginalized in this vein , and are less

integrated financially and technologically.

Though critics argue that many developing countries have not benefitted from the

Uruguay Round , which may be understandable for African countries , to some extent,

however , we must also understand that inspite of WTO being a growth engine for

developed countries, it has brought in its vein, boons for the less developed, too.

In the last few years WTO members have concentrated a lot of efforts into improving the

condition of least-developed countries (LDCs) inside the multilateral trading system, both

in terms of market access and technical assistance. Measures taken in the framework of

the WTO can help LDCs increase their exports to other WTO members and attract

investment.

In many developing countries, pro-market reforms have encouraged faster growth,

diversification of exports, and more effective participation in the multilateral trading

system. Excluding countries at war or in transition, export growth in developing countries

has risen from 4.3% a year in the 1980s to 6.4% in the 1990s. Growth in GDP per person

has risen from 0.4% year to 1.5% per year.

Even the least-developed countries are doing slightly better, though not as well as other

developing countries. Again, excluding countries at war or in transition, export growth in

LDCs has risen from 2.9% a year in the 1980s to 3.2% in the 1990s. And whereas GDP

per person fell by 0.6% a year in the 1980s, it rose by 0.8% a year in the 1990s.

Specifically, the WTO has delivered for LDCs in the following areas:


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First, there have been significant improvements in market access opportunities for LDCs.

Twenty eight WTO members have pledged market access improvements. Many of them

have actually agreed to drop all barriers and provide duty-free and quota-free treatment

to all LDC exports. They join a number of other countries who already provide open

markets. The average non-weighted tariff applied by major trading partners to LDCs

exports has fallen from 10.6% in 1997 to 6.9% in the first quarter of 2001.

For example:

Canada, effective 1 September 2000, added a further 570 tariff lines to the list of goods

from LDCs eligible for duty-free treatment. About 90% of all LDC imports will now

receive duty-free treatment;

New Zealand, since 1 July 2001, offers duty-free and quota-free access to all imports

from LDCs

The European Union, Norway and Switzerland provide duty-free, quota-free market

access for all LDC exports (except arms). A transition period is in place for a few specific

products.

Egypt notified tariff reductions ranging from 10% to 20% of existing applied duties for

77 products of export interest to LDCs, and provides duty free access for about 50

products. In addition, Egypt bound customs duties, with a 10% reduction for industrial

products imported from LDCs.

Second, the Integrated Framework (IF) the joint IMF, ITC, UNCTAD, UNDP, World

Bank and WTO technical assistance program for LDCs has been redesigned and is in

operation on a Pilot Basis in Cambodia, Madagascar and Mauritania. It will help LDCs

mainstream trade into their national development plans and strategies for poverty

reduction. It will help ensure trade, as an engine for growth, is central to development


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plans. It will also ensure that trade-related technical assistance and capacity building is

delivered within a coherent policy framework rather than on a stand-alone basis. The

possibility of the extension of the IF Pilot Scheme is being examined, based on progress

reported at the Fourth WTO Ministerial Conference..

Third, WTO members are currently looking at means to assist as much as possible those

LDCs in the process of joining the WTO. LDCs acceding to the WTO have to learn and

to understand how the WTO works. They need to draft domestic laws that comply with

WTO rules. They need to establish mechanisms for enforcing those rules. And they need

to negotiate with existing members suitable conditions of entry to the WTO. LDCs

currently in the process of accession to the WTO are: Bhutan, Cambodia, Cape Verde,

Lao Peoples Democratic Republic, Nepal, Samoa, Sudan, Vanuatu and Yemen. In

addition, Ethiopia and Sao Tome & Principe are WTO observers.

Fourth, WTO members have taken a host of initiatives to help LDCs participate more

fully at the WTO. These include:

activities for non-resident members and observers to ensure that those countries not

represented in Geneva can still follow the daily business of the WTO and still be an

integral part of the WTO process;

the Geneva Week: an annual event bringing together senior officials from capitals and

European-based missions not only of LDCs but also of other small economies to

learn and exchange views concerning critical areas of the WTO work;

improvement of the WTOs Trade Policy Review Mechanism: as well as shedding light

on a countrys trade rules, it now helps trade policy capacity building and the

mainstreaming of trade priorities into national development plans and poverty reduction


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strategies; expansion of the WTO training and policy courses; establishment of WTO

reference centres connecting LDCs capitals to WTO sources of information through the

Internet; establishment of a new programme to fund interns within country missions in

Geneva; facilitating the participation of LDCs at WTO Ministerials for example,

financing LDC trade ministers travel and hotel expenses.

Fifth, and finally, the WTO provides a forum where LDCs can and do raise particular

problems relating to food safety and quality standards. Indeed, LDCs can find it difficult

to comply in their exports with developed countries sanitary standards. WTO agreements

limit importing countries scope to impose arbitrary requirements on LDCs exports, and

encourage the use of internationally developed standards. The Director-General himself

has initiated high-level discussions with the secretariats of international standard-setting

bodies to improve LDCs participation and capacity to make full use of international

standards.

The WTO recognizes as least-developed countries (LDCs) those countries which have

been designated as such by the United Nations. There are currently 49 least-developed

countries on the UN list, 30 of which to date have become WTO members.

These are: Angola; Bangladesh; Benin; Burkina Faso; Burundi; Central African

Republic; Chad; Congo, Democratic Republic of the; Djibouti; Gambia; Guinea; Guinea

Bissau; Haiti; Lesotho; Madagascar; Malawi; Maldives; Mali; Mauritania; Mozambique;


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Myanmar; Niger; Rwanda; Senegal; Sierra Leone; Solomon Islands; Tanzania; Togo;

Uganda; Zambia.

Nine additional least-developed countries are in the process of accession to the WTO.

They are: Bhutan; Cambodia; Cape Verde; Laos; Nepal; Samoa; Sudan; Vanuatu and

Yemen. Furthermore, Ethiopia and Sao Tome & Principe are WTO Observers.

ISSUES RELATED TO INDIA AND OTHER DEVELOPING NATIONS

AND WTO

The first issue is the nature of the subject; are we talking about the comparative

advantage of developing countries which comes from lower wage levels - as the issue is

sometimes presented - or are we talking about human rights or labour standards? It is

fundamentally important to clarify the terms of the debate as it relates to trade.

The second point is to identify what are the key issues related to trade; for example, are

we talking about child labour or trade union rights in terms of labour standards or in

terms of human rights.

While no-one should challenge the legitimate right of developing countries to use the

comparative advantage of lower costs, and no-one should use human rights and issues of

social standards as an excuse for disguised protectionism, no country should deliberately

deny workers' rights or attempt to generate artificially-lower costs by forced labour,

discrimination against women, exploitation of children or other such abuses.

The growth of regionalism is a more complex issue. There is no natural contradiction

between regionalism and the multilateral system. This has been the shared assessment of

the great majority of the international trade community. The real contradiction, it must

always be emphasised, is between open trade and protectionism. Regional trade


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initiatives can certainly help to lower trade barriers and thus promote economic growth.

But the relationship between regionalism and a multilateral system based on the MFN

principle is nonetheless a complex one. The provisions of the GATT have sought to

ensure compatibility by requiring regional agreements to cover substantially all trade

among the partners and to promote trade policies which do not lead to higher protection

or extra restrictions on the trade of non-members.

Until quite recently, there was only one large regional grouping, and that was limited to a

number of western European countries. The US was historically opposed to regionalism.

But this situation has changed. Since the 1980s, the US has begun to build its own

regional agreements, through free trade with Canada, through NAFTA, and through

APEC, etc. Now, almost all the member countries of the WTO also belong to a regional

trade agreement. The importance of regional agreements as a means of tariff reduction

has declined (this is also thanks to the success of the GATT). Regional agreements are

becoming more and more important in terms of trade rules, and for the political weight

they represent in international negotiations. These are elements which could break up the

parallelism between regional and multilateral progress; there is the risk that antagonism

between regional groups could make progress in the multilateral system more difficult.

Furthermore, regional initiatives such as the suggestions for a trans-Atlantic free trade

area could give the impression of re-erecting a discriminatory divide between the rich

North and the poorer South.

At the core of this relationship, there is the basic question of the kind of international

system we want: a global system based on the principle of non-discrimination embodied

in agreed and enforceable rules, or a world divided into regional blocs with all the

consequences this would imply for political stability and security. If we decrease our

imports from the developing countries, we decrease their growth and our growth alike.

And the growth of many developing countries will be the most powerful engine for

growth in developed countries. At the same time, if we reduce export opportunities for


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developing countries we only increase unemployment and poverty in these countries, and

further restrict opportunities for their young people. And if we try to close our borders

both to goods and to people we will just increase instability, violence, war and terrorism.

So the only sustainable policy for us and for the developing countries is to continue a

strong commitment to openness.

That is why we need to keep the multilateral system, with its reliable framework of

principles and rules in good repair; it is a firm foothold in a shifting world. Liberalization

within the multilateral system means that this unstoppable process can be implemented

within internationally agreed rules and disciplines. This is the opposite of a chaotic and

unchecked process - without the security of the multilateral system, change would indeed

be a leap in the dark. At the same time, the multilateral system is becoming more and

more a political issue. This is happening because its evolution increasingly concerns

national regulatory policies more than cross-border obstacles; and it is happening because

the challenges to the system are increasingly political rather than technical. In this

context, it could become very important to consider the possibility of strengthening the

institutional basis of the system - for example by enhancing the political dimension of its

central institution, the WTO.

There is public and political disenchantment with international institutions. This is tied,

in part, to the discomfort and suspicion attached to transfers of national governance in a

globalizing economy and to a lack of coherence in policy-making at the inter-

governmental level. It is tied also to a view that powerful international bodies are less

accountable to the ordinary citizen than should be the case. It is a view we cannot share.

It is governments which negotiate in institutions like the WTO, and governments are

accountable to their citizens.


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In the area of trade, there is a view that nothing further should be negotiated at the global

level unless the particular concerns of those developing countries which have yet to

succeed in the international market place are first dealt with. We do not accept that this

failure to achieve co-called "equitable" results demonstrates a shortcoming of the

multilateral trading system. We do, however, believe that much greater effort can and

must be made to ensure that the poorer nations are able to draw maximum benefit both

through the efforts of the private sector and government and through the properly

coordinated delivery of assistance from all the international agencies involved.

At present, there is a clear drift by governments from reliance on securing objectives

through the multilateral framework to initiatives at the bilateral and regional level.

Individually, many of these initiatives make sense. In the absence of significant

movement in the WTO, they are understandable. If they are consistent with WTO rules

we would not condemn them. Nevertheless, we are concerned by their collective effect.

In particular, closed, discriminatory trade agreements fragment the trading system and

close down options for those outside. While poor developing countries can pursue their

own regional integration initiatives, these can never be a substitute for their global

economic integration.

We are struck by the very high level of trade dispute settlement cases being handled in

the WTO. In one sense, this is a sign of the success and effectiveness of the new system

which emerged from the Uruguay Round. It is notable that developing countries are

making increased use of the system as complainants. Our concern is that the dispute

settlement system is being used as a means of filling out gaps in the WTO system; first,

where rules and disciplines have not been put in place by its member governments or,

second, are the subject of differences of interpretation. In other words, there is an

excessive resort to litigation as a substitute for negotiation. This trend is dangerous in


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itself. The obligations which WTO members assume are properly for the member

governments themselves to negotiate. The issue is still more concerning given certain

public perceptions that the process of dispute settlement in the WTO is over-secret and

over-powerful.

Generally, there is widespread misunderstanding of the multilateral trading system. This

has led to public and political distrust in some, largely industrial, countries. In part,

misunderstanding is the result of deliberate misrepresentation. In part it reflects the

limited attention by the WTO's member governments to explaining and making available

tools for adequate public information. There is a pressing need to demonstrate the

system's role and importance in the process of globalization as well as to emphasize its

limitations in achieving progress in fields which are not tied closely to trade. All of us

need to keep in mind that there is no other rules-based system available to pursue the

goals of economic development: the only other systems are power-based.

WTO & INDIA

India does not stand to gain much by shouting for agriculture reforms in developed

countries because the overall tariff is lower in those countries. India will have to tart

major reforms in agriculture sector in India to make Agriculture globally competitive.

Same way it is questionable if India will be major beneficiary in dismantling of quotas,

which were available under MFA for market access in US and some EU countries. It is

likely that China, Germany, North African countries, Mexico and such others may reap

benefit in textiles and Clothing areas unless India embarks upon major reforms in

modernization and up gradation of textile sector including apparels.


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Some of Singapore issues are also important like Government procure, Trade and

Investment, Trade facilitation and market access mechanism.

TEXTILES AND CLOTHING:

There was a reduction in tariff on textiles and clothing which was done in the following

phases:

a. 16% of imports have been made tariff free on 1st jan,1995

b. Further 17% of imports have been made tariff free on 1st jan,1998.

c. Further 18% of imports have been made tariff free on 1st jan,2002

d .Remaining 49% of imports have been made tariff free on 1st jan,2005

PHARMA SECTOR:

In Pharma-sector there is a need for major investments in R &D and mergers and

restructuring of companies to make them world class to take advantage. India has already

amended patent Act and both product and Process are now patented in India. However,

the large number of patents going off in USA recently, gives the Indian Drug companies

windfall opportunities, if tapped intelligently. Some companies in India have organized

themselves for this.

Excerpts from Speech of Ramkrishna Hegde, the then Minister, at Geneva in 1998-

"In order to make WTO an effective multilateral body, which serves the objectives for

which it was set up, it is necessary to go back to the basic principles. The Uruguay Round

negotiators had stated their intentions quite clearly in the Preamble to the MarrakeshAgreement establishing the WTO. They recognised "that their relations in the field of

trade and economic endeavour should be conducted with a view to raising standards of

living, ensuring full employment and a large and steadily growing volume of real income

and effective demand, and expanding the production of and trade in goods and services,


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while allowing for the optimal use of the world's resources in accordance with the

objective of sustainable development, seeking both to protect and preserve the

environment and to enhance the means for doing so in a manner consistent with their

respective needs and concerns at different levels of economic development. They

recognized also "that there is need for positive efforts designed to ensure that developing

countries, and especially the least developed among them, secure a share in the growth in

international trade commensurate with the needs of their economic development".

THE OBJECTIVE OF WTO REITRATED:

It is very clear that the intention of the negotiators was to use trade as an instrument for

development, to raise standards of living, expand production, keeping in view,

particularly, the needs of developing countries and least-developed countries. The WTO

must never lose sight of this basic principle. Every act of implementation and of

negotiation, every legal decision, has to be viewed in this context. Trade, as an instrument

for development, should be the cornerstone of all our deliberations, decisions and actions.

Besides, the system should be seen to be equitable and fair. It must be used in such a

manner that the letter and spirit of the Agreements is fully observed. The WTO Members

must mutually support and encourage each other to achieve the final goal. It must be

recognized that all Members should assume a negotiating rather than an adversarial

posture. It should also be recognized that different economies have different features and

structures, different problems, different cultures. The pace of change must be carefully

calibrated to take into account such differences. All Members should guard against

unilateral action that cuts at the root of multilateral agreement and consensus.


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Developing countries have generally been apprehensive in particular about the

implementation of special and differential treatment provisions (S&D) in various

Uruguay Round Agreements. Full benefits of these provisions have not accrued to the

developing countries, as clear guidelines have not been laid down on how these are to be

implemented. "

The first Ministerial Conference held in 1996 in Singapore saw the commencement of

pressures to enlarge the agenda of WTO. Pressures were generated to introduce new

Agreements on Investment, Competition Policy, Transparency in Government

Procurement and Trade Facilitation. The concept of Core Labor Standards was also taken

up for introduction.

India and the developing countries, which were already under the burden of fulfilling the

commitments undertaken through the Uruguay Round Agreements, and who also

perceived many of the new issues to be non-trade issues, resisted the introduction of these

new subjects into WTO. They were partly successful. The Singapore Ministerial

Conference (SMC) set up open-ended Work Program to study the relationship between

Trade and Investment; Trade and Competition Policy; to conduct a study on

Transparency in Government Procurement practices; and do analytical work on

simplification of trade procedures (Trade Facilitation).

Participation in the system: opportunities and concerns :

The WTO agreements, which were the outcome of the 1986-94 Uruguay Round of trade

negotiations, provide numerous opportunities for developing countries to make gains.

Further liberalization through the Doha Agenda negotiations aims to improve the

opportunities.

Among the gains are export opportunities. They include:
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Fundamental reforms in agricultural trade

Phasing out quotas on developing countries exports of textiles and clothing

Reductions in customs duties on industrial products

Expanding the number of products whose customs duty rates are bound under the

WTO, making the rates difficult to raise

Phasing out bilateral agreements to restrict traded quantities of certain goods these

grey area measures (the so-called voluntary export restraints) are not really recognized

under GATT-WTO.

In addition, liberalization under the WTO boosts global GDP and stimulates world

demand for developing countries exports.

But a number of problems remain. Developing countries have placed on the Doha

Agenda a number of problems they face in implementing the present agreements.

And they complain that they still face exceptionally high tariffs on selected products

(tariff peaks) in important markets that continue to obstruct their important exports.

Examples include tariff peaks on textiles, clothing, and fish and fish products. In the

Uruguay Round, on average, industrial countries made slightly smaller reductions in their

tariffs on products which are mainly exported by developing countries (37%), than on

imports from all countries (40%). At the same time, the potential for developing countries

to trade with each other is also hampered by the fact that the highest tariffs are sometimes

in developing countries themselves. But the increased proportion of trade covered by

bindings (committed ceilings that are difficult to remove) has added security to

developing country exports.

A related issue is tariff escalation, where an importing country protects its processing

or manufacturing industry by setting lower duties on imports of raw materials and

components, and higher duties on finished products. The situation is improving. Tariff

escalation remains after the Uruguay Round, but it is less severe, with a number of

developed countries eliminating escalation on selected products. Now, the Doha agenda
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includes special attention to be paid to tariff peaks and escalation so that they can be

substantially reduced.

CURRENT ISSUES UNDER DISCUSSION IN WTO FORUM

The environment: a specific concern:

The WTO has no specific agreement dealing with the environment. However, the

WTO agreements confirm governments right to protect the environment, provided

certain conditions are met, and a number of them include provisions dealing with

environmental concerns. The objectives of sustainable development and environmental

protection are important enough to be stated in the preamble to the

Agreement Establishing the WTO.

The increased emphasis on environmental policies is relatively recent in the 60-year

history of the multilateral trading system. At the end of the Uruguay Round in 1994,

trade ministers from participating countries decided to begin a comprehensive

work programme on trade and environment in the WTO. They created the Trade

and Environment Committee. This has brought environmental and sustainable

development issues into the mainstream of WTO work. The 2001 Doha Ministerial

Conference kicked off negotiations in some aspects of the subject.

The committee: broad-based responsibility. The committee has a broad-based

responsibility covering all areas of the multilateral trading system goods, services and

intellectual property. Its duties are to study the relationship between trade and theenvironment, and to make recommendations about any changes that might be needed in

the trade agreements. The committees work is based on two important principles:

The WTO is only competent to deal with trade. In other words, in environmental

issues its only task is to study questions that arise when environmental policies


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have a significant impact on trade. The WTO is not an environmental agency. Its

members do not want it to intervene in national or international environmental

policies or to set environmental standards. Other agencies that specialize in

environmental issues are better qualified to undertake those tasks.

If the committee does identify problems, its solutions must continue to uphold

the principles of the WTO trading system.

More generally WTO members are convinced that an open, equitable and

nondiscriminatory multilateral trading system has a key contribution to make to national

and international efforts to better protect and conserve environmental resources

and promote sustainable development. This was recognized in the results of the

1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio (the Earth

Summit) and its 2002 successor, the World Summit on Sustainable Development

in Johannesburg. The committees work programme focuses on 10 areas. Its agenda is

driven by proposals from individual WTO members on issues of importance to them. The

following sections outline some of the issues, and what the committee has concluded so

far:

Green provisions:

Examples of provisions in the WTO agreements dealing with environmental issues

GATT Article 20: policies affecting trade in goods for protecting human, animal or

plant life or health are exempt from normal GATT disciplines under certain

conditions.

Technical Barriers to Trade (i.e. product and industrial standards), and Sanitary

and Phytosanitary Measures (animal and plant health and hygiene): explicit

recognition of environmental objectives.

Agriculture: environmental programmes exempt from cuts in subsidies

Subsidies and Countervail: allows subsidies, up to 20% of firms costs, for


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adapting to new environmental laws.

Intellectual property: governments can refuse to issue patents that threaten

human, animal or plant life or health, or risk serious damage to the environment

(TRIPS Article 27).

GATS Article 14: policies affecting trade in services for protecting human, animal

or plant life or health are exempt from normal GATS disciplines under certain

conditions.

Member- countries and Observers :

153 members on 23 July 2008 (with dates of membership).

Click any member to see key information on trade statistics, WTO commitments,

disputes, trade policy reviews, and notifications.

Albania 8 September 2000

Angola 23 November 1996

Antigua and Barbuda 1 January 1995

Argentina 1 January 1995

Armenia 5 February 2003

Australia 1 January 1995

Austria 1 January 1995

Bahrain, Kingdom of 1 January 1995

Bangladesh 1 January 1995

Barbados 1 January 1995

Belgium 1 January 1995
http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/albania_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/angola_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/antigua_and_barbuda_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/argentina_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/armenia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/australia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/austria_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/bahrain_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/bangladesh_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/barbados_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/belgium_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/albania_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/angola_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/antigua_and_barbuda_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/argentina_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/armenia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/australia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/austria_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/bahrain_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/bangladesh_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/barbados_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/belgium_e.htm


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Belize 1 January 1995

Benin 22 February 1996

Bolivia 12 September 1995

Botswana 31 May 1995

Brazil 1 January 1995

Brunei Darussalam 1 January 1995

Bulgaria 1 December 1996

Burkina Faso 3 June 1995

Burundi 23 July 1995

Cambodia 13 October 2004

Cameroon 13 December 1995

Canada 1 January 1995

Cape Verde 23 July 2008

Central African Republic 31 May 1995

Chad 19 October 1996

Chile 1 January 1995

China 11 December 2001

Colombia 30 April 1995

Congo 27 March 1997

Costa Rica 1 January 1995

Cte d'Ivoire 1 January 1995

Croatia 30 November 2000

Cuba 20 April 1995

Cyprus 30 July 1995

Czech Republic 1 January 1995

Democratic Republic of the Congo 1 January 1997

Denmark 1 January 1995
http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/belize_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/benin_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/bolivia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/botswana_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/brazil_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/brunei_darussalam_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/bulgaria_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/burkina_faso_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/burundi_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/cambodia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/cameroon_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/canada_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/cape_verde_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/central_african_republic_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/chad_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/chile_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/china_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/colombia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/congo_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/costa_rica_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/cote_ivoire_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/croatia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/cuba_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/cyprus_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/czech_republic_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/democratic_republique_congo_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/denmark_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/belize_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/benin_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/bolivia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/botswana_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/brazil_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/brunei_darussalam_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/bulgaria_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/burkina_faso_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/burundi_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/cambodia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/cameroon_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/canada_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/cape_verde_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/central_african_republic_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/chad_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/chile_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/china_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/colombia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/congo_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/costa_rica_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/cote_ivoire_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/croatia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/cuba_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/cyprus_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/czech_republic_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/democratic_republique_congo_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/denmark_e.htm


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Djibouti 31 May 1995

Dominica 1 January 1995

Dominican Republic 9 March 1995

Ecuador 21 January 1996

Egypt 30 June 1995

El Salvador 7 May 1995

Estonia 13 November 1999

European Communities 1 January 1995

Fiji 14 January 1996

Finland 1 January 1995

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) 4 April 2003

France 1 January 1995

Gabon 1 January 1995

The Gambia 23 October 1996

Georgia 14 June 2000

Germany 1 January 1995

Ghana 1 January 1995

Greece 1 January 1995

Grenada 22 February 1996

Guatemala 21 July 1995

Guinea 25 October 1995

Guinea Bissau 31 May 1995

Guyana 1 January 1995

Haiti 30 January 1996

Honduras 1 January 1995

Hong Kong, China 1 January 1995

Hungary 1 January 1995
http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/djibouti_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/dominica_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/dominican_republic_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/ecuador_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/egypt_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/el_salvador_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/estonia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/european_communities_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/fiji_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/finland_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/macedonia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/france_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/gabon_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/the_gambia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/georgia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/germany_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/ghana_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/greece_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/grenada_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/guatemala_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/guinea_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/guinea_bissau_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/guyana_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/haiti_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/honduras_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/hong_kong_china_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/hungary_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/djibouti_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/dominica_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/dominican_republic_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/ecuador_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/egypt_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/el_salvador_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/estonia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/european_communities_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/fiji_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/finland_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/macedonia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/france_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/gabon_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/the_gambia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/georgia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/germany_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/ghana_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/greece_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/grenada_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/guatemala_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/guinea_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/guinea_bissau_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/guyana_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/haiti_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/honduras_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/hong_kong_china_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/hungary_e.htm


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Iceland 1 January 1995

India 1 January 1995

Indonesia 1 January 1995

Ireland 1 January 1995

Israel 21 April 1995

Italy 1 January 1995

Jamaica 9 March 1995

Japan 1 January 1995

Jordan 11 April 2000

Kenya 1 January 1995

Korea, Republic of 1 January 1995

Kuwait 1 January 1995

Kyrgyz Republic 20 December 1998

Latvia 10 February 1999

Lesotho 31 May 1995

Liechtenstein 1 September 1995

Lithuania 31 May 2001

Luxembourg 1 January 1995

Macao, China 1 January 1995

Madagascar 17 November 1995

Malawi 31 May 1995

Malaysia 1 January 1995

Maldives 31 May 1995

Mali 31 May 1995

Malta 1 January 1995

Mauritania 31 May 1995

Mauritius 1 January 1995
http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/iceland_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/india_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/indonesia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/ireland_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/israel_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/italy_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/jamaica_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/japan_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/jordan_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/kenya_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/korea_republic_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/kuwait_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/kyrgyz_republic_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/latvia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/lesotho_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/liechtenstein_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/lithuania_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/luxembourg_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/macao_china_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/madagascar_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/malawi_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/malaysia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/maldives_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/mali_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/malta_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/mauritania_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/mauritius_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/iceland_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/india_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/indonesia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/ireland_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/israel_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/italy_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/jamaica_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/japan_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/jordan_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/kenya_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/korea_republic_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/kuwait_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/kyrgyz_republic_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/latvia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/lesotho_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/liechtenstein_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/lithuania_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/luxembourg_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/macao_china_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/madagascar_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/malawi_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/malaysia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/maldives_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/mali_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/malta_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/mauritania_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/mauritius_e.htm


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Mexico 1 January 1995

Moldova 26 July 2001

Mongolia 29 January 1997

Morocco 1 January 1995

Mozambique 26 August 1995

Myanmar 1 January 1995

Namibia 1 January 1995

Nepal 23 April 2004

Netherlands For the Kingdom in Europe and for the Netherlands Antilles

1 January 1995

New Zealand 1 January 1995

Nicaragua 3 September 1995

Niger 13 December 1996

Nigeria 1 January 1995

Norway 1 January 1995

Oman 9 November 2000

Pakistan 1 January 1995

Panama 6 September 1997

Papua New Guinea 9 June 1996

Paraguay 1 January 1995

Peru 1 January 1995Philippines 1 January 1995

Poland 1 July 1995

Portugal 1 January 1995

Qatar 13 January 1996
http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/mexico_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/moldova_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/mongolia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/morocco_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/mozambique_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/myanmar_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/namibia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/nepal_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/netherlands_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/new_zealand_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/nicaragua_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/niger_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/nigeria_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/norway_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/oman_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/pakistan_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/panama_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/papua_new_guinea_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/paraguay_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/peru_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/philippines_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/poland_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/portugal_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/qatar_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/mexico_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/moldova_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/mongolia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/morocco_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/mozambique_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/myanmar_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/namibia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/nepal_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/netherlands_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/new_zealand_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/nicaragua_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/niger_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/nigeria_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/norway_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/oman_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/pakistan_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/panama_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/papua_new_guinea_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/paraguay_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/peru_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/philippines_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/poland_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/portugal_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/qatar_e.htm


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Romania 1 January 1995

Rwanda 22 May 1996

Saint Kitts and Nevis 21 February 1996

Saint Lucia 1 January 1995

Saint Vincent & the Grenadines 1 January 1995

Saudi Arabia 11 December 2005

Senegal 1 January 1995

Sierra Leone 23 July 1995

Singapore 1 January 1995

Slovak Republic 1 January 1995

Slovenia 30 July 1995

Solomon Islands 26 July 1996

South Africa 1 January 1995

Spain 1 January 1995

Sri Lanka 1 January 1995

Suriname 1 January 1995

Swaziland 1 January 1995

Sweden 1 January 1995

Switzerland 1 July 1995

Chinese Taipei 1 January 2002

Tanzania 1 January 1995

Thailand 1 January 1995

Togo 31 May 1995

Tonga 27 July 2007

Trinidad and Tobago 1 March 1995

Tunisia 29 March 1995

Turkey 26 March 1995
http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/romania_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/rwanda_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/st_kitts_nevis_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/saint_lucia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/saint_vincent_grenadines_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/saudi_arabia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/senegal_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/sierra_leone_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/singapore_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/slovak_republic_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/slovenia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/solomon_islands_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/south_africa_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/spain_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/sri_lanka_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/suriname_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/swaziland_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/sweden_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/switzerland_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/chinese_taipei_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/tanzania_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/thailand_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/togo_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/tonga_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/trinidad_tobago_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/tunisia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/turkey_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/romania_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/rwanda_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/st_kitts_nevis_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/saint_lucia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/saint_vincent_grenadines_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/saudi_arabia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/senegal_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/sierra_leone_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/singapore_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/slovak_republic_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/slovenia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/solomon_islands_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/south_africa_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/spain_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/sri_lanka_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/suriname_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/swaziland_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/sweden_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/switzerland_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/chinese_taipei_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/tanzania_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/thailand_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/togo_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/tonga_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/trinidad_tobago_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/tunisia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/turkey_e.htm


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Uganda 1 January 1995

Ukraine 16 May 2008

United Arab Emirates 10 April 1996

United Kingdom 1 January 1995

United States of America 1 January 1995

Uruguay 1 January 1995

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) 1 January 1995

Viet Nam 11 January 2007

Zambia 1 January 1995

Zimbabwe 5 March 1995
http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/uganda_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/ukraine_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/united_arab_emirates_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/united_kingdom_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/usa_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/uruguay_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/venezuela_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/vietnam_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/zambia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/zimbabwe_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/uganda_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/ukraine_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/united_arab_emirates_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/united_kingdom_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/usa_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/uruguay_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/venezuela_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/vietnam_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/zambia_e.htmhttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/zimbabwe_e.htm


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REFERENCES

Dr. (Prof.) Kshamta Chauhan class notes

http://www.international.gc.ca/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-

acc/wto-omc/list.aspx?lang=eng

http://www.meti.go.jp/english/report/downloadfiles/2006WTO/2-

OverviewWTOagreement.pdf

www.wto.org
http://www.international.gc.ca/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/wto-omc/list.aspx?lang=enghttp://www.international.gc.ca/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/wto-omc/list.aspx?lang=enghttp://www.meti.go.jp/english/report/downloadfiles/2006WTO/2-OverviewWTOagreement.pdfhttp://www.meti.go.jp/english/report/downloadfiles/2006WTO/2-OverviewWTOagreement.pdfhttp://www.wto.org/http://www.international.gc.ca/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/wto-omc/list.aspx?lang=enghttp://www.international.gc.ca/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/wto-omc/list.aspx?lang=enghttp://www.meti.go.jp/english/report/downloadfiles/2006WTO/2-OverviewWTOagreement.pdfhttp://www.meti.go.jp/english/report/downloadfiles/2006WTO/2-OverviewWTOagreement.pdfhttp://www.wto.org/


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international institutions & trade implications assignment- no

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