international student mobility: the case of students …
TRANSCRIPT
INTERNATIONALSTUDENTMOBILITY:THECASEOFSTUDENTSFROMSAUDI
ARABIACOMINGTOTHEUNITEDSTATES
by
MARGARETE.LASCALA
ADissertationsubmittedtothe
GraduateSchool-Newark
Rutgers,TheStateUniversityofNewJersey
inpartialfulfillmentoftherequirements
forthedegreeof
DoctorofPhilosophy
GraduatePrograminGlobalAffairs
writtenunderthedirectionof
ProfessorArianeChebelD’Appollonia
andapprovedby
_________________________
__________________________
_________________________
__________________________
Newark,NewJersey
October,2016
ii
ABSTRACTOFTHEDISSERTATION
InternationalStudentMobility:TheCaseofStudentsFromSaudiArabiaComingto
theUnitedStates
ByMARGARETE.LASCALA
DissertationDirector:ProfessorArianeChebeld’Appollonia
Studentsseekinghighereducationoutsidetheircountryoforiginisagrowing
phenomenon.TheUnitedStatesisthelargesthostnationbuthasbeenlosing
marketshareasothercountriesincreasetheireffortstorecruitinternational
students.Surprisingly,afterseveralyearsofdecline,therateofgrowthinstudents
fromSaudiArabiahassurpassedtherateofgrowthforallforeignstudentschoosing
highereducationinstitutions(HEIs)intheUnitedStatessince2006.Thehistoryof
internationaleducationintheUnitedStatesandthecurrentstateofeducationinthe
MiddleEastprovidedbackgroundforananalysisofthepoliticalfactorsthat
resultedinthechange.Thisdissertationalsoassessedthemechanismsofchoiceand
motivationsofSaudisstudentsthatledtoattendinganHEIintheUnitedStates.
Studentchoicetheory,expectancytheory,economictheoriesincludinghuman
capitaltheoryandcomparativeadvantage,studentsasconsumers,andsocial
constructssuchasintergroupcontactanddiffusionofinnovationtheorywereused
todesignsemi-structuredinterviewsamongvariousstakeholderandanonline
surveyofSaudistudentstolearnhowandwhytheychosetheHEItheycurrently
iii
attended.SaudistudentswereinfluencedintheirdecisiontostudyintheUnited
StatesbytheavailabilityofscholarshipsfromtheSaudigovernmentandbythe
implementationoftheSEVIPvisasystemthatfacilitatedtheirchoiceofcountry.In
addition,SaudistudentswereaskedabouttheirexperiencesatHEIsintheUnited
StatesandtheirattitudestowardtheUnitedStates,westernsocialandpolitical
normsandpossiblemodernizationofSaudisociety.Theseresultswerecomparedto
surveydatafromstudentswhoremainedinSaudiArabiaforhighereducation.The
comparisonshowsthatSaudistudentsintheU.S.haveamorefavorableopinionof
theUnitedStatesthanbeforestudyinghere,increasedapprovalforgreatergender
equalityandwesternvaluessuchasrespectforhumanrightsandwomen’s
educationandemployment.ThisresearchcontainsrecommendationsforHEIsthat
wanttorecruitSaudistudentsandimprovetheirintegrationintothecampus
community.
iv
Acknowledgement
Iwouldliketoexpressmydeepgratitudetomydissertationcommitteemembers
fortheirpatienceandgenerosityinsharingtheirexpertiseandwisecounsel
throughouttheentireprocessofthisendeavor.Ihavebeenfortunatenotonlyinmy
choiceofcommitteebutalsointheotherprofessionalsandprofessorsIhave
encounteredandmyfellowstudentsintheDivisionofGlobalAffairsatRutgers
University-Newark.Manyofbeenencouragingandinspirationalandembodythe
bestpossibilitiesofsuchadiversegroupofscholars.Specialthanksgoestothestaff
attheDanaLibraryfortheirassistanceinalllevelsoftheresearchandanalysis.
Theyaretheunsungheroesofthisworkandofmanyothers.
IamalsogratefultomycolleaguesattheCollegeofMountSaintVincentwho
encouragedandsupportedmyeffortstocompletethisdissertation.Theywere
instrumentalinmydecisiontopursuemydoctorateandwillinglyofferedtheir
assistancewheneverasked.
Finally,Ithankmyfamilyandfriendsfortheirforbearanceandunderstanding.I
appreciateallyourhelpandsupportwhileIwasbusyelsewhere.
v
TableofContents
ABSTRACTOFTHEDISSERTATION..................................................................................................ii
Acknowledgement………………………………………………………………………………………………iv
ListofTablesandIllustrations………………………………………………………………………………x
ChapterOne:Introduction.....................................................................................................................1
ThePuzzle................................................................................................................................................9
KeyQuestionOne:HowcanthisincreaseinthenumberofSaudistudentscoming
totheU.S.forhighereducationbeexplained?.......................................................................13
Whoaretheactorsinvolved?...................................................................................................15
Whatarethemainmotivationsoftheactors?..................................................................16
KeyQuestionTwo:Whataretheexpectedoutcomesofthisresearch?.....................19
ChapterTwo:HistoricalBackground..............................................................................................20
SectionOne:HistoryofInternationalEducationintheU.S..............................................21
TheU.S.attitudesandpoliciesregardingforeignstudents.........................................23
SectionTwo:BackgroundonSaudiArabia,Monarchism,andEducationinthe
ArabGulfStates...................................................................................................................................36
BackgroundonSaudiArabia....................................................................................................36
MonarchismorPatrimonialisminSaudiArabia..............................................................41
EducationintheArabGulfStates...........................................................................................44
ChangingAvailabilityofHigherEducationintheGulf..................................................52
ChapterThree:LiteratureReview...................................................................................................61
SectionOne:TheoreticalApproaches-HumanCapital,IntergroupContact,and
DiffusionTheory.................................................................................................................................63
vi
HumanCapitalTheory.................................................................................................................63
IntergroupContactTheory........................................................................................................70
DiffusionTheory............................................................................................................................73
SectionTwo:PoliticalTheories....................................................................................................75
NormativeTheory.........................................................................................................................75
Realism...............................................................................................................................................76
Neoliberalism..................................................................................................................................78
LiberalPluralism............................................................................................................................78
SectionThree:LiteratureontheInternationalMarketforHigherEducationand
StudentChoice-ExpectancyTheory,TheoreticalModelsofStudentChoice,
StudentsasConsumers,andRecentStudies..........................................................................80
TheInternationalMarketforHigherEducation..............................................................80
ExpectancyTheory........................................................................................................................83
ModelsofStudentChoiceTheory...........................................................................................87
StudentsasConsumers...............................................................................................................93
RecentStudies..............................................................................................................................100
Conclusion......................................................................................................................................103
ChapterFour:ResearchMethodandDesign............................................................................109
ResearchMethod.............................................................................................................................109
Introduction..................................................................................................................................109
ResearchQuestions,Hypothesis,ConceptualModel...................................................111
ResearchDesign...............................................................................................................................118
Interviews......................................................................................................................................118
vii
SurveyDesignandAdministration.....................................................................................122
StrengthsandLimitations.......................................................................................................124
ValidityandUses..............................................................................................................................126
ChapterFive:FindingsonInstitutionalActors.......................................................................127
U.SGovernment................................................................................................................................127
U.S.GovernmentMotivations................................................................................................128
U.S.GovernmentGoalsandMeans......................................................................................129
Theeventsof9/11andtheirimpactonU.S.governmentpolicyandpractices
.............................................................................................................................................................130
TheStudentVisaBacklog........................................................................................................134
SaudiArabianGovernment.........................................................................................................136
TheGovernmentofSaudiArabia’sMotivations............................................................136
SaudiGovernmentGoalsandMeans..................................................................................138
EducationPolicyinSaudiArabia.........................................................................................139
InternationalizationandtheKingAbdullahScholarshipProgram.......................142
U.S.HigherEducationInstitutionsandSupportingIndustry.......................................147
U.S.HigherEducationInstitutions(HEIs)andtheSupportingIndustry
Motivations....................................................................................................................................147
HEIsandtheSupportingIndustryGoalsandMean.....................................................149
InterviewFindingsofHEIs–EmergentConcerns........................................................150
ChapterSix:FindingsonSaudiStudents....................................................................................163
TheUndocumentedElementsoftheIncreaseinSaudiStudentsAttendingSchools
intheU.S..............................................................................................................................................164
viii
InterviewFindingsforStudentsfromSaudiArabia.........................................................165
RoleoftheSaudiGovernment,theKASPandSACM...................................................167
ObtainingVisas............................................................................................................................168
ExpectancyTheory–WhyTheU.S......................................................................................169
SocialandCulturalCapital,SocialNetworks..................................................................171
HumanCapital..............................................................................................................................174
StudentsasConsumers,WhyThisSchool........................................................................175
AttitudesabouttheU.S.............................................................................................................176
ExperiencesintheU.S...............................................................................................................178
ChangingAttitudesandViewpointsaboutGlobalNorms.........................................181
Chapter7:SurveyResults.................................................................................................................184
KeyFindings......................................................................................................................................184
TheSurveyPopulation.............................................................................................................185
KeyFindingsforResearchQuestionOne:Howcantheincreaseinthenumberof
SaudistudentscomingtotheU.S.forhighereducationbeexplained?....................188
KeyFindingsforResearchQuestionTwo:Whataretheexpectedoutcomesofthis
research?.............................................................................................................................................192
FindingsonSaudiStudents’ExperiencesattheirCurrentSchool.............................198
DiscussiononFindingsaboutSaudiStudentsintheU.S.comparedwithSaudisat
Home.....................................................................................................................................................200
Chapter8:Conclusion.........................................................................................................................208
RecommendationsforHEIsintheUnitedStates...............................................................208
SummationandFutureResearch.............................................................................................213
ix
AppendixA.........................................................................................................................................223
InterviewQuestionsforHEIs.....................................................................................................223
InterviewQuestionsforSaudiStudents................................................................................223
AppendixB..............................................................................................................................................227
QualtrixOnlineSurvey..................................................................................................................227
Bibliography...........................................................................................................................................235
x
ListofFiguresandTables
Figure1:GrowthinGlobalStudentEnrolmentfrom1975to2012 p.3
Figure2:InternationalStudentMobilityRatesofChange,GlobalandToU.S. p.5
Figure3:ChangesinSaudiStudentAttendanceatForeignHEIs p.7
Figure4:F1VisasIssuedtoSaudiStudents p.10
Figure5:SaudiStudentF1VisasasaPercentageofAllIssued p.11
Figure6:Perna(2006)ProposedConceptualModelofStudentChoice p.89
Figure7:ConceptualModelforSaudiStudentChoicetoStudyintheU.S. p.115
Figure8:GenderofRespondents p.185
Figure9:DegreesRespondentsareCurrentlySeeking p.185
Figure10:TotalNumberofYearsRespondentsLivedintheU.S. p.187
Figure11:NumberofTimesintheU.S.Beforecomingforeducation p.187
Figure12:Father’sHighestLevelofEducation p.188
Figure13:Mother’sHighestLevelofEducation p.188
Figure14:SaudiStudents’SourcesofInformation p.193
Figure15:WhatAttractedStudentstoTheirCurrentSchool p.194
Figure16:ConfidenceinFutureEmployment p.201
Figure17:ViewsonChangingGenderRoles p.202
Figure18:ViewsonWomen’sWorkandReligiousPractices p.204
Figure19:ViewsonIfSaudiCultureShouldRemainUnchanged p.205
Figure20:ViewsonSaudiCulturalSuperiority p.205
Table1:Top8HostCountriesofGloballyMobileStudents p.4
xi
Table2:IncreaseinForeignStudentPopulationsintheU.S.2006to2013 p.4
Table3:RankingofPlacesofOriginforForeignStudentscomingtotheU.S. p.6
Table4:SaudiStudentsAttendingHEIsintheUKvs.theUS p.6
Table5:NonimmigrantF-1VisasIssued,TotalsIssuedandSaudiIssued p.9
Table6:WhereDoSaudiStudentsGoToStudy,UNESCO,2012 p.12
Table7:OutcomesandSpendingForEducationinArabGulfStates p.46
Table8:ArabWorldLearningBarometer,2014Competency p.47
Table9:PIRLS(ProgressinInternationalReadingLiteracyStudy)
2010Scores p.48
Table10:TIMSSMeanScoresinMathbyGender,Grade,andYear p.49
Table11:WorldBankKnowledgeEconomyIndex(KEI) p.50
Table12:KEIBreakdownsforMENACountries,2012 p.51
Table13:U.S.UnemploymentbyEducationLevel p.66
Table14:KASPStudents,NumberofStudentsvis-à-viscategory,2011 p.137
Table15:UnemploymentinSaudiArabia p.163
Table16:MenandWomenShouldContributetoHouseholdIncome p.203
1
ChapterOne:IntroductionTherehasbeenalongtraditionofpeopletravelingfarfromtheirhomesinsearchof
knowledge.ThewanderingscholarandtheprivilegedeliteswhotooktheGrand
TourwereamongthesteadybutrelativelysmallstreamofstudentsfromSouthto
Northinpursuitofinformaleducation(deWit,2002).Whathaschangedinrecent
decadesisthefastgrowthinthenumberofdegreeseekingstudentstraveling
abroadforeducation.Studentschoosewheretostudybasedonamyriadoffactors.
Often,foreignstudentsareseekingeducationsinschoolsthathaveEnglishlanguage
programmingandofferthebestqualitycoursesbasedoninternationalreputations
andrankings.
Asamatterofforeignpolicy,highereducationandinternationalstudentmobility
arecloselyrelated.Educationalandculturalexchangesareafrequenttoolofpublic
diplomacy.TheUnitedStateshasahistoryofwelcominginternationalstudentsand
scholarstothecountryinordertopromoteAmericancultureandvalues(Lord,
1998).Todaystudentstraveltoanincreasingnumberofcountriesandingreater
numberthanever.Figure1illustratesthatglobalinternationalstudentenrollment
morethantripledfrom1.3millionin1990to4.5millionin2012.
Untilrecently,theUnitedStatesenjoyedthelargestshareofinternationalstudents.
AccordingtoIIE.org(FastFacts2015)thenumberofinternationalstudentsinthe
U.S.fellslightlyfrom2001to2007buthasgrownsteadilysincethen,reaching
974,926studentsin2014.TheUnitedStatescontinuestohostthegreatestnumber
2
ofinternationalstudentsbutitsshareofthetotalglobalnumberofinternational
studentsdeclinedfromtwentyeightpercentin2001tonineteenpercentin2012.
Table1showsthechangesinmarketshareofinternationalstudentssince2001.
4
Table1:Top8HostCountriesofGloballyMobileStudents
2001Worldwide:2.1million 2012Worldwide:4.3million
UnitedStates28% UnitedStates19%
UnitedKingdom11% UnitedKingdom11%
Germany9% China8%
France7% France7%
Australia4% Germany6%
Japan3% Australia6%
Spain2% Canada5%
Belgium2% Japan3%
AllOther34% AllOther35%
Source:ProjectAtlasandUNESCO,2012
Thecompetitionforinternationalstudentshasincreasedasothercountrieshave
improvedtheireducationalsystemsandbuiltstateoftheartcampusesandresearch
facilities.TheU.S.highereducationinstitutionscontinuetoseegrowthinstudents
fromChina,India,andSouthKorea.SaudiArabiaisnowalsoatopsendingcountry
totheU.S.Inthelastfiveyears,from2006/07to2012/13thetopfoursending
countrieshaveincreasedthenumberofstudentscomingtotheUnitedStatesasper
Table2:
Table2:IncreaseinForeignStudentPopulationsintheU.S.from2006to2013
SaudiArabia 465.1%
China 247.9%
India 15.4%
S.Korea 13.2%
AllCountries 40.6%
Datasource:OpenDoorSurvey2013
5
Since2006therateofincreaseinstudentsfromSaudiArabiahasfaroutpacedthe
rateofgrowthfromanyothersendingcountry.StudentsfromSaudiArabiaare
comingtotheUnitedStatesatanevengreaterratethanChinesestudents,the
largestsendingcountryforforeignstudentsglobally.Figure2isanillustrationof
thischange.
Figure2:InternationalStudentMobilityRatesofChange,GlobalandToU.S.
Datasource:OpenDoorSurvey2013
Table3showsthelistofcountriesthatsendstudentstotheU.S.rankedinorderof
size.China,India,andSouthKoreahavebeenthetopthreesendingcountriessince
2005.Thedatashowthatthereareonlyslightvariationsinplacementfromyearto
year.MovementsintherankingssuchasSaudiArabia’sareunusual.
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
200120022003200420052006 20072008 20092010201120122013
%
Global
China/US
India/US
S.Korea/US
Saudi/US
6
Table3:RankingofPlacesofOriginforForeignStudentscomingtotheU.S.
2012/13Rank11/1210/1109/10 08/0907/0806/0705/06
1China 1 1 1 2 2 22
2India 2 2 2 1 1 11
3SouthKorea 3 3 3 3 3 33
4SaudiArabia 4 6 7 9 9 12 N/A
5Canada 5 4 4 4 5 6 5
6Taiwan 6 5 5 6 6 5 6
7Japan 7 7 6 5 4 4 4
8Vietnam 8 8 9 8 13 20 N/A
9Mexico 9 9 9 7 7 7 7
10Turkey 10 10 10 10 8 8 8
Note:somerankingsdatadonotextendbeyond20places.Source:IIEFastFacts.
Inaddition,studentsfromSaudiArabiaarechoosingtheUnitedStatesoverany
othercountry,includingtheUnitedKingdom,whichremainsthesecondmost
populardestinationcountryforinternationalstudents.AsshowninTable4,there
hasbeenadeclineinthenumberofSaudistudentsattendingschoolsintheU.K.
Table4:SaudiStudentsAttendingHEIsintheUKvs.theUS
Source:iie.organdhesa.ac.uk
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
SaudistoUK 3405 6975 8765 8400 7930
Growth
62% 26% -4% -6%
Saudisin-US 12661 15810 22704 34139 44566
Growth%
25% 44% 50% 31%
AllSaudi 58710 78826 106095 107065 126000est
Growth% 37% 34% 35% 1% 18%
7
Figure3isagraphicalrepresentationthathighlightshowlargethisshifthasbeen.
Figure3:ChangesinSaudiStudentAttendanceatForeignHEIs
Note:AllSaudidatafrommohe.gov.saStudyAbroadScholarships.OtherData:
iie.organdhesa.ac.ukHigherEducationStatisticAgencyTable6:Top10non-EU
countriesofdomicilefor2012/13.2012/13AllSaudiextrapolatedfrommohe.gov
Figure3illustratesthatthegrowthrateforSaudistudentscomingtotheUnited
StatesisfasterthantheoverallgrowthrateforSaudistudentsseekinghigher
educationoutsideofthecountry.SaudistudentsattendanceatschoolsintheUnited
Kingdombegantoslowby2010andhasdeclinedsince2011.
8
TherewasadeclineinvisaapprovalsforallstudentsapplyingtocometotheUnited
StatesintheyearsimmediatelyafterSeptember11,2001.F-1non-immigrantvisas
aregiventooverseventyeightpercentofforeignstudentsattendinghigher
educationinstitutionsasfulltimestudents.Table5illustratesthatafter2001Saudi
studentvisaapprovalsfellfasterthanallstudentvisaapprovals.Thattrendbegan
reversingin2005.SaudistudentstodaymakeupagrowingpercentageofallF-1
visasapproved.
9
Table5:NonimmigrantF-1VisasIssued,TotalsIssuedandSaudiIssued
Year TotalF-1 SaudiF-1Saudi%ofTotal
Saudi%change
Total%change
1997 266,483 3,529 1.30% n/a n/a
1998 251,565 3,796 1.50% 7.00% -5.60%
1999 262,542 3,893 1.48% 2.60% 4.40%
2000 284,053 4,038 1.40% 3.70% 8.20%
2001 293,357 4,359 1.49% 7.70% 3.30%
2002 234,322 1,515 0.65% -65.20% -20.10%
2003 215,695 1,158 0.54% -23.40% -7.90%
2004 218,898 1,008 0.46% -13% 1.50%
2005 237,890 2,166 0.95% 114.90% 8.70%
2006 273,870 9,240 3.40% 312.20% 15.10%
2007 298,393 5,776 1.94% -37.50% 9.00%
2008 340,711 8,038 2.40% 39.20% 14.20%
2009 331,208 11,193 3.40% 39.30% -2.80%
2010 385,210 21,101 5.50% 88.50% 16.30%
2011 447,410 27,738 6.20% 31.50% 16.10%
2012 486,900 27,932 5.70% 0.70% 8.80%
2013 534,320 28,597 5.40% 2.40% 9.80%
note:dataisfiscalyearOct-Sep %Changeisyearover
year www.traval.state.gov/content/visas/
english/law-and-policy/statistics/ non-immigrants-visas.html
ThePuzzle
Somequestionsarisefromthesefacts.Howcantheoutsizedgrowthinthenumber
ofstudentsfromSaudiArabiaattendinghighereducationalinstitutions(HEIs)inthe
10
UnitedStatesbeexplained?Inapost9/11world,withextensivepublicand
governmentalfocusonnationalsecurityintheUnitedStates,thisisunexpected.
Figure4isagraphicalrepresentationthatshowstherapidriseinthenumberofF-1
visasissuestoSaudistudents.Figure5identifieshowmanySaudistudentsare
beingissuedvisascomparedtoallF1visasbeingissues.Thereboundinthe
numberofstudentsfromSaudiArabiaispuzzlinggiventhegeopoliticalrealitiesof
theUnitesStates’intensefocusonnationalsecurityandthe“WaronTerror”that
resultedinthehighestlevelsofscrutinygiventoyoungpeopleofMiddleEastern
origincomingintothecountry(Congress2004).
Figure4:F1VisasIssuedtoSaudiStudents
Source:www.travel.state.gov.content/visas/english.law-and-policy/statistics/non-
immigrant-visas.html
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
Year 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
F1VisasIssuedtoSaudiStudents
11
Figure5:SaudiStudentF1VisasasaPercentofAllVisasIssued
Source:www.travel.state.gov.cotent/visas/english.law-and-policy/statistics/non-
immigrant-visas.html
TherapidgrowthinSaudistudentscomingtotheU.S.isalsounexpectedinlightof
growingcompetitioninthemarketforinternationalstudentsandtheprobability
thatSaudistudentswouldattendhighereducationinstitutionsintheUnited
Kingdom.Todaystudentshavemorechoicesforhighereducation.Manydeveloping
countrieshaveinvestedheavilyinbuildinguniversitycampusesandimprovingthe
qualityoftheirprograms,includingofferingfulldegreestaughtinEnglish.For
example,inadditiontothegrowthintheeducationalsysteminChina,theotherGulf
Stateshavebeenrecruitingpremiernamewesternuniversitiestobuildentire
campusesorpartnerwithlocalschoolstoofferfulldegrees.Saudistudentshave
manygeographicallycloseroptionsthattheycanchoosefrom.Yet,asTable6
shows,SaudistudentsarechoosingtheU.S.infargreaternumberthanother
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014
Percntage
Year
SaudiF1Visasas%ofallIssued
12
countries.Thisisparticularlyinterestinggiventheextremeculturalandpolitical
differencesbetweentheU.S.andSaudiArabia.Incontrast,theBritishwere
politicallyactiveintheregionsincetheeighteenthcenturyandtheSaudipeople
havehadcenturies-longfamiliaritywiththecultureandcustomsofpeoplefromthe
UnitedKingdom.TheU.K.isalsogeographicallymuchclosertoSaudiArabiathan
theUnitedStatesis.Itwould,therefore,beexpectedthatSaudistudentswould
showastrongpreferenceforcontinuingtheirattendanceatschoolsintheU.K.
Table6:WhereDoSaudiStudentsGoToStudy,UNESCO,2013
UnitedStates 42,651
UnitedKingdom 9,344
Australia 4,946
Canada 4,587
Jordan 3,295
UAE 1,686
Malaysia 887
NewZealand 994
France 478
Poland 466
Source:uis.unesco.org/Education/Pages/International-student-flows-viz.aspx.
Note:slightvariationsexistinthedatacomparedtoiie.organdNAFSAreportsdue
todefinitionaldifferences.
GiventhislargeincreaseinSaudistudentscomingtotheU.S.itispuzzlingtoknowif
governmentpoliciesintheU.S.andinSaudiArabiahaveanimpactonwhythey
choosetheU.S.overotherdestinations.Thechoiceofschoolisamatterofinterest,
13
aswell.Saudistudentsareclusteringincertainregions.Whydotheychoosethe
institutiontheyattendandhowdotheyfareoncetheycome?Dotheyexperience
anychangesintheirattitudesandopinionsduetotheirtimeintheUnitedStates?
KeyQuestionOne:HowcanthisincreaseinthenumberofSaudistudents
comingtotheU.S.forhighereducationbeexplained?
Theworldwidedemandforhighereducationisincreasing.Sinceeducationplaysan
importantroleforbuildinghumancapital,itisaprimaryinputforeconomic
developmentandgrowth.Inadditiontomacroeconomicoutcomes,humancapital
creationcanalsoresultinbenefitsontheindividuallevel.Educationmayenhancea
person’sprofessionalabilitiesandhelpcreateinformedcitizensthatcontributetoa
bettersociety.Theneweconomytodayisaglobal,knowledgeeconomythatis
transnationalanddeeplyintegrated.Thiseconomyisdynamicandcompetitiveand
requiresaworkforcewithanalyticalskillsandtheabilitytoinnovateandadaptin
ordertosucceed.Theneedsandrewardsofparticipatingintheglobaleconomycan
explainwhatmotivatesanindividualtopursuehighereducation.
Inadditiontohumancapitalcreation,internationaleducationitselfhasbecomea
tradablecommodity,onethatfitsintomanymodelsofinternationaltradeand
marketanalysis.Theglobalmarketforeducationisgrowingasmorestudentstravel
abroadforhighereducationandschoolsanduniversitiescompetetoattractthem.
Foreignstudentsproviderevenue,helpdiversifythestudentpopulation,and
providetheuniversitieswithvaluedresearchcredentialsthatenhancetheir
14
prestigeandinternationalreputations.Thesemaybeamongthereasonsthat
universitiesandstudentsincreasinglyseekeachotherout,inordertosatisfytheir
perceivedneedsthathaveshapedtheglobaltradeineducationalservices.
Whileitisoftendifficulttoseparatepoliticsfromeconomics,ideologyandmarket
philosophy,therearesomeoverlappingandyetsomeverydifferentgoalsamong
theSaudisandtheAmericansthatmaybebehindthecurrenttrendsofbothsending
andreceivingstudentsinsuchgreatconcentration.TheU.S.governmenthasmade
greatstridesinaccommodatingSaudistudentsapplyingforvisassincetheattacks
ofSept11(Wildavsky2012).ThegovernmentofSaudiArabiasupportsstudents
throughinitiativesthatincludetheKingAbdullahScholarshipProgram(KASP).The
structureoftheprogrammay,bydesign,influenceboththedecisiontostudyabroad
andwherethestudentschoosetogo.TheconnectionbetweentheKASPandSaudi
studentsmayberelevanttounderstandingtheactionsofboththegovernmentand
thestudents,whoareincreasinglyoptingtostudyabroadinanon-Muslimcountry.
Inordertoaddressthisquestion,theactorsinvolvedmustbeidentifiedandtheir
mainmotivationsevaluated.TherearemainactorsontheU.S.sideaswellasthe
Saudiside.
15
Whoaretheactorsinvolved?
Areviewofinternationalhighereducationsuggestsafocusonseveralmainactors.
Therolethateachoftheseactorsplayindividuallyandinconcertwitheachother
explainmuchofthebehaviorofforeignstudentswhochoosetostudyintheU.S.
IntheUnitedStatestheyaretheU.S.Governmentthroughvariousagencies,higher
educationinstitutesthatrangefromlanguagetrainingschoolstodegreegranting
researchuniversities,andacollectionofprivateinterestgroupsthatsupport
internationaleducation.TheU.S.governmentsetspoliciesandimplements
programsthatrelatetointernationalstudents.Thehighereducationinstitutions
(HEIs)intheU.S.areinvolvedinrecruitingandservingforeignstudents.Once
foreignstudentsaregrantedavisatheHEIistheprimarysiteforforeignstudents’
experiencesintheU.S.TheHEIsaresupportedbyprivateorganizationsthatworkin
conjunctionwitheachothertopromoteinternationaleducation.Theseprivate
actorspromotestudyabroadforbothU.S.andforeignstudentsandliaisewith
Congresstoaddresspracticalandlegalchallengesfacingthehighereducation
industry.
ThecaseofstudentsfromSaudiArabiachoosingtostudyintheU.S.requiresamore
specificanalysis.InadditiontotheyoungSaudis,theprimaryactorsupporting
internationaleducationinSaudiArabiaistheSaudigovernmentthroughthe
MinistryofHigherEducation.ThegovernmentofSaudiArabiaisinvestingin
educationatalllevelsinsidethecountry.Italsoofferscitizensthefinancialsupport
16
tostudyabroad.ManystudentswholeaveSaudiArabiaforhighereducationare
fundedundertheKingAbdullahScholarshipProgram(KASP).TheMinistryof
HigherEducationisresponsibleforimplementingtheKASP.TheSaudigovernment
alsoprovidesmaterialsupportforinternationalstudentswhoareprivatelyorself-
funded.FocusingonthevariousministriesofthegovernmentofSaudiArabiacan
helpexplainthephenomenonofthelargenumberofSaudistudentsattendingHEIs
intheUnitedStates.
Whatarethemainmotivationsoftheactors?
FortheU.S.Government,wemayassumethatinternationalhighereducationisa
toolofeconomicdevelopmentandforeignpolicy.Thissuggestsseveralmotivations
thatshouldbeanalyzed.Forexample,thebenefitofspreadingU.S.cultureand
valuesthroughinternationaleducationwasoneofthemajorimperativesforre-
establishingthenon-immigrantstudentvisaprogramaftertheeventsofSept.11.
Additionally,internationaleducationisincreasinglyseenasavaluableeconomic
sectorthatprovidesjobsandincomeathome.Exposuretointernationalstudents,
alongwiththepersonalrelationshipsforged,isbelievedtohelpU.S.students
developinterculturalskillsandcompetenciesneededtomanageintheglobal
economy(Hausheer,2014).
UniversitiesandHEIsmaybeunderstoodtohavetheirownmotivations,although
thereissomeoverlapwiththeU.S.government.Universitiesandcolleges(HEIs)
supportstudentmobilitytoencouragetheinternationalizationofAmericanschools
17
andstudents.Internationalizationendeavorstocreategraduateswhoareglobal
thinkersandisaprimarygoalofHEIstoday.Also,HEIsincreasinglyrelyonthe
revenuegeneratedfromforeignstudents.Finally,HEIsseektoattractforeign
studentstofillseatsavailableincriticaldisciplines,especiallyinthesciencesand
researchprograms.ManyHEIsactivelycompeteforthebeststudentsinorderto
maintaintheirinternationalrankingsandreputations.Thesemotivations,some
idealistic,somemorepragmatic,shouldbeanalyzedinordertobetterunderstand
theroleHEIsplayininternationalstudentmobility.
ThemainmotivationsoftheSaudigovernmentpointtoacombinationofdomestic
driversaswellasinternationalconcerns.TheSaudigovernmentisusingeducation
asawaytobuildhumancapitalinordertodiversifytheeconomybeyondthe
energysector.Thegovernmentismotivatedbytheneedtoreduceunemployment
byhavingaworkforceofcapableSaudisthatcanreplacetheinternational
expatriateswhocurrentlyholdmanyofthemiddleanduppermanagement
positionsintheprivatesector.Also,theSaudigovernmentisendeavoringtochange
theperceptionofSaudisabroadsincetheeventsofSeptember11,2001,whenmany
ofthehijackerswereSaudinationals.AnotherfactormotivatingtheSaudi
governmentisarecognitionthatitneedstomodernizesocietyandencourageashift
awayfromIslamicextremism.ThisdrivetosoftentheinfluenceofWahhabism,the
conservativeformofIslampracticedinthecountry,hasbothdomesticandregional
implications.
18
ThereisnodoubtthatSaudistudentsarechoosingtostudyabroadingreater
numbersthanever.Theprimaryassumptionisthattheyanticipateeconomic
rewardsthroughenhancedjobprospectswhentheyreturn.Theanalysisshould
includewhetherSaudistudentperceivetheeducationintheU.S.tobebetterat
preparingthemforjobsintheprivatesector,whereanalyticalandcriticalthinking
skillsarerequiredtosucceed.Saudistudentmotivationsmayrelatetobuilding
humancapitalandbeinformedbysocialandculturalcapitalfactors.Thefocuson
socialandculturalcapitalmightexplainhowtheymaketheirchoicesandwhat
individualattributescontributetothedecisiontostudyintheU.S.
19
KeyQuestionTwo:Whataretheexpectedoutcomesofthisresearch?
IntryingtounderstandthisincreaseinthenumberofSaudistudentscomingthe
U.S.forhighereducationseveralissueswillbemadeclearerorpresentareasfor
futureresearch.Theoutcomesfoundcouldhaveimportantpoliticalandeconomic
implicationsforbothcountries.Also,highereducationinstitutionsmayaddress
shortcomingsintheservicestheyofferSaudistudentsinlightoftheresultsofthis
research.Studyingthisphenomenonhasprovidedexplanationsthat:
1.EstablishwhySaudistudentschoosetostudyabroad,whytheycometotheU.S.
andidentifiestheirdecision-makingmechanisms.
2.HighlighttheissuesthatSaudistudentsface,academicallyandsocially.Higher
educationinstitutionsintheUnitedStatesneedtoacttosuccessfullyintegratethese
studentsandensuretheyhaveapositiveexperiencebyaddressingtheseconcerns.
3.IdentifyhowSaudistudentsfeelabouttheUnitedStates.Willtherebealong-term
changeintherelationshipbetweentheUnitedStatesandSaudiArabiaasmoreof
theiryoungpeopleabsorbAmericancultureandvalues?Thiscouldpresentthe
basisforfutureresearch.
4.RevealwhatSaudistudentsintheUnitedStatesreportaboutchangesintheir
toleranceofothers,issuesrelatedtofamilyandgenderequality,howtheyfeelabout
lawspreventingdiscriminationandtheiropinionoftheUnitedStates.Saudi
studentswhoreturntotheircountrymaybetheimpetusforeconomicandcultural
changesthattakeplaceinthecomingyears.Changesintheseattitudesmayform
thebasisforgreaterchangeinSaudisocietyinthefuture.
20
ChapterTwo:HistoricalBackgroundThischapterwillprovidebackgroundforunderstandingthebehaviorofthevarious
stakeholders.Educationservesmanypurposes,bothpublicandprivate.This
researchconcernsaseriesofcomplexinterlinkingperspectivesandmotivations
thatrelatetoeconomic,political,social,andculturaldrivers.Theperspectivesof
eachstakeholderwereanalyzedtoshowwheretheyfitintothispuzzleofSaudi
studentscomingtotheU.S.Theparametersofthisresearchdictatedthatthe
historicalusesofhighereducationandthepoliticalmotivesofkeyactorsbe
reviewed.
SectionOnediscussesthehistoryofinternationalstudentsintheUnitedStatesand
governmentpoliciesandattitudestowardthem.TheU.S.governmenthasused
highereducationasthemeansforeconomicdevelopment.Ithasalsoused
educationandculturalexchangesastoolsforpublicdiplomacyandsoftpower.U.S.
governmentpolicytowardinternationaleducationiscloselyentwinedwithits
internationalrelationspoliciesandtheyarereviewedinthecontextofeachother.
SectionTwoconcernsthegovernmentofSaudiArabiaandthecurrentstateof
educationinthecountryandtheArabGulfStates.Historicalbackgroundanda
reviewofcurrentpoliticalimperativesshedlightontotheimpetusbehindits
currenteducationpolicy.Thesectionincludesadiscussionofthenatureof
monarchismandpatrimonialisminordertoprovidecontextualunderstandingof
thecountryandtherelationshipbetweenthegovernmentanditscitizens.This
21
relationshipisradicallydifferentfromWesternstylesofliberal,democratic,
participatorygovernment.Itreflectsamindsetandrealmofexpectationthatisin
starkcontrasttothoseofcitizensintheU.S.andtheirgovernment.
SectionOne:HistoryofInternationalEducationintheU.S.
Forcenturies,internationalstudentflowsweredirectedtowardthecentersof
higherlearninginGreece,Rome,anduniversitiesthroughoutMedievalEurope,
continuinguntilthenineteenthcenturywhentheGrandTourwasconsideredthe
capstoneofaliberaleducation.EvenAmericanstudentswentabroadtostudyat
Europe’smostprestigiousschools.BenjaminFranklinandThomasJeffersonstudied
Europeanmodelsofhighereducationandbroughtbackideastheyusedtodevelop
theAmericansystem.RelativelyfewforeignstudentscametotheU.S.untilthe
twentiethcentury.In1784,theVenezuelanrevolutionaryfigureFranciscode
MirandawasthefirstforeignstudentatYaleUniversity.FernandoBolivar,the
nephewofSimonBolivar,wastheUniversityofVirginia’sfirstLatinAmerican
studentinthe1827.ManyLatinAmericanstudentswhocametostudyintheUnited
Statesbecamepoliticallyprominentintheirhomecountriesandmaintainedclose
relationswiththeU.S.(Bevis&Lucas,2007).
ChristianmissionariesinChinabroughtWesterneducationalmethodsthatspread
throughouttheregion.BythenineteenthcenturyChinesewerethefirstsizable
cohortofforeignstudentsintheU.S.OncetheJapanesegovernmentlifteditsbanon
22
Christianityinthe1870s,missionariestherewereabletosupportstudentscoming
totheU.S.tostudy.ManyAsianstudentsreturnedhometohavesuccessfulcareers
aseducators,technicians,andengineerswithstrongviewsaboutmodernizingtheir
countries.ImmigrationlawssuchastheChineseExclusionActof1882and
increasinglycomplexandrestrictiveruleslaterimpactedtheflowofinternational
students,especiallyfromAsiancountries(Bevis&Lucas,2007).
Much,ifnotall,oftheearlysupportforforeignstudentsintheUnitedStatescame
fromprivategroups,mainlycampusbasedcosmopolitanandinternationalclubs.
Theseinformalorganizationswerestudentrunandoccasionallyaidedbya
volunteerfacultymemberwhoservedasa“foreignstudentadvisor.”Intime,the
functionofforeignstudentadvisorbecameincorporatedintothecolleges’
administrationsandservedtheimportantroleofprovidingacademiccounselto
foreignstudentsandsteeringthemaroundcomplicatedrulesandvisa
requirements,preventingmanydeportations.Anotherprivateinitiativewasthe
establishmentofinternationalhouses,formalcommunitycentersthatbrought
togetherstudentsfromallnationsinanefforttopromotegreatertoleranceand
understanding.ThefirstonewasestablishedinNewYorkCityin1928withfunds
fromJohnD.Rockefeller,Sr.andtheClevelandH.DodgeFamily,whoalsohelped
foundtheCommitteeonFriendlyRelationsAmongForeignStudents.International
HouseBerkeleywasopenedin1930.Itwasacoedhousingcomplexthatsoon
attractedstudentsfromaroundtheworld.AthirdcenterwasopenedinChicagoin
1932andtodaytheycontinuetoprovidethemodelsforcentersofinternational
23
educationandculturalexchanges.By1935,thenumberofprivategroupsinvolved
withinternationaleducationreachedoveronehundred(BevisandLucas2007).
TheU.S.attitudesandpoliciesregardingforeignstudents
TheU.S.governmenthasbeendirectlyandindirectlyinvolvedinbringingforeign
studentstothecountrysincetheearlytwentiethcenturytoservenationalinterest.
TheodoreRoosevelt’spresidencyandtheProgressiveErawasatimeofrenewed
interestinpubliceducationintheUnitedStates.Italsocoincidedwithmore
studentscomingfromLatinAmericaandareturnofChinesestudentsinthewakeof
theBoxerRebellionin1898.PresidentRooseveltwaseagertosupportthechanges
broughtonbytherebellion,encompassingbothpoliticalandeducationalreforms,
andby1912theU.S.governmentspecificallysupportedChinesestudentsbeing
givensafepassagetoAmericaandenrolledinAmericancolleges.Mostofthese
studentsheldimportantpositionsafterreturningtoChina(Bevis&Lucas,2007).
EarlyeffortstosupportinternationalstudyabroadbyAmericanscameafterWorld
WarI.ForeignstudentswerestilltheresponsibilityoftheBureauofCitizenshipand
ImmigrationServicesbutprivateorganizationsweremostactiveinpromoting
internationaleducation.TheInstituteofInternationalEducation(IIE)was
establishedin1919tosupporttwo-wayexchangeofstudentsandbeganalong
historyofprovidingdataandconductingpolicyrelatedresearchonforeignstudents
andtrendsininternationaleducation.Accordingtotheirwebsite,iie.org,itwas
24
establishedbyNobelPeacePrizewinnersNicholasMurrayButler,Presidentof
ColumbiaUniversity,andElihuRoot,formerSecretaryofState,andStephenDuggan,
Sr.,ProfessorofPoliticalScienceattheCollegeoftheCityofNewYorkandIIE'sfirst
President,topromoteunderstandingbetweennationsthroughinternational
education.
Duringthe1930stheIIEwasinstrumentalinbringingEuropeanscholarsidentified
as“atrisk”totheU.S.tolectureatAmericanuniversitiesandarrangedformany
displacedforeignscholarstocometotheUnitedStates.TheIIEfoundedthe
NationalAssociationofForeignStudentAdvisors,NAFSA,in1948tofurtherdevelop
thecapabilitiesofuniversityadministratorsinassistingthegrowingnumberof
foreignstudentsarrivinginthecountryafterWorldWarII.TheIIEremainsa
private,not-for-profitorganizationbutitadministerstheFulbrightProgramand
GilmanScholarshipProgramonbehalfoftheU.S.DepartmentofState.Additionally,
theIIEandNAFSApromotelegislationtoenablegreatereducationalandcultural
exchangesandpromoteimmigrationreformthatwillallowforeignstudentsto
remainintheU.S.aftercompletingtheirstudiesandcontributetotheU.S.economy.
SincetheendofWorldWarII,theuniversityhasbeenaninformaltoolofpublic
diplomacyandeconomicdevelopmentinfluencedbyU.S.governmentpolicy
(Critchlow2004;TheCurbCenterforArt,Enterprise,andPublicPolicyat
Vanderbiltn.d.).Successiveadministrationshavefocusedondifferinginitiativesbut
thevirtuouscircleofacademicexcellenceandgrowingforeignstudentattendance
25
attoptieruniversitiesinthecountryresultedinstrongeconomicgrowthhereanda
preferenceforAmericanstyleeducationabroad.TheU.S.governmentplayedan
essentialroleinthetypesofprogramsofferedbyuniversities,financingmajorssuch
asareastudiesandscientificresearchthateducatedU.S.studentsinsubjects
deemedofnationalinterest(Wildavsky,2012).Theseprogramsattractedtoptier
internationalscholarswho,inturn,helpedbuildthereputationforexcellence
enjoyedbymanyU.S.HEIs.
BysupportingstudentexchangeprogramstheU.S.governmentusedthe
universitiesastoolsofpublicdiplomacy.Educationalexchangeswereoneofseveral
programsinstitutedtointentionallyexposetheworldtoAmericancultureand
valuesduringWorldWarII.TheUnitedStatesInformationAgency(USIA),Voiceof
AmericaRadio(VOA),RadioFreeEurope,andtheFulbrightProgramarethebetter
knownoftheseefforts.Theprogramswereestablishedtopromotethe‘American
values’offosteringprotectionforhumanrights,democracy,andtheruleoflaw,and
advancementofeconomicsystemsthatbestservetheinterestsoftheUnitedStates
today.Thiswasmanagedthroughbroadcampaignstoinfluencepoliticaloutcomes,
promotedemocracy,andothermeanstoadvertisetotheworldthevirtuesand
superiorityofAmericancultureandbusinesspractices.Providingaccessto
Americanmusic,films,andotherformsofpopularentertainmentseemedinnocent
andnon-threatening.InvitingforeignerstostudyandteachintheUnitedStates
seemedgenerousandwelcoming,oftenagestureofgoodwilltoforeignstudents
facingdifficultcircumstances.Yet,fortheUnitedStates,thiswaspartofawider
26
agendaofpublicdiplomacytocreateafavorableviewofthecountrybeyondits
physicalborders,spreadtheidealsoffreemarketcapitalism,anddispelnegative
stereotypesaboutthecountry(O'Mara2012).
Manyoftheseprogramsstillfunctiontoday,albeitwithlessgovernmentsupport.
Still,thisisacontinuationofthesameideologyinformingU.S.publicdiplomacyafter
WorldWarII,wheninternationalinformationprogramsbecameapermanenttool
ofAmericanforeignpolicy(Lord,1998).VoiceofAmericahasbeenbroadcastingin
Englishandotherlanguagescontinuouslysince1942.Itwasoriginallyusedfor
propagandaandpsychologicallytargetedprogramsbutnowbroadcastsgeneral
newsasanindependentnewsagency.RadioFreeEuropeandRadioLibertywere
CIA-runservicescreatedintheearly1950sanddirectedtowardtheSoviet
controlledEasternblocnations.
TheFulbrightEducationalExchangeProgramgrewdirectlyoutoftheexperiencesof
WorldWarII,whenArkansasSenatorJ.WilliamFulbrightproposedaplanforthe
rebuildingofEuropean-Americanuniversityexchangeprograms.Basedonhisown
experiencesatOxfordasaRhodesscholar,Fulbrightbelievedsharingknowledge
andculturalunderstandingwasthebestwaytopreventfuturewars.Today,the
programfundsstudentsfromtheUnitedStatesandsixtyothercountries,
establishingabroadswathofAmericaninfluenceonforeignstudentsfromevery
regionintheworld(BevisandLucas2007).Thenumberofforeignstudentscoming
totheU.S.continuestoincreaseeveryyear.
27
Duringthe1950’sand1960’smanyoftheseUSIAprogramswerepartofalarger
campaignofdisinformationandmanipulation.Theeducationprogramsserveda
differentpurpose;theywerethetoolsforU.S.diplomacy.Theseprogramsincluded
educationalexchanges,culturalandartisticexhibitsandtours,foreignspeakers,and
buildinglibraries.Someoftheseinformalprogramsbeganasearlyasthe1930sin
responsetoGermanactivitiesinLatinAmerica.Amajorexchangeagreementwas
enteredintobetweentheU.S.andtheSovietUnionwiththesigningofthe
“AgreementbetweentheUnitedStatesofAmericanandtheUnionofSovietSocialist
RepublicsonExchangesintheCultural,Technical,andEducationalFields”on
January27,1958(Critchlow2004).Theseexchangescomprisedmorethanjust
popularcultureandtourism.Alsoincludewereprogramsencompassingscience
andtechnology,agriculture,medicineandpublichealth,andscholarlyresearch,
givingeachsidetheopportunitytoshowhowadvanceditwasandpromotetheir
successestotheother.Whiletherewereopponentsofthisagreementonboththe
AmericanandSovietsides,thegeneralreceptiontotheAmericanvisitorsand
exhibitorsinSovietcountrieswasextremelybeneficialtotheU.S.TheAmerican
exhibitsgarneredagreatamountofpublicinterestandattractedlargecrowdsof
peopleinterestedintheAmericanwayoflife.
Critchlow(2004)andLord(1998)provideanexcellenthistoryoftheearlyandpost
ColdWaryearsoftheUnitedStatesInformationAgency(USIA).Theirwork,along
withKelley(2005),detailshowtheColdWarwasshapedandpossiblyendeddueto
28
theeffectsoftheseprograms.Manyscholarsseeaconnectionbetweentheworkof
theUSIAduringtheColdWarandthefalloftheBerlinWallin1989anddismantling
oftheSovietUnionshortlythereafter(Kelley,2005).Yet,theU.S.government’s
attitudetowardstheseculturalexchangeandinformationprogramsgrewmore
dismissiveafterWorldWarIIandtheywereslowlydefundedastheyfelloutof
favorbythe1970s.Lord(1998)pointsoutthattheNixonAdministration,in
particular,hadalessideologicalviewofforeignpolicythanprevious
administrations,preferringtreatiesandimprovedcommercialtiestopublic
diplomacy,thenewtermforwhatusedtobecalledpropaganda.
RightafterWorldWarII,withtheonsetoftheColdWar,governmentsupportfor
theUSIAanditsprogramsbegantowanebuttheFulbrightProgramswerethe
exception.TheycametobevaluedasanantidotetotheColdWarandaneffective
toolagainstanti-AmericanpropagandacomingfromtheSoviets.Bythe1950s,the
valueofforeignstudentsfordiplomaticpurposeswasfullyrecognized.“DwightD.
Eisenhower(1957),underwhoseleadershipColdWarpropagandaprograms
reachedtheirhighestpoint,remindedagroupofforeignstudentvisitorstothe
WhiteHousethat“whenyougohomeyouhaveacertainresponsibilitytomake
known,aswidelyasyoucan,whatareyourimpressionsofanothercountryinwhich
youhavebeenprivilegedtoliveforthistime.”“(O’Mara2012,p.592).
The1970swereatimeofdramaticchangeintheUnitedStates.Theeconomywasin
deepdisarray,withbothhighunemploymentandrampantinflation.The
29
demographicsinAmericawerealsochanging.Immigrationreforminthe1960sled
tothecountrybecomingmuchlesswhiteandEuropeanandincreasinglyAsianand
brown-skinned.Foreignstudents,increasinglycomingfromAsiancountries,were
viewedwithsuspicionsincemanytookadvantageofthenewquotasandstayedon
aftercompletingtheireducations.Inaddition,accordingtoO’Mara(2012),bythe
1970s,universitieshadstartedtolooktowardforeignstudenttofillseatsinscience
andengineeringprogramsthatwerenolongersoughtafterbyAmericanstudents.
Muchoftheuniversities’researchfromthistimewaslatercommercializedthrough
public-privatepartnershipsandformedthebasisofthemodernknowledge
economy.Itwasalsothepathtosuccessandwealthformanyforeignstudents.
This,inturn,createdpoliticalconcernsthatU.S.studentswerefallingbehind.Other
foreignstudentsreturnedtotheircountriesandtransformedtheirhomecountries’
economiesintocompetitiveindustrialproducers.Bythe1980s,manyofthese
developingcountrieswereparticipantsintheglobaleconomicgrowthofthelatter
partofthetwentiethcentury.
UnderRonaldReagan,theUSIAwasrevivedbyhischoiceofleaders,Hollywood
impresarioCharlesWick,andFrankShakespeare,abroadcastingindustryexecutive.
TogethertheyhelpeddisseminateReagan’smessagetoaudiencesbehindtheIron
Curtainthatfedintothediscontentofthepeoplethereaboutthelackoflegitimacy
oftherulingcommunistelites.ReaganhelpedrestoretheUSIAtoitsformerluster
andreengagethewarofanti-Sovietpropaganda.AsLord(1998)pointsout,itis
difficulttoascertainexactlyhowmuchimpactthishadbut,byusingmodern
30
methodsofresearchandpollingtechniquestoassesstheireffectiveness,itseems
thattheseprogramsdidhaverealworldeffects.Kelley(2005)suggeststhatthe
culturalandeducationalexchangeswithinfluentialpeopleinsidetheSovietsystem
overtheyearsalsoplayedapartinthefalloftheCommunists,byexposingthemto
ideasandalternativetoolsofstatecraft.TheirtimewithWesternersshowedthem
plausiblewaystoeliminateafailingleadershipthatwasresponsibleforthe
moribundstateofthenation’seconomyandsociety.Reaganbelievedthat
governmentsfoundedontherespectforindividuallibertywouldbemorepeaceful
andlessaggressiveintheirforeignpolicythanauthoritarianstates(Doyle,1986).
HisannouncementbeforetheBritishParliamentinJuneof1982ofa“campaignfor
democraticdevelopment”(Doyle1986,p.1151)wasinkeepingwiththerestoration
oftheUSIAandeffortstousepropagandaandotherformsofpoliticaldiplomacy
againsttheSoviets.
Fewprogramsareusedforsuchobviouspropagandatoday.TheUSIAwas
subsequentlyabsorbedintotheStateDepartment,anditscommitmenttopublic
diplomacyisnowacorefunctionoftheStateDepartment’sroleinU.S.foreign
relations.TheVOAstillexistsasanindependent,non-commercialenterprisethat
providesnewsinforty-fivelanguagesaroundtheworld.DirectoroftheVOA,David
Ensor,suggeststhattheabilitytofunctionoutsidethecommercialrealmiswhat
allowsittoprovidethemostimportant,mostwidelyreadnews.Globally,its
audiencesaremuchlargerthanCNNorABCnews.VOA’smarketsarenotchosen
basedonprofitability;theyarebasedonplacestheywanttoreach.TheVOAisnot
31
anAmericanequivalentoftheBBC,itisthe“internationalstatebroadcasterofthe
UnitedStates”thatattemptstotellpeopleallovertheworldwhatWashington
thinksaboutevents(Ensor,2014).
TheAmericanpublicislargelyunawareofU.S.diplomaticeffortsabroad.Yet,they
areawareofinternationalpublicopinionpollsthathaveturnednegativesincethe
UnitedStatesinvadedIraqin2003andthesubsequent“waronterror”that
continuestoday(Fullerton,2005).By2003,severalmajorinternationalpolls,Pew,
Gallop,andZogbyallshowedglobalattitudestowardU.S.foreignpolicyturning
sharplynegative,onlyafewshortyearsafterSept.11,whentheU.S.wasseenina
significantlymorefavorablelight.Theparticularironyofthesenegativeviewsis
theycamefromthesamepollsthatalsoshowedhowpeopleoverwhelming
reportedthattheylikedAmericanculturalofferingsbutnotAmerica.Theabilityto
disconnectAmericanforeignpolicyfromAmericancultureisonethatmanysecurity
analystsconsiderapositiveforthecountryandisenhancedbyinternational
educationalprograms(Fullerton,2005).
TheshiftinU.S.economicpolicytowardgreaterderegulationandtherising
importanceofbasiceducationgloballyledtoanothershiftforforeignstudents.
AccordingtoO’Mara(2012),thiswastheimpetusformoreforeignstudents
choosingtostudybusinessoverengineeringandscience.By2009,business
administrationwasthemostpopularareaofstudy.Politicalconcernsaboutforeign
studentstakingopportunitiesawayfromAmericans,andpotentiallyharmingU.S.
32
companiesastheytooktheirknowledgehomewiththem,recededasglobal
economicgrowthprovidedU.S.producerswithgreatermarketshareandincreasing
economicpower.Also,scienceandengineeringprogramsatU.S.HEIsstillrelied
heavilyonforeignstudents,asdidmuchofSiliconValleyandotherhightechnology
industries.
Thecurrent“waronterror”placestheUnitedStatesinadifficultsituation,one
unlikepreviousconflicts.AccordingtoCritchlow(2004)“TheColdWaradversary
wasanideologythathadbeenhijackedbyastate.Today’sadversaryisanideology
hijackedfromareligionbypoliticalandreligiousextremists.Inbothcasesthe
UnitedStates,astheleadingWesterndemocracy,hashadtofacehostilityenhanced
bytheadversary’smanipulationofotherpeople’sculturalandethnicdifferences.”
(p.75).WiththeperceivedsuccessofusingsoftdiplomacytoendtheColdWar
therearecallstorestoretheuseofpublicdiplomacyasawaytoengagepeople
culturallyinthefightagainstthisnewthreat.
TheeventsofSeptember11,2001hadanimmediateimpactoninternational
studentmobility,especiallyforstudentscomingfromSaudiArabia.Fifteenofthe
nineteenhijackersresponsiblefortheattackson9/11camefromSaudiArabia,
somereportedlyonstudentvisas.Visaapprovalsimmediatelyfellthenextyear,
2002,bytwentypercentforallapplicantsbutvisaapprovalsforstudentsfrom
SaudiArabiafellbysixtyfivepercentandcontinuedtodeclineuntil2005.Alarge-
scalereversalbeganafter2005.Beginningin2006,approvalsforstudentsfrom
33
SaudiArabiaoutpacedtheapprovalrateforallstudentsbeingissuedF-1non-
immigrantstudentvisas(IIE.org).ThisturnaroundwastheresultofavisitinApril
2005byKingAbdullahtotheUnitedStates.Alengthyjointstatementwasissued
betweentheKingandPresidentGeorgeW.Bushreaffirmingtheimportanceofthe
twocountries’relationshipandspecificallyincludingimprovededucational
exchangesasoneofthesharedintereststobuildupon.Thestatementreiteratedthe
listofgeopoliticalimperativesthatbothcountrieswereinagreementon,
particularlyrelatedtothegrowingthreatthatanuclearIranwouldmeanforthe
region(WeeklyCompilationofPresidentialDocuments,2005).TheneedfortheUS
tomaintainagoodrelationshipwithSaudiArabiaopenedthedoorforSaudi
studentstoagainentertheU.S.andpursuedegreesatU.S.collegesanduniversities.
Intheyearssince9/11,theCongressmovedforwardontheissueofstudentvisas,
attemptingtoaddressagrowingbacklogofapplicationsthatwasharmingthe
highereducationindustryintheU.S.Theresultwastheestablishmentofthe
electronicmonitoringsystems,SEVISandnewprotocolsthatestablishedclearinter-
agencycoordinationpolicies,somethingthatwaslackinginthedaysbefore9/11.
Congressionaltestimonypointedfrequentlytothelongheldnotionthateducation
andculturalexchangeswereimportanttoolsofpublicdiplomacy(U.S.Congress
2001;U.S.Congress2003;U.S.Congress2004;U.S.Congress2008).Thetestimony
reiteratedagainandagainthattheseexchangeshadbeentheideologicalmeansof
spreadingAmericancultureandvaluessinceWorldWarIIandwereidentifiedas
34
successfulusesofAmerica’ssoftpower,theintangiblevalueassociatedwiththeU.S.
statusintheworldasfreeanddemocratic.
Softpowermaybemoreeffectivethanmilitarymightindefeatinganideological
threatbutitmaybehardtomakeupforyearsofneglect.Critchlow(2004)says
therewascauseforconcernabouttheseverecutsinfundingforpublicdiplomacy
aftertheColdWartocountriesintheIslamicworld,especiallythepoorestoneslike
Indonesia.DatafromtheU.S.AdvisoryCommissiononPublicDiplomacyshowed
thatfrom1995to2001thenumberofacademicandculturalexchangesfellfrom
45,000to29,000.Critchlow(2004)believesthatremindingtheArabsoftheir
historyasthemosttechnologicallyadvanced,multicultural,intellectuallyfree,
tolerantnationsonlyafewcenturiesagowouldopenthedoorformorediscussion
ofAmericanvalues.Henotedthatusingtheseexchangeprogramswasanapproach
thatworkedwellagainsttheSoviets.Hesuggeststhatitwouldworkinthispartof
theworld,too.
Theslowdownintherateofgrowthforvisaapprovalswasalsorelatedtotheheavy
investmentsineducationmadebymanydevelopingcountries.Studentshada
greaternumberofeducationalopportunitiesintheirowncountryinnearby
countries.Yet,O’Mara(2012)notedthatadegreefromaU.S.schoolwasstillthe
mosthighlyvalued.U.S.schoolsbegantoaggressivelyrecruitforeignstudentsand
somehaveestablishedfullbranchcampusesinothercountriesorglobal
partnershipswithexistingschools.Somenationalgovernmentshaveactively
35
soughtoutforeignuniversitiestocreateprogramsforthem.ManyGulfState
countrieshavedonethisbutneitherIndianorSaudiArabiahaschosentoimport
foreigneducationintotheircountries.Thebranchcampusmodelislessthana
decadeoldandthelong-termimpactisstilltobedetermined(Walters,2012).
Internationalstudiesprogramsarevaluedforthebroaderlong-termbenefitsthey
providethecountry.Whileitmaynotbepoliticallycorrecttoopenlyadmirethe
U.S.,manyforeignleaderseducatedherewerechangedbecauseoftheirtimeinthe
country.PresidentObamaconcludedhis2010NationalSecurityStrategypaperby
sayingthatwemustwelcomemoreforeignexchangestudentstotheU.S.becauseof
thedeeptiesthatareforgedwiththemandtheirhomelands,andbecauseofthe
benefitsofincreasedunderstandingandappreciationofAmericancultureabroad.
Thiswillstrengtheneducationandbuildthenation’shumancapital.Hiswordsecho
thoseofawidecoalitionofpeople,includingdozensofmembersofCongress,top-
levelpractitionersfromthehighereducationindustry,andU.S.businessleaders
(Nye2005;Obama2010;Reimers2013).
36
SectionTwo:BackgroundonSaudiArabia,Monarchism,andEducationinthe
ArabGulfStates
BackgroundonSaudiArabia
SaudiArabiaisahereditorymonarchywithapopuationofnearly29millionpeople
(data.worldbank.org).AccordingtoCIAWorldFactbook,nearlyhalfthepopulation
isundertheageof25.TherulerofthecountryisKingSalmanbinAbdulazizal
Saud,whoascendedtothethroneonthedeathofhishalf-brother,KingAbdullahbin
AbdulazizalSaudinJanuary,2015.SaudiArabiahasbeendescribedasafamily-
corporatistmonarchythatissupportedbyagroupofnationaleliteswhoprovide
theprimarybaseofsupportfortheking.Itistheonlycountrytodaythatisnamed
afteritsfounder,AbdulazizAlSaud(Lockhard,2005).AsthebirthplaceofIslamitis
thecenteroftheMuslimword.Thekingisbothareligiousleaderandatemporal
ruler.Accordingtoprotocol,thereligioustitleofGuardianoftheTwoHolyShrines
takesprecendenceoverhisroyaltitleandappearsonallofficialgovernment
documents(Whitaker,2011).Outsideoftheestablishmentin1992ofthe
ConsultativeCouncil,orMajlisal-Shura,a150memberbodyappointedbytheKing
toservefouryearterms,thereisnootherformalpoliticalparticipationinthe
country(Nolan2011).ElectionsannouncedbytheCouncilofMinistersinOctober
2003foronethirdoftheseatsontheMajlishavenotyetbeenheld.Womenwere
grantedtherighttovotein2011butthefirstelectionstheywereeligibletovotein
37
didnotoccuruntillatein2015.
SaudiArabiawasofficiallyformedin1932whenAbdul-AzizAlSaudconqueredthe
varioustribesintheArabianPeninsula,includingthetwoholysites,Meccaand
Medina.ThecountrywasnamedtheKingdomofSaudiArabia,anIslamicstatewith
ArabicasitsnationallanguageandtheHolyQur’anasitsconstitution.The
populationconsistsofamajorityofSunniMuslims,estimatedbetween85-95%of
thecountry.TheremainderistheShi’iteminority,estimatedbetween5-15%ofthe
country.TheShiaaresociallyandgeographicallyisolatedfromthelargerSunni
societyandareasourceofgrowingunrestintheEasternProvince,thecenterofthe
country’soilproduction(Nolan2011).
SaudiArabiaistheworld’slargestproducerofoilandthemostpowerfulmemberof
OPEC.Ithasbetweenonefifthandonequarteroftheknownoilreservesandthe
sixthlargestknownreservesofnaturalgas(CentralIntelligenceAgency).In
additiontoexportingoil,theSaudisarealsoknownforexportingIslam.They
observeanultraorthodoxinterpretationknownasWahhabismandsincethe1980s
havefundededucationandcharitableinstitutionsthroughoutthelargerMuslim
world,encouragingthis“mostcorrect”versionofthefaith(Whitaker2011).Its
originsinSaudiArabiadatetotheallianceintheearly18thcenturybetween
MohammadbinSaudandaMuslimscholar,MohammadbinAbdulWahhab,inan
efforttoreturntoapurerformofIslam(HistoryofSaudiArabia,2015).Theulama,
orreligiousscholars,haveenjoyedoutsizedinfluencesincethen.Thishistorical
38
allianceexiststodayandisassociatedbymanypeopleoutsideofthecountrywith
spreadingIslamicextremismandthelackofsocialmodernizationwithinSaudi
Arabia.
AgainstthebackdropoftheArabSpringandtheglobalwaronterror,theSaudi
governmenthashadtomeetsecuritychallengesbothnearandwithinitsborders.
ManyofthecallstojihadintheregiontracedtheirrootstoSaudiexportsof
Wahhabism.SaudijihadistswhofoughtagainsttheSovietsinAfghanistanreturned
homeonlyto“reinterpretWahhabireligioustraditionsandbrandtheSaudiregime
askafir,orblasphemous,thusignitingtheflamesofjihadintheirownhomeland.”
(Al-Rasheed2010,p.276).SaudiKingAbdullahrecognizedtheneedtoenlistthe
helpofsocietyinordertofightextremism,hopingtomodernizethecountrywithout
posinganyrealchallengestotheleadership.Educationpolicywasoneofthetargets
forreform,includingtheKingAbdullahScholarshipProgram(KASP),whichnow
sendsover185,000youngSaudisabroadforhighereducation(SaudiAmerican
BusinessCouncil,2014).
TheSaudimonarchhasemergedrelativelyunscathedfromtheArabSpringand
turmoilintheregion.PoliticalanalystssaythatthesystemofmonarchyinSaudi,
withalargefamilywithdeeplyvestedinterests,remainsantagonistictodemocratic
reformandprovidesadeepbaseofsupportforpreservingthestatusquo.One
obviousreasonforthecurrentstabilityinthecountrycomesfromthelargeincrease
inpublicspending,especiallyinpreviouslyunderserveddistricts,thatisquelling
39
dissent(Menaldo,2012).Inmuchoftheregion,themonarchshavesurvived
becauseofthealignmentoftheelites,inthiscasemainlymembersoftheSaudiroyal
familyandtheircohorts,withthemonarchicpoliticalculture.Thisfostersboth
legitimacyandgeneratesalevelofsupportfromthemajorityofthecitizenry
(Menaldo2012).Thenewking,Salman,gavecashpaymentsandgrantstoallSaudi
citizensandpublicorganizationsinhonorofhiscoronationtotalling$32billion.
“Saudirulershavelongusedthewealththatcomesfrombeingtheworld’stopoil
exportertolavishbenefitsontheirpeople,andmanySaudisdescriberoyallargess
aspartofafamily-likesocialcontractbetweenrulersandloyalcitizens.”(Hubbard,
2015).Themonarchyremainspopularinthecountryandwillaslongasjobsand
largesscontinuetoflow.
Thekingistakingriskystepsintryingtoreformeducation.TheKASPisproviding
fundingfornearlytwohundredthousandstudentstoattendcollegeoutsideofthe
country.InsidethecountrytheMinistryofHigherEducationisusingperipheral
institutionstosetupacademiccities,internationalpartnershipsandothermeans
thatallowthemtoenactcontroversialeductionreforms.Inaddition,theSaudi
regimeisparticipatingininternationalstandardsassessmentstoprovidearationale
forreforms.Saudistudentshaveperformedpoorlycomparedtootherdeveloping
nationsonthesetests,allowingthegovernmenttoinstitutecurricularreforms
despitetheobjectionsofthereligiousestablishment(Nolan2011;ClaryandKarlin
2011).Inwhatmayprovetobethebiggestgamble,theKASPisseenawayto
transformyoungSaudisintoWesterneducatedentrprenuerswhoareculturally
40
moremoderate.“Saudieducationofficalshavemadeclearthatthescholarship
programmeisnotdesignedtosimplyeducate,buttotransformtheSaudipopulace.”
(ClaryandKarlin2011,p.17).Theramificationsofthismaynotbefullyunderstood
foragenerationormore.
CantheSaudigovernmentresolvetheissuesofthecountrybychangingtheculture
ofitsyouth?Cultureisnotimmutableandthereisreadyevidencethatcultures,asa
constituentpartofacivilization,dochangeinthefaceofpoliticalandeconomic
developments.ThefindingoftwoseparatevaluessurveysamongtheyouthofSaudi
Arabiain2003and2005confirmthis.Inthewakeofthe2003U.S.invasionofIraq
therewasadeclinefrom33%to23%intheattitudethatdemocracyisabetterform
ofgovernmentthanothers(Moaddel,2010).Inrecentyears,attitudestoward
genderequalityhaveshiftedforward,withmorerespondentsagreeingthathigher
educationshouldbemadeavailableforwomen.Also,thesurveysshowthatSaudis
haveloweraveragemosqueattendancethanothercountriesandhavelowratesof
reportingthatreligiousfaithisahighlyimportantqualityforchildren.Thismaybe
areactiontothestrictauthoritarianismofthereligiousestablishmentbutitpoints
tostateofreadinesstoacceptmoresecularreformandlessadherencetoWahhabist
religiousdoctrine(Moaddel,2010).ItmayturnoutthattheKASPandtheSaudi
government’sattemptstoreformeducationasawaytodealwithsocialand
economicproblemsfacedbythecountryarewelltimed.
41
MonarchismorPatrimonialisminSaudiArabia
InordertobetterunderstandSaudiArabia,itsgovernmentanditspeople,itis
necessarytounderstandthefundamentalmindsetofthecountryandtheregion.
Whymostoftheworld’shereditary,non-constitutionalmonarchiesexistintheArab
worldcouldbebetterunderstoodbyexaminingthenatureofpatrimonialism.Itisa
termintroducedbyMaxWebertoexplainthehowthisformofdespotismoccurred
morefrequentlyintheOrient.Weber,whilenotwellknowforhisconceptsof
patrimonialism,wroteaboutthesocialfactorsthatresultedinadifferentmindset
thatledtoacceptingthistypeofgoverningsystem.Weber,tohiscredit,didnot
offersimpleexplanationstothishistoricallycomplicatedphenomena.Yet,his
observationsaboutthesocialandhistoricalvariablesatplaycanbesynthesizedinto
aframeworkforbetterunderstandinghowtheEastandWestrealizedverydifferent
rationalizationsoflife.AccordingtoWeber,theOrientwasmorehighlyattuned
withreligiousandmysticalsensibilitiesthantheirWesterncounterparts.TheWest
wasmoreempiricallydrivenandtookamorescientificapproachtolife.This
differenceisevidencedintheart,scientificinquiry,politics,andlawsthatWeber
consideredtherepresentativefeaturesofacivilzation’sculture.
WeberbelievedthatOrientalsocietiesweresofundamentallydifferentfrom
Westernsocietiesthattheylackedthemindsetneededfordevelopment,modernity
andcapitalism(Curtis,2009).FactorsthatwerepresentinWesterntraditions,some
identifiedasprotestantismandpuritanism,wereabsentintheOrient.Weber
42
believedthiswastheexplanationforthedifferenceinsocialandeconomic
outcomesbetweenthetwoworlds.TheOrienthadadifferentreligion,
psychologicalattitudes,beliefsystemsthatincludedancestorworshipandfilial
piety,socialsystemsincludingcastes,noorganizedjudiciary,anddictatorial,
despotic,andpatrimonialpoliticalsystems(Curtis2009,p.268).Thesedifferent
underlyingfeaturesandtraditionsledtopatrimonialismintheOrientversusstates
basedonconstitutions,ruleoflaw,theseparationofpowers,andlegitimacyinthe
useofforcewithlimitationsontheexerciseofpower.TheOrientaldespot
demandedunconditionalloyaltyandcompliancefromhisofficials,muchlikethe
Saudikingtodayreliesontheloyaltyofthefamilytomaintaincontrol.Inreturnthe
interestsofthatgroupareserved.
ThestabilityoftheSaudimonarchydepends,inlargedegree,onthissystemof
loyaltyandpatrimony,whichissupportedbythereligiouscredentialsthatcome
fromthemonarchy’spactwiththeulama,theWahhabischolars(Whitaker,2011).
AccordingtoWeber,thepatrimonialrulercaredaboutmaintainingthegoodwillof
thepeople.“Heappearedintheguiseoftheprotectorofthepeopleagainst
privilegedstatusgroupsandtheguardianofthewelfareofhissubject;heclaimedto
benotthewarriorkingbutthegoodking,“thefatherofhispeople.””(Curtis2009,
p.281).ThebenevolenceoftheSaudikingisenhancedbycountry’soilwealth,which
allowsforgovernmentspendingwithoutcommensuretaxation.This,andthe
monarchy’sreligiouscredentials,providetheSaudikingwithalargemeasureof
legitmacy(Whitaker,2011).
43
Still,thesystemofgovernmentinSaudiArabiaismanipulatedbyarchaic
interpretationsofreligionandmaysoonproveunsustainableifthedemographic
challengestheyfacedonotgetadequatelyaddressed.Inexplainingthehigh
unemploymentrateinthecountrywhereSaudismakeupeightypercentofthe
publicsectorbuthavefewjobsintheprivatesector,theeducationsystemis
identifiedasoneofthemainculprits.TheSaudigovernmentfacesthedaunting
challengeofpoliticalandsocialresistancetotransformingeducation.Untilitshifts
fromlaxstandards,rotelearning,andheavyemphasisonreligioussubjects,the
countrywillremaindependentonexpatriateworkersandSaudiswillremaineither
unemployedoremployedinsubsidizedjobs(NiblockandMalik2007).
Thenotionoflegitimacyasthesourceofmonarchicresilienceisarecurringtheme
inmuchofthecurrentliteratureontheMiddleEastNorthAfricancountrieswith
hereditaryrulers.Incountrieswithauthoritarianrule,oftenthestatesecurity
apparatusfunctionstomaintainpoliticalcontrol.Incontrast,manytraditional
hereditaryrulersmaintaintheirpowerbasedontherespectandperceived
legitimacyoftheirrule.“Amongthefundamentallessonstobelearnedfromthe
struggleofmonarchicsurvivalelsewherewouldbetheneedtoturnthemonarchy
fromaruleoffearintoasymbolofrespectandnationalunity.”(Kuhnhardt2012,p.
61).KingAbdullah,untilhisdeathinJanuary2015,washeldinhighesteembythe
people.Whileviewedasareformer,heenjoyedwidespreadpopularsupportofhis
effortstoreduceextremismathomeandestablishSaudiArabiaasaninfluential
44
leaderintheregion.Hisbestlegacymaybethathewasabletomaintainbothsocial
andpoliticalstabilityduringtheseturbulenttimes(Muftah.org2012).
Contemporarymonarchs’authorityisbasedontraditionalacceptanceandthe
abilitytoprojectthemselvesasbenevoltentsymbolsofnationalunity(Kuhnhardt,
2012).TheSaudikingnotonlyhaspopularpoliticalsupport,healsoenjoysreligious
authoritythroughouttheMuslimworldandisasourceofculturalprideforall
Saudis.
EducationintheArabGulfStates
Theeventsof9/11broughtextensiveworldfocusontheeducationalsystemsin
GulfStates,critiquingtheirinstitutionsasarchaic,academicallyinadequate,
ideologicallydriventoencourageintolerancefortheWestandfeedinganti-US
terroristsentiment.Thisdescriptiondoesnotrecognizethenatureofthe
discussionstakingplaceonthelocallevelatthattime,wheneducationalreformwas
alreadyidentifiedasaninternalmatterofhighlevelconcern(Rugh2002).Most
countriesintheGulfhadalreadyrecognizedtheneedtoexpandtheirsystems.By
2001therehadbeensignificantnationalprogressinaccesstoeducationas
measuredbyschoolenrollmentandliteracyratesamongbothmalesandfemales.
Theproblemswerenowofamoresophisticatednature.Businessleadersexpressed
theirconcernthatuniversitygraduateswereunpreparedforworkintheprivate
sectorandtheprimaryeducationsystemreliedextensivelyonrotelearningin
45
schoolsthathadnoobjectiveassessmentcriteriaandlittlesupervisionover
curriculum(Davidson&Smith,2008).
UNdatashowsthattheGulfStateshavebeenmoresuccessfulthatothercountries
intheregioninachievingimprovementsinliteracyratesandmeaneducational
levelsofyearsofschooling.TheWorldBankreviewedthelastfourdecadesof
investmentineducationintheMENAregionandacknowledgedthesignificant
gains,whichwereimpressivesincemostnationaleducationalsystemswereonly
implementedduringthe1950sand1960s.Thefollowingchartisacomparisonof
GulfStateseducationspendingandoutcomestoOECDcountries.
46
Table7:OutcomesandSpendingForEducationinArabGulfStates
Source:arab-hdr.orgHumanDevelopmentDatafortheArabStates
OECDdataincludedforcomparison.
TheOECDArabHDRdataofeducationmeasuresshowedimprovementsforboth
menandwomenandtherewereotherpositiveeconomicoutcomesassociatedwith
education.Theregionexperiencedperiodsofrapideconomicgrowth,measurable
improvementsinproductivityandhumancapital,lowerfertilityrates,andother
socialindicatorsthatshowedimprovementaseducationexpendituresgrew.Despite
47
theoutsizedcommitmenttospendingforeducationalreforminthelastdecades,
manyoftheconcernsfrom2001remain.Themeasureofyearsofeducational
attainmentremainlowrelativetodevelopedcountriesandthegapbetween
educationalattainmentandoutcomescontinuestomanifestitselfinlowscoreson
internationaltests.Tables8through10identifycurrentoutcomesintheGulfStates.
Table8:ArabWorldLearningBarometer,2014Competency
Primary
Learning
Secondary
Learning
%OfChildren
WhoAreNot
Learningin
PrimarySchool
%OfChildren
WhoAreNot
Learningin
SecondarySchool
Region 56% 48%
SaudiArabia 40% 53%
Kuwait 70% N/A
Bahrain 33% 47%
Qatar 42.5% 51.6%
UAE 36% 31.3%
Source:brookings.edu2014ArabWorldLearningBarometer
Table8presentstestresultsbasedonminimumcompetencythresh-holdsfor
readingandmath.Thepoorshowingsindicatethataccessandattendancearenot
enoughtoimproveperformanceandknowledgeacquisition.TheRegioncomprises
48
13Arabcountrieswithavailabledata.Notwithstandingareasofconflictsuchas
Syria,IraqandthePalestinianTerritories,thetestscoresimplythateventhemore
stablecountries,wherespendingoneducationasapercentageoftotalgovernment
spendingisbothlargeandgrowing,manystudentsarenotreceivingthe
foundationalknowledgerequiredtomeetthegoalofbuildingaknowledgesociety.
Table9:PIRLS(ProgressinInternationalReadingLiteracyStudy)2010
Scores
US–556 SaudiArabia–430 UAE–439
Finland–568 Qatar–425 Oman–391
Source:timssandpirls.bc.eduPIRLS2011InternationalResultsinReading
ThePIRLSisaninternationalliteracytestgiventochildrenwith4yearsof
schooling.Thescorerangeis0-1000.PIRLScenter-pointis500.Forty-nine
countriesparticipated.2010wasthefirstyearforSaudiArabiaandtheotherGulf
countries.AlltheArabparticipantswerewellbelowthemeanandthecountry
averagesweresignificantlylowerthanthecenter-pointofthePIRLSscale.
Table10showsTIMSStestdata.TIMSSisTrendsinInternationalMathematicsand
ScienceStudy.LikePIRLS,itwasdevelopedandisimplementedbythe
InternationalAssociationforEvaluationofEducationalAchievement(IEA)and
publishedbytheNationalCenterforEducationalStatistics,U.S.Departmentof
Education(nces.ed.gov.)Thetestscoresindicateamixedpictureofachievementin
thoseGulfStatesthatparticipateintheprogram.Thereisimprovementinthe
scores,especiallyforSaudiArabiaandQatarbutallscoresremainsignificantly
49
belowthosefortheU.S.andSingapore,asrepresentativeadvancedcountries.
Singaporescoredthehighestanddataisincludedforcomparisonpurposes
Table10:TIMSSMeanScoresinMathbyGender,Grade,andYear
2003 2003 2007 2007 2007 2007 2011 2011 2011 2011
Gr8 Gr4 Gr8 Gr4 Gr8
F M F M F M F M F M
Saudi 326 336 341 319 418 402 401 387
Oman 417 385 399 344 398 372 397 334
Qatar 307 285 325 288 420 407 414 404
UAE 452 438 461 461 438 430 464 447
Bahrain 414 382 440 432 431 388
Kuwait 297 333 297 364 342 358 323
US 502 507 526 532 507 510 536 545 508 511
Singap 611 601 596 603 600 586 608 604 615 607
Source:TIMSSInternationalStudentAchievementinMathematicsReports(2003,
2007,2011)
Timmssandpirls.bc.edu/timss2011/downloads/T11_IR_M_Chapter1.pdf
The2008WorldBankreport,TheRoadNotTraveled:EducationReformintheMiddle
EastandNorthAfrica,wasaneconomicanalysisoftheinvestmentsthesenations
havemadeineducation.Oneissuethereporthighlightedwasthefailureto
coordinateeducationwiththeneedsoftheeconomy,therebynotproducinga
workforcepreparedforthenew,globalizedeconomy.Theentireregionremains
economicallyunderdevelopedandeducationalreformsneedtobemore
comprehensiveifthegapistoclose.Inparticular,alignmentbetweenthelabor
50
marketsandtheprivatesectorremainedinsufficient.Also,theeducationalsystem
hasyettoproducemeasurableresultsintermsofhigherinternationalrankingson
theWorldBank’sKnowledgeEconomyIndex(KEI)(DavidsonandSmith2008).
Table11:WorldBankKnowledgeEconomyIndex(KEI)
Country 2012Rank 2012KEI 2000Rank 2000KEI 1995Rank 1995KEI
Sweden 1 9.43 1 9.65 4 9.45
US 12 8.77 4 9.28 1 9.53
UAE 42 6.94 48 6.05 46 6.39
Bahrain 43 6.94 41 6.85 36 6.97
Oman 47 6.14 65 5.28 65 5.34
Saudi 50 5.96 76 4.6 78 5.02
Qatar 54 5.84 49 6.01 54 5.86
Kuwait 64 5.33 46 6.16 57 5.71
Source:info.worldbank.org/etools/kam2/KAM_page5.asp
(KEIandKIIndexes)
TheKEIassesseseconomicperformance,governanceandruleoflaw,innovation
systems,education,labormarkets,andInternetconnectivity,usingover83
variablestocreatefoursub-indexes.Rankingsareonascaleof1(lowest)through
10(highest.)Thesesub-indexesrepresentthefourpillarsoftheknowledge
economy:theeconomicincentivesregime(EIR),theinnovationsregimewhichlooks
specificallyatjournalarticlespublishedandpatentsgranted,theeducationpillar
whichincludesenrollmentdataandtestscores,andtheinformationand
communicationtechnologypillar(ICT)thatmeasuresinternetuseandtelephone
51
andcomputerpenetration.OnlyBahrainscoresinthetoptenofanyofthesepillars,
rankingnumberonegloballyforinternetusageof820computersper1000people.
ThefollowingtableprovidesthespecificbreakdownsfortheMENAregion.
Table12:KEIBreakdownsforMENACountries,2012
Country KEI KEI EIR EIR Innov Innov Educ Educ ICT ICT
2012 2000 2012 2000 2012 2000 2012 2000 2012 2000
UAE 6.94 6.05 6.5 7.51 6.6 4.32 5.8 4.44 8.88 7.92
Bahrain 6.9 6.85 6.69 7.45 4.61 6.37 6.78 6.34 9.54 7.26
Oman 6.14 5.28 6.96 7.51 5.88 4.25 5.23 4.22 6.49 5.12
Saudi
Arabia 5.96 4.6 5.68 4.4 4.14 4.24 5.65 4.28 8.37 5.49
Qatar 5.84 6.01 6.87 6.64 6.42 5.51 3.41 4.85 6.65 7.05
Kuwait 5.33 6.16 5.86 7 5.22 5.38 3.7 5.17 6.53 7.09
MENA
Region 4.74 5.16 5.41 5.41 6.14 6.44 3.48 3.8 3.92 4.97
Source:info.worldbank.org/etools/kam2/KAM_page5.asp
Abriefanalysisofthechartidentifiessomenoteworthytrends.WhilebothSaudi
ArabiaandtheU.A.E.sawimprovementsintheKEI,thisreflectsoverallimproved
nationaloutcomes.Adetailedreviewshowsimportantdifferences.Bothnations
improvedinEIR,economicincentivesregimeandinstitutionalregime,yetthe
Saudislaggedconsiderablyininnovation,themeasureofpatentsissues,royalties,
andscientificandtechnicaljournalarticlespublished.Thisisthetruest
internationalmeasureofadvancedinnovativeactivityandrepresentsoutputof
knowledgeproduction.Theabilitytointegrateexistingknowledgeandmake
meaningfulcontributionsisafundamentalrequirementforsucceedinginthe
52
advancedglobaleconomy.Itisthebasisformostentrepreneurialactivitytoday,
especiallyinthefieldsofscienceandtechnologywheretheSaudigovernmenthas
placedsomuchemphasis.TheconcernsvoicedbyArabbusinessleadersafull
decadeagothattheArabeducationsystemwasnotproducinggraduateswiththe
skillsneededtoworkintheprivatesector,asectortodaythatcompetesinan
increasinglyentrepreneurialglobaleconomy,remainunresolvedtoday(Rugh
2002).
ChangingAvailabilityofHigherEducationintheGulf
Theearliesteffortstodevelopaneducationsystemwerepredicatedontheneedsof
thepre-petroleumeconomyandwereshapedbyIslamandexposuretoforeign
expatriates.Britishpoliticalinterestsintheregiondatebacktothe1820swhen
theirconcernoveraccesstotraderoutestoIndialedthemtoforcethevarious
sheikdomstosignagreementsofunderstanding,givingtheBritishdefactocontrol
overmuchoftheregion.Thislasteduntil1971,whenformalindependencewas
fullygrantedtothelastcountriesunderBritishprotection,andtheU.A.E.was
formed(Davidson2008).
Theeducationsysteminplacetodayisconsideredahybridofnativeand
internationalapproaches.OncetheBritishformallywithdrew,thefirstministriesof
educationwereestablishedinBahrain,Qatar,andthenewlycreatedU.A.E.Thefirst
53
problemidentifiedbytheministrieswastheneedtoeducatelocalcitizensto
becometeachersinlocalschools.Alatersourceofdemandcamefromtheoil
industry,whereprivatesectorjobsgrowthatalllevelspresentedbothopportunities
andchallengesfortheGulfStates.Notonlywasitimportanttocreateenough
schoolstoenrollbothmaleandfemalechildren,thelowlevelsofadultliteracyhad
tobeaddressed.Thepreviouslyerraticattemptsatnationalpubliceducationwere
replacedbysystemsofincreasinglysecularschoolsacrossmostoftheGulf,notably
includingaccessforgirls.Whilesomecountrieshadpreviouslyincludedgirlsinthe
primaryeducationsystemiteventuallybecamethenormacrosstheentireGulf.
Bahrainfirstopenedschoolsforgirlsin1919butSaudiArabia,Qatar,andSharjah
didnotuntilthe1950s(Ridge2014).Accesstohighereducationforwomenwas
alsodelayedinmanyArabGulfStates.
Today,theGulfStatesareallattemptingtobroadentheireconomicbasebybuilding
aknowledgeeconomy,onethatextendstheenergysectorbeyondresource
extractiontothedevelopmentofadownstreamindustrial,highervalueadded
energysector.Theyarealsotryingtocreateamoresophisticatedservicesectorand
capitalizeontheexistingregionalwealthtobetterdeveloptheirownfinancial
sector(Walters,2012).NotalloftheGulfStateshaveoilwealthtosupporttheir
economies.BahrainandDubai,forexample,havehadtotakedifferentapproaches
toeducationinordertocreatedaworkforcethatfunctionedoutsidethepetroleum
industry.Educationreformisakeystepinadvancingthisprocessandeachofthe
54
Gulfcountrieshastakenadifferentapproachinitseffortstoimprovethehigher
educationsystem.
TherehavebeenschoolsofhighereducationintheGulffornearly50years.The
UniversityofBahrainwasestablishedin1968,QatarUniversityin1973,andOman’s
SultanQaboosUniversitywasestablishedin1968.Originallyopenedtomenonly,
theseschoolsnowacceptwomenstudents.KingSaudUniversitywasopenedin
Riyadh,SaudiArabiain1975.Theregionincludesbothprivateandgovernment
establishedcollegesanduniversities.Today,manyschoolsfollowtheAmerican
semesterandcredithoursystemanduseEnglishasthemainlanguageof
instruction.TheAmericanUniversityofSharjah,theDubaiAmericanUniversity,
andZayidUniversityofAbuDhabiallfollowtheAmericansystem(Ridge,2014).
TheoptionsforhighereducationstudyforstudentsintheGulfhavebroadened
considerableinthelasttwodecades.Prominentbrandnameuniversitieshave
establishedfullbranchcampusesinsomecountries.Localschoolsarepartnering
withforeignuniversitiestocreatejointdegreeprograms,sometimesusingthe
foreignschool’snameintheprogram,suchasUOWD,UniversityofWollongongin
Dubai.Thesecrossborderendeavorsareatypeofforeignoutpostthatencompassa
widerangeofofferings,fromfulldegreegrantingprogramswithinanexistinglocal
universitytopostgraduateresearchcentersinspecializedfields(Kinser2012).
55
Thevastmajorityoftheseinternationalprogramsbeganenrollingstudentinthe
pastfewyears,tovaryingsuccess.Theyarenotwithoutcontroversyathome,
whereconcernhasbeenraisedaboutquality,fundingsources,academicfreedom,
andmaintainingbrandintegrity.Notallhavebeensuccessfulandinsomecases
onlyextensivefundingbythehostnationalgovernmenthasconvincedthebiggest
nameschoolstotaketheriskandinvestthetimeandexpertiseneededtodevelopa
successfulacademicinstitutionthatmeetsglobalstandardsinsuchaforeign
environment(ICEFMonitor2013,Jaschik2009).
Thelistofinternationalschoolsnowofferingsometypeofhands-onprogramthat
leadstoadegreeoranacademiccredentialawardedbyaforeignprovideris
constantlychanging(Cross-BorderEducationResearchTeam,2015).Areviewof
thelistshowsthedifferentapproachestakenbyeachoftheGulfStates,somein
responsetothefinancialabilityofthegovernmentstoendowthembutothersasa
reflectionoftheindividualcountry’sownneedsandculturalandpoliticalissues.
Bahraincurrentlyhasonlytwoforeignschools,theoutcomeoftherecentturmoil
there.NYITrecentlyrelocateditscampustoDohafromManamaandthepresident
oftheEdinburghbasedRoyalCollegeofSurgeonshasresignedinprotest,leaving
theschool’sfutureinBahrainuncertain.Kuwaithasonlytwoforeignschools,one
anAustralianliberalartscollegeandtheothertheKuwaitMaastrichBusiness
School.Dubai,QatarandtheU.A.E.havetakenadifferentapproach,workingwith
foreignschoolstouseoutsideexpertisetoimprovetheirdomesticofferings.
56
Today,theU.A.E.isthelargesthostofbranchcampusesofanynationintheworld,
hostingthirty-threeasofJanuary2015,includingFrance’sINSEADandSorbonne
UniversityandNewYorkUniversity(Cross-BorderEducationResearchTeam,
2015).TheU.A.E.includesDubai,AbuDhabi,Sharjah,andRasalKhaima.Notallof
theforeignschooloperatorsintheregionarebigbrandnames.Thegovernmentof
theU.A.E.licensesinternationalinstitutionsthroughtheCommissionforAcademic
Accreditation,theCAA.Thepurposeistomonitorqualityofinstructionand
operationsforbothpubliclyfundedandprivateschoolsandprograms,whether
domesticorinternational.Problemsinthepasthaveshownthattheopportunityto
selleducationalserviceshasnotalwaysbroughtincapableproviders.
DubaihastakenadifferentapproachthanKuwaitandSaudiArabiabyestablishing
twoacademicfreezones.TheDubaiKnowledgeVillagewasestablishedin2003asa
tax-free,100%foreignownededucationalandbusinessfacilityforprofessional
trainingandlearningsupportservices.TheDubaiAcademicCityistoutedasthe
onlyfreezoneforhighereducationintheworld.Itguaranteesfirstclassfacilitiesin
itsadvertisementsandeasyvisaaccessforthoseenteringwiththepurposeof
workingatorattendingprogramsthere.Bothacademiczonesincludeuniversities
thathavebeenlicensedbytheCAAandaccreditedbytheKHDA,theKnowledge
HumanDevelopmentAuthority,aDubaibasedregulatoryagencydedicatedto
highereducation.
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Schoolsinbothzonescanoperatewithoutanygovernmentinterventionon
conditionthattheyapplythesamestandardsinDubaiastheydointheirhome
countryandtheyusethesamesyllabi.Bothzonesarehosttosomeoftheworld’s
premieruniversities,includingAustralianUniversityofWollongong,CityUniversity
ofLondon’sCassBusinessSchool,LondonSchoolofBusiness,ManchesterBusiness
School,andU.S.RochesterInstituteofTechnology.EdinburghbasedHeriot-Watt
Universityhasover3,500studentsatitsDubaicampusstudyingbusiness,
constructionmanagement,andengineering.Togetherthezoneshosttwenty
internationaluniversitiesfromadozencountries.
EducationCityinDoha,QatarisasimilarideatotheDubaifreezones,wherebranch
campusesarelocatedandoperateincooperationwithresearchorganizationsand
privatebusiness.TherearesixAmericanuniversitiesinsideEducationCity,each
offeringdifferentspecializationsforundergraduatetopost-graduatestudy.Texas
A&MUniversityfocusesonengineering,particularlyinpetroleumrelatedfields.
VirginiaCommonwealthoffersstudyinfinearts,Weill-CornellMedicalCollege
offersafullDoctorofMedicinedegree,andCarnegieMellonoffersbusinessdegrees.
GeorgetownUniversitySchoolofForeignServiceoffersabachelor’sdegreein
ForeignServiceandNorthwesternUniversityoffersdegreesinjournalismand
communications.HECParisoffersexecutivelevelbusinesstrainingandUniversity
CollegeLondonprovidesstudyinartsconservationandarchaeology.Within
EducationCity,aspartoftheQatarFoundationforEducation,Sciences,and
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CommunityDevelopment,therearesciencecentersandresearchfacilities,amedia
center,andnewlyopenedteachinghospital.
Thereisnodoubtthatthisbranchcampussystemisexperiencinggrowingpains.
Someschoolsfailedtomeetenrollmenttargetsandclosedtheirdoors.Other
schoolssawstudentsoptingtostudyattheschool’shomecampusratherthan
payingthesametuitionandfeesintheirowncountry.Yet,by2009,itwasreported
thatforeignuniversitiesintheGulfhadenrolledover30,000students.Also,thecost
ofbuildingthesefacilitiesishigh.EducationCityinDohawasbuiltatacostofUS$1
billionwithanadditionalUS$8billionspentonbuildingtheteachinghospital,a
centrallibrary,andtheQatarScienceandTechnologyPark(Lord2008).
QatarfacesasimilardilemmaastheotherGulfStates,theneedtodiversityits
economyandeducateitsownpopulationtoreplacethelargeprofessional
expatriateclassthatitstillreliesontorunthecountry.Theforeignschoolsin
EducationCityareexpectedtoenrollexplicitnumbersofQatarisbutonlyafterthe
Qatarismeettheacademicqualificationsandotherrequirementsoftheschool.The
Qatarigovernmentrecognizedtheneedtosupplementlowerschooleducationin
ordertomeettheenrollmenttargetsoftheincominginstitutions.In2001,the
AcademicBridgeProgramwasestablishedtopreparestudentstoqualifyfor
admissiontoforeignschools.SomeschoolsinsideEducationCityhavedeveloped
theirown,similarinitiativesinordertogetenoughqualifyingQatarisenrolled
(Witte2010).
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TheinternationalbranchcampusmodelimplementedacrosstheGulfhasnotbeen
replicatedinSaudiArabia.AccordingtoC-BERT’s2015list,thereiscurrentlyonly
oneforeignschoolbranchcampusintheentirecountry,AlgonquinCollege,a
Canadianschoolofferingtwo-yeardegreesinelectricalormechanicalengineering.
Asoflate2013theMOHEwasconsideringapplicationsfromdozensofforeign
institutionstoopenbranchesbuttheconditionsthattheSaudigovernmentis
imposingmightultimatelykeepmanyschoolsfromchoosingtooperateinsidethe
country.TheSaudigovernmentisrequiringthat,notonlymusttheschoolshavetop
qualifiedfacultystaffingtheschools,theymustalsoteachIslamicStudiesandthe
Arabiclanguage.Theseconditions,plustherequirementthataSaudinationalbe
appointedasdeanmeanfew,ifany,Westernuniversitieswillbewillingorableto
satisfytheMOHE(Jawhar2013).
TheinternationalbranchcampussystemintheUAEandQatarisstilltoonewto
producemeaningfulresults.AlookbackattheKEIdatadoesshowsome
improvementfrom2000to2012intheinnovationpillar,themeasureofoutputfor
patentsandpublishedscientificjournalarticles,wherebothcountriesscoreabove
theregionalaverage.Yet,the“importingofeducation”isnotauniversallyadmired
modelforeducationalreform.Criticschargethatequatingeducationwithjob
trainingcomesattheexpenseofvaluingeducationforitsbroadersocialvalueandis
doomedtofail.Inotherwords,simplyimportingschoolsandtheircurriculumwill
notcreateaknowledgeeconomyoraddresstheculturalfactorsthatneedtobe
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changedoracknowledgedinordertosupportorpromoteentrepreneurialimpulses
andmotivatepeopletobecomeinnovators.Somecriticscomparetheentire
endeavortobuyinganoutdatedproductbasedonwhatisalreadyknownandonly
proventoworkelsewhere.Theycontendthatacountrywillremainboth
subservienttotheWestandultimatelyleftbehindifitdoesn’ttakethesteps
necessarytodevelopitsownindigenousknowledge(Donn2010).
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ChapterThree:LiteratureReview
Thepreviouschapterprovidedhistoricalbackgroundontheusesofeducationfor
politicalpurposes,thepoliciespursuedbythegovernments,andthecurrentstateof
educationintheGulfStates.Itservesasapreludetothisliteraturereview,which
beginswithatheoreticalanalysisoftheroleofeducationinpublicpolicy.In
additiontoevaluatingpublicactors,thereisextensiveliteratureonprivateactors,
includingstudentsandhighereducationinstitutions.Manytheoreticalapproaches
havebeenusedtoexplorestudentchoiceinattendingcollege.Thisfieldofstudy
hasevolvedinrecentyears,reflectingtheacknowledgedcomplexityoftheissue.It
offeredusefulmethodologicalinsightintohowbesttoresearchthequestionsthat
relatetothelargeincreaseinSaudistudentsattendingschoolsintheU.S.
SectionOnereviewsthetheoreticalapproachestounderstandingthesocietaluses
forhighereducation.Incertaincases,suchasbuildinghumancapital,therearealso
private,individualmotivationsforattainingeducation.Thissectionincludesthe
literatureonhumancapitaltheory,intergroupcontacttheory,anddiffusiontheory
asmotivationsforgovernmentpoliciestowardhighereducationandthe
internationalizationofeducation.Humancapitaltheoryalsoappliestoindividuals
astheyattempttoimprovetheirskillsandproductivityinthelaborforce.
SectionTwoisabriefreviewofpoliticaltheorythatcanbeappliedtotheU.S.
governmentandtheSaudigovernment’sactionsinrelationtoeducationpolicy.For
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theUnitedStates,differentadministrationshaveviewedinternationaleducation
throughvariouslenses,ultimatelyrecognizingitscontributiontoachievinglong-
termpolicygoals.TheSaudigovernmentisalsousinghighereducationforbroader
politicalpurposes,notjusttoimprovedomesticoutcomes.Itisnoteworthythat
evenacountrywithsucharadicallydifferentpoliticalsystemfromtheWestcould
shareperspectivesandusetheinternationalizationofeducationtomeetthegoalsof
greaterglobalintegration.
SectionThreeisareviewoftheliteratureabouttheinternationalmarketforhigher
educationandstudentchoicetoattendcollege.Mostoftheresearchconducted
relatestothechoicetoattendcollegebutrecentscholarshipconcernsthechoiceto
studyabroad.Expectancytheorywasmostwidelyusedtounderstandtheeconomic
andsociologicalvariablesassociatedwithstudentchoicetoattendcollege.Recent
studiesnowalsouseintegratedtheoreticalapproachestoevaluatingstudentchoice
toattendcollege.Manyofthesemodelsareapplicabletostudentswhochooseto
studyabroadandcanbeadaptedtothepopulationofSaudistudentswhochooseto
studyintheU.S.Thissectionalsoreviewedtheavailablestudiesthatexamine
studentsfromSaudiArabiaandotherGulfStates.
Beyondtheprimarydecisionwhetherornottoattendcollege,attentionhasbeen
paidtoevaluatinghighereducationasaservicesectorproductwherestudentare
consumersanduniversitiesareserviceprovidersinacompetitivemarketthatrelies
onpsychographicvariablestoexplainstudentchoice.Whilethereisasmallbodyof
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thisliteratureavailable,thenotionofbrandingandimagehavegainedinrelevance
asmoreschoolsareactingtoincreaseglobalnamerecognitionandpursue
accreditationsthatprovideperceptionsofqualityandenhancedinternational
standing.Theseeffortshavethepotentialtosignificantlyimpactstudentchoiceand
representanewapproachbymanyHEIstowardstudentrecruitment.
SectionOne:TheoreticalApproaches-HumanCapital,IntergroupContact,
andDiffusionTheory
HumanCapitalTheory
Humancapitalisdefinedastheknowledgeandskillspossessedbytheworkforce.It
drivestheproductivecapacityofaneconomy(SchillerandHill2014;M.Paulsen
2001).Humancapitaltheorypredictsthatindividualswillinvestineducation
becausetheyrationallyanticipatethatthelifetimebenefitswillbegreaterthanthe
expectedcosts.Ineconomicterms,theopportunitycostsincludelossofleisure
time,foregoneearnings,andfinancialoutlaysforeducation.Thebenefitsofhigher
educationgobeyondhigherlifetimeearnings.Theyalsoincludeenriched
intellectuallifeandcareerexperiences,greatersocialstatus,betterhealthoutcomes,
andreducedriskofunemployment(Becker,1962).
Highereducationhasbeencreditedwithimprovinglifeoutcomesforindividuals
andtheircommunities.AristotleandPlatobelievedthateducationwascriticalto
thewellbeingofsociety(Villoutreix,2013).Today,itisviewedasapublicgoodthat
spillsovertogeneratesocialandeconomicbenefitsforthecommunityandbeyond.
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Economically,aneducatedworkforceismoreproductive,entrepreneurial,and
generateshigherincome.Researchcontinuestosupportthenotionthateducation
improvessocietaloutcomesintermsofhigherearningsandincreasedeconomic
activity(Perna,2006).Inadditiontojobsandtaxes,thepersonalinvestmentin
highereducationisassociatedwithlowerlevelsofcrime,reducedcostsfortaxpayer
fundedwelfareprograms,greaterlevelsofcivicengagementandinvolvement,and
improvementsinknowledgecreationandtechnology(Bowen1997;Carnevaleand
Desrochers2003;FatimaandPaulsen2004;LeslieandBrinkman1988).Also,
intergenerationalbenefitsexistthatidentifyimprovedoutcomesforfuture
generationsrelatedtohighereducation(Baum&Payea,2004).Evenimprovedlife
expectancyandbetteroverallhealthoutcomesareassociatedwithincreased
education(Villoutreix,2013).
Becker(1993)identifiedthelong-termbenefitsofeducationonwealth
accumulation.Usingcensusdataandapplyingaformulafordiscountingthesumof
thefutureearningsstreambasedonincomeearned,Beckercreatedage-wealth
profilesfor1939malecollege,highschool,andelementaryschoolgraduates.He
showedhowthewealthprofilesofskilledworkersroseatafargreaterrateandfor
longerthanthoseoflesser-educatedworkers.Wealthpeakedatapproximatelyage
39fortheentiregroup,atwhichtimethecollegegraduatehadmorethantwicethe
wealthoftheelementaryschoolgraduate.Beckerattributedthistoinvestmentin
humancapital.Interestingly,thewealthprofilesinthenineteenthcenturypeaked
atage20.Beckersuggestedthatthereasonforthisextensionwasbecausepeople
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witheducationstendedtoworkinsaferprofessionsandtheinvestmentsmadein
educationandtrainingbroughtdownthemortalityratefortheentireworkforce,
bothskilledandunskilled.Thisisanotherbenefitofinvestinginhumancapital,one
thatisrelevanttodevelopingcountriesthatdonothaveaworkforceendowedwith
theaccumulatedknowledgethatcomeswithexperience.
Thewealtheffectmaybeevengreatertoday.ThepaygapintheU.S.between
peoplewithbachelor’sdegreesandthosewithoutadegree,eveniftheyhave
attendedcollegeiswiderthanever.Hourlyearningsin2013forthosewitha
degreewere98%higherthatthosewithoutone,upfrom89%higherin2008.The
paygapwas85%higherin2003andonly64%higherinthe1980s.Oneeconomist
showsthattheactualcostofnotgettingacollegedegreeisalossofover$500,000
inlifetimeearnings(Leonhardt2014).DavidLeonhardt,ananalyticaljournalistwho
writesaboutgovernmentpolicyandeconomics,pointstoa2001studythatshowed
howacollegedegreewasbeneficialeveninjobsthatdidnotrequireone.
“Constructionworkers,policeofficers,plumbers,retailsalespeopleandsecretaries,
amongothers,makesignificantlymorewithadegreethanwithoutone.Why?
Educationhelpspeopledohigher-skilledwork,getjobswithbetter-paying
companiesoropentheirownbusinesses.”(Leonhardt2011).
Theimpactonunemploymentisalsosignificant.TheBureauofLaborStatistics
breaksdowntheemploymentstatusofthecivilianpopulation25yearsandoverby
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educationalattainment.Table13showsthedifferenceinunemploymentlevelsfor
variouslevelsofeducation.
Table13:U.S.UnemploymentbyEducationLevel
UnemploymentRates December2013 December2014
OverallRate 6.7% 5.6%
HighSchoolOnly 7.0% 5.3%
SomeCollege/Associates 6.1% 4.9%
Bachelor’sDegree 3.4% 2.9%
Source:U.S.DepartmentofLaborBureauofLaborStatistics
TableA-4.Employmentstatusofthecivilianpopulation25yearsandoverby
educationalattainment
UnemploymentrelatingtotheGreatRecessionpeakedat10.1%inOctober2009.
Thecorrelationbetweeneducationlevelandunemploymentbecameincreasingly
apparentfromthattime.Peoplewithbachelor’sdegreeshadconsistentlylower
unemploymentratethanthosewithlesseducation.Inparticular,theproblemof
longtermunemploymentwasaexacerbatedbybothlabormobilityandskilllevel.
Thedatarevealedthatworkerswithlesseducationandlowerskillsexperienced
moreacuteandpersistentunemployment(Reich,2010).
Humancapitaltheorywouldpredictbetteremploymentoutcomesforindividuals
whoinvestinhighereducation.Aseconomicactors,studentsfromSaudiArabiaare
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consumersofhighereducationandarethebeneficiariesoftheirgovernment’s
investmentinthemasagentsofhumancapital.Thisinvestmentisbasedonthe
starklyhigherunemploymentrateofSaudisintheirowncountry.Asmentioned
earlier,thetheoreticalliteratureonhumancapitalpositsthatthecreationofhuman
capitalinfluencesfuturenationalincomethroughtheinvestingofresourcesin
people(Becker,1962).Thegovernmentinvestmentcomplementsindividualsuseof
educationasapersonalinvestmenttoimprovetheirownemployment
opportunitiesandincomepotential.
Relatedstudiesusinghumancapitaltheoryshowthateducationandtraininghavea
positiveimpactongrowthandnationalprosperity(Autor2014;BaumandPayea
2004;Bowen1997;Perna2006).Yet,thisanalysisistoosimplistic.TheBecker
studies(1962)donotprivilegeschoolbasedacquisitionofknowledgeoverskills
acquiredandperfectedwhileonthejob,inamannersimilartoaninternfurther
developingtheskillslearnedwhileinmedicalschool.Humancapitalacquisitioncan
occurinsettingsthatarenotwhollyacademicandmayhaveasmuchefficacyin
creatingaknowledgeable,skilledworkforce.
Therearemultipletypesofhumancapitalwhichinterconnecttocreatecompetitive
advantagethatissectororindustryspecific(Ployhart,VanIddekingeandMackenzie
Jr.2011.)Generichumancapitalreferstopersonalbehavior(effort)andcognitive
ability,orlearningthatprovidesthefoundationforcreatingunitspecifichuman
capital.Unitspecifichumancapitalisformedthroughadvancedtrainingand
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experienceandiscrucialtocreatingsustainedcompetitiveadvantage.Bothtypes
interconnectinacausalsequencethatleadtoeconomicgrowth.Yet,under-
employmentisassignificantaprobleminGulfStateeconomies,asishigh
unemploymentofcollegegraduates.Onestudyanalyzedtheunder-utilizationof
humancapitalinSaudiArabiaandOman.Itfoundthatthelackofeffectivehuman
resourcespracticesandpoororganizationaldesignresultedinineffectiveutilization
mechanisms,meaningthatinternalhierarchiesandinflexiblemanagementstyles
ledtowastingtheabilitiesofeducatedworkers.Quantitativeincreasesinemployee
qualificationshavenotbeenmetbyequalimprovementsinproductivitybecauseof
lowlevelsofpower-influencesharingindecisionmaking,littlecompatibility
betweenareasofexpertiseandjobrequirementsandtherelianceonseniority
ratherthancompetenceasthebasisforadvancement(Al-Yahya2010.)Withmany
SaudistudentsstudyingbusinessadministrationintheU.S.itispossiblethatthese
problemswillbebetteraddressedastheyimplementadvancedmanagement
techniques.Itisalsoimportanttorecognizethatworkplacelearningmaybeasvalid
asourceofskillsacquisitionasaclassroom(Becker1962).AsmoreSaudistudents
returnhomeandentertheworkforce,thecombinationofformallearningand
workplaceexperiencemayresultinameasurableimpactonproductivityasthey
risetomanagementlevelpositionswithintheprivatesector.
Humancapitalisalsofosteredbythecreativeinterconnectivitydevelopedby
studyingtheliberalarts.ThefundamentaldifferencebetweentheU.S.systemof
highereducationandothersisthefocusontheliberalartsasthefoundationto
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developcriticalthinkingskills.ItisnotablethatevenstudentswhoattendtheU.S.
MilitaryAcademyatWestPointwillreadShakespeareandstudyliteratureasacore
requirementbeforegraduatingwithaBachelorofSciencedegree.Accordingtothe
website,usma.edu,“WestPoint'sAcademicProgramservesasafoundationforthe
developmentofcriticalthinkingandcreativeproblem-solvingskills.Itincludesa
substantivesetoffullyintegratedcorecoursesthat,together,providean
appropriatebalancebetweentechnicaltopicsandthehumanities.”
Innovationandentrepreneurshipareassociatedwiththeabilitytotakethebasic
economicfactorsofproductionandorganizetheminawaytocreatenewgoodsand
services,orimproveonexistingones.Itistheengineofeconomicgrowthand
development.Non-linearthinkingishowthisoccurs.Eveninindustriesthatone
wouldassociatewithaspecificfieldofexpertisethevalueoftheliberalartsis
recognized.AccordingtoLazloBlock,theheadofhiringatthetechnologyfirm
Google,inresponsetothequestionaboutwhethertheliberalartswerenecessary
forundergraduateeducation,hisanswerwasunequivocal.
“Theyare“phenomenallyimportant,”hesaid,especiallywhenyoucombine themwithotherdisciplines.Tenyearsagobehavioraleconomicswasrarely referenced.But[then]youapplysocialsciencetoeconomicsandsuddenly there’sthiswholenewfield.Ithinkalotabouthowthemostinteresting thingsarehappeningattheintersectionoftwofields.Topursuethat,you needexpertiseinbothfields.Youhavetounderstandeconomicsand psychologyorstatisticsandphysics[and]bringthemtogether.Youneed somepeoplewhoareholisticthinkersandhaveliberalartsbackgroundsand somewhoaredeepfunctionalexperts.Buildingthatbalanceishard,but that’swhereyouendupbuildinggreatsocieties,greatorganizations.” (Freidman,2014).
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Highereducationhasmanyoutcomesfortheindividualandforsociety.Forthe
individual,KenistonandGerzon(1972)observethat:
“Thecollegeexperiencehasademonstrablyliberalizingeffectonmoststudents:collegeattendancetendstoincreaseopenmindedness,aperspectivalviewoftruth,theindividualizationofmoraljudgments, psychologicalautonomy,andindependence;itdecreasesdogmatism,authoritarianism,intolerance,conformity,conventionalism,dependency,and soon…Itdeliberatelychallengesstudentstoreexamineassumptions,convictions,andworldviewsthattheypreviouslytookforgranted…Inthelastdecade,Americanhighereducationhasvisiblyhelpedproducemillionsofstudentwhodonotaccepttheirsocietywithoutquestion.(p.66)”
Inadditiontoimpartingtraitsandskillsthatwillenablestudentstofunction
effectivelyonapracticallevel,orwithsomedegreeofcompetency,Bowen(1997)
identifiedpersonalself-discoveryasoneofthelessappreciatedfunctionsofhigher
education.Thisprocessisasvaluabletosocietyasitistothestudent,revealingthe
bestplaceforaperson’sinterestandtalentstobeutilizedbythecommunityandfor
themtohaveameaningfullife.
IntergroupContactTheory
Bowen(1997)alsopointstoevidencethatclearlysuggestshowmuchcollege
increasestoleranceandtheabilityofpeopletounderstandandcommunicatewith
others.GordonAllportwasthefirsttoproposeintergroupcontactasaneffective
waytoreduceracialprejudiceintheU.S.(Allport,1954).Allportbelievedthat
prejudiceandintergroupconflictcouldbereducedandsocialrelationsimproved
throughcontactamongmembersofdifferentethnicgroups.Itisthebasisformuch
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oftheoperationalactivityinglobalgovernanceorganizationssuchasUNESCO
(Everett,2013).Itisfoundtobeeffectiveevenatlowlevelsofcontact,regardlessof
thetargetgroup,agegroup,orcontactsetting.Increasedcontactsbetweenethnic
groupsarenegativelycorrelatedwithprejudice(Crisp,Stathi,Turner,&Husnu,
2008).“Indeed,theroleofcontactinreducingprejudiceisnowsowelldocumented
thatitjustifiesbeingreferredtoasintergroupcontacttheory.”(Everett2013,p.2).
Inaseminalwork,Pettigrewetal.(2011)conductedameta-analysiswith515
studiestoidentifymorespecificallytheimpactofintergroupcontactongroupsof
peopledefinedasdifferentfromeachother.Thecontacteffectssuchasgreater
levelsoftrust,forgiveness,andempathyweregeneralizableamongmorethanjust
ethnicgroups.Theywerefoundtoalsoapplytodiversepopulationsincluding
homosexuals,disabledpersonsandthementallyill,andacrossnationalities,
genders,andagegroups.Thispositiveimpactremainedevenincasesofindirect
contactthroughmassmediaandsecondarycontactthroughfriendsandsocial
networks(Pettigrew,Tropp,Wagner,&Christ,2011).Thisisafollowupworkto
Pettigrew(1998),whereheaddressedtheconcernthatAllport’shypothesesfailed
toprovidethemechanism,orcausalsequenceforhowthiscontactshouldoccurand
lackedanexplanationforgeneralizingtheimpactofcontactbeyondimmediate
groups.Pettigrew’sresultssuggestedthatoptimalintergroupcontactrequiredtime
andopportunityforgroupparticipantstointeractmeaningfullybeforethebenefits
weregeneralizedtooutofgroupmembersandtheopportunitytointeractina
positivemannerwascriticaltosuccessfuloutcomes.
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Contacttheoryisusefulinexplaininghowpeoplelosetheirfearandintoleranceof
othersastheyhavemorepositiveinteractionsamongthemselves.Fulbrightsaw
sharingknowledgeandculturalunderstandingasthebestwaytopreventfuture
wars.Thispracticalapplicationofcontacttheorywasimplementedafulldecade
beforeAllport’shypothesiswerepublishedbutitreflectsthesamefundamental
beliefincreatingculturalcompetenceandtolerancethroughsharedexperiences
(Allport1954;Pettigrew1998;Pettigrew,Tropp,etal.2011).DenmanandHilal
(2011)believethatSaudiArabiaisincreasingitsstudentmobilityinorderimprove
itsimageandtoundothefearfulperceptionsofSaudiArabiaanditspeoplebecause
ofOsamabinLaden,themastermindof9/11,andWesterndistrustofanything
MiddleEastern.
Intergroupcontactshouldn’tbetakentomeanthatitisthesolutiontoallconflicts.
Notallintergroupcontactreducesprejudice,especially,forexample,inthecaseof
threatsoruninvitedcontact(Pettigrew,Tropp,Wagner,&Christ,2011).Thisshould
notbeamajorconcernforSaudiandU.S.studentsinacollegecampusenvironment,
wherestudentswillinglyattendafterapplyingandbeingacceptedbytheinstitution.
Nearly75percentofallSaudistudentsarestudyingtoobtainabachelor’sdegree
and95percentbeginwithafullyearofEnglishlanguagetraining.Someofthese
studentswillspendfiveyearsorlongeraspartofanacademiccommunity,onethat
will,hopefully,acttosupportthemandwelcomethemasmembersofthestudent
body.
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Onelastdiscussionabouttheapplicationofcontacttheorytohighereducation
relatestocitizenshipintheglobalpublicsphere.Theacceleratedpaceofvirtually
everyactivityamongpeopleacrossbordershascreatedanincreasingly
interdependentworld.ThereisconcernthattheU.S.islaggingincreatingtheglobal
skillsincollegegraduatescomparedtoothernations(Reimers,2013).Student
diversityhasbeenshowntobeavaluabletoolfordevelopinginterculturalskills.
Caruana(2014)showedthatinterculturalsensitivitywasdevelopedandheightened
frominternationaltravel,studyorwork.Itwasprerequisiteforglobalcitizenship
andfundamentaltoparticipatingfullyintheworldbeyondyourownborders.“The
diversityofthestudentbodyonuniversitycampusesprovidesarichsourceoflived
experienceinculturalboundary-crossingthecouldbeharnessedasaresourcein
promotinginterculturalunderstanding,and,inturn,developinggraduatesasglobal
citizens.”(Caruana2014,p.86).ForeignstudentsintheU.S.currentlycompriseonly
fourpercentofthetotalstudentbody.Theirvalueasagentsofgrowingglobal
competencyforU.S.studentsiswellestablishedandisanimportantbenefitforU.S.
HEIsandtheeconomy.
DiffusionTheory
Diffusionisthespreadingofinnovation,andinthiscase,thespreadingofvaluesand
ideas.ItisdefinedbyEverettRogersas“theprocessbywhichaninnovationis
communicatedthroughcertainchannelsovertimeamongthemembersofasocial
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system.It’saspecialtypeofcommunication,inthatthemessagesareconcerned
withnewideas.”(Rogers1995,p.5).Rogersidentifesthechannelsormechanisms
bywhichthesemessagesareconveyedandideasareadopted.Diffusiontheoryhas
beenappliedtostudiesabouthowbesttoadoptWestern-styleeducationalmodels
intheArabianGulf(G-Mrabet,2012).Thefindingsofthestudiesimpliedthatusing
Roger’sguidingprinciplesfordissemminatingnewideasshowedtherewasa
qualitativeimprovementineducationaloutcomesandthereweresocialchanges
thatwerethedirectresultofextensiveexposuretoWesternlifestylesandculture.
Whilecontacttheoryisusefulinexplaininghowpeoplelosetheirfearand
intoleranceofothersastheyhavemorepositiveinteractionsamongthemselves,
diffusiontheoryisusefulinexplaininghowSaudistudentswouldabsorbtheculture
andvaluesoftheU.S.fromtheirtimehere.Expertsagreethatthenearuniversal
adoptionofU.S.businessschoolcurriculumhascontributedtothedominanceofthe
globalcapitalistmarketsystem.Aspredictedbydiffusiontheory,notonlywere
Americanculturalvaluesimpartedandbusinessmethodstaughttoforeignstudents
hereandabroad,theothereconomicgainsofforeignstudentsfortheU.S.werealso
significant,asthecommercializationofmuchuniversityresearchtheyhelped
producebecamethebasisfortheU.S.’sleadingpositionintheknowledgeeconomy
today(O'Mara,2012).
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SectionTwo:PoliticalTheories
ThepoliticaluseofinternationaleducationbytheU.S.hasalreadybeendescribed
butthetheoreticalapproachestoviewingthepoliciesoftheU.S.governmentand
theSaudigovernmentareexploredhere.
NormativeTheory
Inthe1960s,PresidentKennedyextendedtheoutreachoftheFulbrightPrograms
beyondEuropeandAsiatospecificallytargetstudentsandscholarsfromcountries
newlyemergingfromcolonialruleandthoseidentifiedasmostatriskoffalling
underSovietinfluence.Internationaleducationwasbeingusedtohelpbuild
democraticsocietiesinplaceswheretherewasnone,ortherewaslittleexperience
ofdemocraticselfrule(BevisandLucas2007).
Transnationalactorscanbeinfluencedbynormsthatexistintheinternational
community.ScholarsofinternationalrelationstheoryasfarbackasAristotleand
Platounderstoodthatnormativeissueshavebeencentraltothestudyofpolitics
(Finnemore&Sikkink,1998).Normsarestandardsofbehaviordeemed
appropriateforanactorbasedontheiridentity.Normsrefertobehaviorsthat
regulate,orderorconstrainbehavior.Internationalnormsplayaroleinpolitical
change,oftenbeginningasanationalordomesticconcernthatbuildsand
transcendsnationalborderstobecomeinfluentalinothercountries.Intime,the
normbecomesinternalizedsothatitseemsnaturalandunquestioned.Thenormof
women’ssuffrageisoftencitedasaglobalnormthatgrewoutofadomestic
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imperative,anironicexampleinthiscase,giventhelackoflegalrightsforwomenin
SaudiArabia.FinnemoreandSikkinkdevelopedathreestagelifecycletoexplain
howanorm’sevolutiondependedontheactorsinvolvedandtheirattitudestoward
enhancingtheirinternationallegitimationandimprovingtheirdiplomaticstatus.
Byinvitingstudentsandscholarsfromcountriesthathadlittleexposureto
democraticinstitutionsandmarketeconomies,Kennedywasofferingmorethan
academictraining.HewasexposingthemtoWesternvaluesandinstitutionsthat
mightbereplicatedintheirowncountries,particularyoncetheywereawareof
theirnormativevalueintheinternationalarena.StudentsfromSaudiArabiamay
absorbthenormativevaluesoftheU.S.andotherwesternizedculturesbecauseof
theirtimestudyingthere.TheSaudisfaceachallengeoftryingtobecomemoreat
onewiththeglobalcommunity,onewhereinstitutionsarelargelybasedonWestern
norms,whilepreservingtheirownculturalidentity.Yet,theseculturalbarriers
needtobemoderatedifthecountryistoovercomeitsowneconomicandpolitical
problems(Denman,2011).
Realism
Inthe1970s,theNixonadministrationhadmovedawayfromthepolicyofwinning
heartsandminds,eventhoughtheVietnamWardamagedthecountry’simage
abroad.SoftdiplomacywasdismissedinfavorofthehardcorerealismofSecretary
ofStateHenryKissingerandthemilitaryestablishment.RealismcametotheU.S.in
the1930swithHansMorgenthau,oneofthemostinfluentialscholarsin
internationalrelations.Realismpositsthattheglobalsystemisoneofanarchy,
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wherestatesactsolelytopursuetheirowninterests.Inaworldthatisbrutish,
competitive,andhostile,poweroverothersistheonlywaytosurviveandtobest
servetheinterestofthestate.Powerwasviewedasmilitarymighteventhoughin
Morgenthau’sviewitcouldmeanmorethanjustmilitarypower;itcouldalsobein
theformofothertypesofinfluence,orsoftpower.(Morgenthau1948;Thompson
1951;Baldwin1979).Morgenthau’scontentionwasthatthematerialaspectof
powerismilitarymightbutitwasactuallylesssignificantthanthemoresubtle
psychologicalpowertoinfluenceothersbasedonnationalcharacter,morale,and
qualityofgovernance(Pashakhanlou,2009).
Inthe1970s,inadditiontofightingthewarinVietnam,theU.S.governmentwasin
theprocessofamajoreconomictransformationawayfromthegoldstandard
towardaderegulated,freemarketeconomy.DétentewithChinawasavitalstepfor
theNixonAdministrationinopeningtheworldeconomytotrade.Moreimportantly,
NixonsawendingtheembargowithChinaandnormalizingrelationsasthewayto
reshapethebalanceofpowerintheColdWar(Cohen,2007).NixonandKissinger
viewededucationasavaluabletoolforexposingtheChinesetohowanopenmarket
economyworkedandproducedhighstandardsofliving.Thebeliefinthelink
betweendemocracyandfreemarketcapitalismdominatedU.S.foreignpolicysince
theendofWorldWarII.ChinesestudentslearnedAmericanstylebusinesspractices
and,stilltoday,anM.B.A.fromaU.S.universityishighlyprizedinChina.Détente
withChinaservedtheinterestofU.S.companieswhoyearnedforaccesstoforeign
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marketsandtheU.S.governmentwhosawfreemarketcapitalismasastrong
weaponagainsttheSovietsandthespreadofcommunism.
Neoliberalism
RobertKeohaneisaprominentneoliberalwhopositsthatcooperativebehavior
betweengovernmentsandinstitutionscanresultinjointlyprofitablearrangements
andcompromise(Keohane1984;KeohaneandNye1977).Neoliberalsseeawide
rangeofintereststhatcanbeservedbycooperationbetweenstates,fromthe
sharingofnormstotheformationofliberalregimesandotherinstitutionsthat
inspirepeacefulcoexistence.AstheNixonAdministrationuseddiplomacytobuild
therelationshipwithChina,therelationshipbetweentheUnitedStatesandSaudi
Arabiahasbeenstrengthenedbythecurrentopennessineducation(Nye,2005).It
hasrequiredsomeskillfulcompromiseonthepartoftheU.S.governmentinthe
wakeoftheSeptember11attacksandtheneverending“WaronTerror”butithas
servedthelargerinterestsofthenationandmayhaveapositiveimpactfortheU.S.
intheentireregion.
LiberalPluralism
LiberalpluralismmaybetheobjectiveoftheKingandotherreformmindedpeople
insidethecountry.Whilenotlookingtofullyoverturnthepoliticalsystemand
culturevalueswithinthecountrythereisaneedforanewconceptionofhowSaudi
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Arabiafitsintotheworldbodypolitc.LiberalpluralismasdescribedbyRaymond
Aronistheabilityofpeopletolivemeaningfullivesbasedontheirown
understandingofvaluewithinasystemofinstitutionsthatenablesocietyto
function(Galston2002.)InAron’sviewsocietycanbeopenandtolerantwithout
privilegingonesetofvaluesoveranother(Muller,2006).Aronwasclassifiedasa
realistbutsawstates’behaviorasreflectingmanyfactors,noneofwhichshouldbe
deemedmoreimportanttheother(Echikson,1983).“Intheabsenceofasimple
formulatopredictstategoals,thebestonecoulddoasathinker,diplomator
strategististoattemptanunderstandingofstateaimsandmotivesonthebest
availableevidence.”(Griffiths,Roach,&Solomon,2009).
TheshiftingU.S.governmentpolicyregardinginternationaleducationfromtheend
ofWorldWarItothepresentcanbeviewedasresponsestochanginghistoricaland
economicfactorsandevolvingmoralconsiderationsandattitudes.Educationaland
culturalexchangesallowedbothsidestogainabetterunderstandingofother
people’svaluesandnationalpsyche.ItalsogaveoutsidersalookintotheAmerican
wayoflife,theproductofafreemarket,democraticsystemthatofferedabetter
alternativethancommunismandSoviet-styleauthoritarianism.TheSaudi
governmentmaybeseekingthesamething,abroader-mindedsocietythattolerates
otherpeople’svaluesandculturesinalessorthodoxmanner,awayfromonethat
oftenleadstoextremistrhetoricandbehaviorthatplacesthecountryoutsidethe
realmofinfluentialactorsontheworldstage.Inacountrythatstillbeheadspeople
inpublicforwhatothernationsviewasminoroffences,theglobalviewthatSaudi
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ArabiaasbarbaricandideologicallyextremeinterfereswiththeSaudigovernment’s
effortstoasserttheirroleinmaintainingstabilityandsecurityintheregion(Obaid
2013;Drennan2015).
SectionThree:LiteratureontheInternationalMarketforHigherEducation
andStudentChoice-ExpectancyTheory,TheoreticalModelsofStudentChoice,
StudentsasConsumers,andRecentStudies
TheInternationalMarketforHigherEducation
Highereducationhasbecomeaninternationalcommodityinrecentyears.Nearly
4.5millionstudentsarestudyinginaforeigncountryduringthe2013/14academic
year.TheU.S.isthelargesthostofgloballymobilecollegeanduniversitystudents.
IthostsnearlytwiceasmanyastheUnitedKingdom,thesecondmostpopularhost
destination(IIEOpenDoors2014).InternationaleducationisoneoftheUnited
States’largestexports.NAFSAreportedthatinternationalstudentscontributed
$26.8billiontotheU.S.economyduringthe2013/14schoolyears.Thisisan8.5
percentincreasefromlastyearandassociatedwiththecreationofover340,000
jobs.Theeducationsectorisveryimportanttomanysmallcommunitiesandisa
matterofconcernforpoliticiansandcommunitiesthatseejobgrowthdirectly
relatedtoforeignstudents(BrookingsInteractive,2014).
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TheU.S.enjoysalargepercentageoftheoverallSaudistudentpopulationthat
studiesoutsideofthecountry.ThisgrowingcontingentofSaudistudentsisin
contrasttotheglobaltrendforinternationalstudentsinthelasttenyears.NAFSA
identifiedseveralpressuresfacingAmericanschoolsinFebruary,2012thatare
makingitlesslikelythattheU.S.willseethetypeofgrowthininternational
studentsithasseeninthepast.Whiletheglobalnumberofstudentstravellingfrom
theirhomecountryforhighereducationcontinuestoincrease,thenumberof
countriesnowestablishingprogramsisgrowingandschoolsaroundtheworldare
activelyrecruitingforeignstudents.OthercountriesareprovidingEnglishlanguage
programsandhaveinvestedheavilyintechcentersandfacilities,thusdrawinga
greatershareofstudentsfromnearbycountries.TheU.S.NationalScienceBoard
tracksresearchcapacityaroundtheworldandnotesthatglobalcapacityandquality
haveincreased,ashasthecompetitionforthebeststudentsandscholars.This
increaseinthesupplyofhighereducationledtotheU.S.shareofthemarketfalling
fromtwentyeightpercentin2000tonineteenpercentby2012,asituationthatmay
notchangesoon.
Manycountriesareformingcross-borderpartnershipstobecomeregional
providersofhighereducation,especiallyinresearch-orientedprograms.TheSaudis
andotherGulfStateshavespentbillionsofdollarsontheirownuniversitiesand
researchfacilities,includingofferingincentivestobusinessestoenterpartnerships
withtheseresearchlabs.SeveralGulfStateshaveimportedfullbranchcampuses
andbroughtinpartnerschoolsfromothercountriestoimprovethelocalcapacityto
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educatestudentsforthenewhighlytechnical,increasinglyintegratedglobal
economy.CurrentlyChina,SouthKorea,Mexico,Russia,Taiwan,Thailand,andBrazil
areeachactivelytryingtorecruitstudentsandscholarstohelpthemimprovetheir
owneducationsystems.
Thegrowthinthenumberofinternationalstudentsandthedestinationsthey
chooseistrackedcloselybymanyaffiliatedorganizations.Thisinformationisused
byHEIstounderstandinternationalstudentchoiceandhelpthemmarkettheir
schoolsinthemosteffectivemanner.Today,foreignstudentsareseeking
educationsinplacesthathaveEnglishlanguageprogrammingandofferthebest
qualitycoursesbasedoninternationalreputationandrankings.Englishlanguage
programsandbusinessarethemostcommonareasofstudybutmanystudents
attendadvanced-levelgraduateprogramsintheSTEMsubjects.IntheU.S.
internationalstudentsarecrucialtofillingtheseresearch-orientedprograms
becausetherearecurrentlynotenoughAmericanstudentspursuingdegreesin
thesefields.Americanschoolsalsoprizeinternationalstudentsbecausethey
exposedomesticstudentstootherculturesandbetterpreparethemtosucceedin
theglobaleconomy.
China’srecentefforttodevelopitsownhighereducationalsystemhasresultedinit
becomingasupplierofinternationaleducation,notjustacountrythatsendsits
surplusstudentsabroad.ThisisshapingdemandintheAsiaPacificregion.The
WallStreetJournalAsia(Kwaak2013)reportsthatSouthKoreanstudentsare
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increasinglychoosingtostudyinChinanearlyasoftenastheychoosetheU.S.While
learninginEnglishisstillhighlyvaluedbystudents,businessesinSouthKoreaare
interestedinhiringstudentswithChineselanguageskillsanddirectexperiencein
China.Thegrowingcompetitionforinternationalstudentsmakesitimperativethat
theU.S.schoolsdomoretounderstandwhatbringsstudentstothiscountryandto
capitalizeontheirstrengthsandweaknesses.
ExpectancyTheory
Theliteratureonstudents’intenttostudyabroadfallsintoseveraltheoretical
categories:economicexplanations,sociologicalpredictors,andculturaltheories.
Muchoftherecentscholarshipusesmultidisciplinarytheoreticalapproachesand
mixedmethodologiestotrytounderstandwhatmotivatesstudentstostudyabroad
andhowtheychoosewheretogo.Earlierresearchusedstudentchoiceand
expectancytheoriestoexplainwhystudentschoosetoattendcollege.Morerecent
usagesofthesetheorieshavebeenextendedtoresearchstudent’swillingnessto
studyabroad.
Expectancytheorystatesthatapersonwillexpendefforttowardsomethingthat
mayberiskyordifficultiftherewardshavevalueforthem(VroomV.,1964).
BrooksandBetz(1990)usedVroom’sexpectancytheorytoexplainthemotivational
componentofcareerpreferencesforcollegestudents.Vroom’stheoryexplained
thatcareerchoicewasafunctionofbothhowattractiveacareerwasandhowlikely
theyweretoattainit.
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Sanchez,FornerinoandZhang(2006)usedexpectancytheorytoevaluatethe
relationshipbetweenmotivationstostudyabroadandintentinthreedifferent
groups.TheysurveyedbusinessstudentsinFrance,China,andtheU.S.abouttheir
motivationsandintentionstostudyabroad.Theresultsshowedinteresting
variationsthattheyattributedtonationalculturalperceptionsofthevalueofstudy
abroad.Forexample,Chinesestudentsshowedamuchstrongerintentiontostudy
abroadthantheFrenchorU.Sstudents.Theauthorssuggestedthatthelackof
availabilityofqualityhighereducationinChinaandthecareeropportunitiesthat
areaffordedtothosewithaforeigndegreedifferedfromthereasonofU.S.students,
whichwastohavenewexperiencesorbecauseitwasarequirementoftheirschool.
BothFrenchandU.S.studentsfelttheyhadsufficientaccesstoqualityeducationand
careeropportunitiesintheirhomecountry.Hackney,Boggs,andBorozan(2012)
alsoconductedresearchusingexpectancytheoryonbusinessstudentstoidentify
thewillingnesstostudyabroad.Thewillingnesstostudyabroadservedasa
precursortogoingandisassociatedwithperceivedpersonalandprofessional
benefits.Theyidentifiedcertainpersonalitytraitssuchasconfidenceandlanguage
abilitiesthatgavecluestohowsuccessfulastudentbelievedtheywouldbe,in
keepingwithVroom’sideasaboutattainment.
Relyea,CocciaraandStuddard(2008)foundthattheperceivedvalence,orvalue,
wasanimportantmotivatingfactorforstudentstoengageinaninternational
experience.Manyresearchersagreeonasetofuniversalvaluessharedbypeople
acrossmostnationalities.Whatdiffersistherelativeimportancethatpeopleplace
onthesevalues.ScholarssuchasHofstede(2001),Rokeach(1999),Schwartz
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(1999),andZhang(2001)studiedthewaynationalculturedictatedhowasociety
organizeditselftosolveproblemsandmeetitsneeds.Valuesystemsinformed
theseresponsesandresultedinthecreationofinstitutionsthatgaveacommunity
itsparticularcharacter.Zhang(2001),forexample,foundthatChinesewomen’s
purchasingbehaviorwassignificantlymoreinfluencedbyChinesevaluesthanby
westernvalues.AccordingtoSchwartz(1999),nationalvalueswerereflectedin
sociallyapprovedgoals,asrealizedinlocalideasofsuccess,justice,freedom,social
orderorstatus,andtradition.Studentssoughteducationforpersonalenrichment
butalsoinaccordancewithsociallyconstructednotionsofvalue.Manystudents
confirmedtheystudiedabroadinexpectationofimprovedcareeroptions,asan
opportunitytolearnaforeignlanguage,toengageinuniversitysponsored
internshipprograms,toexperiencelifeinanothercountry,curiosity,orforpersonal
enjoyment.Allofthereasonsreflectvaluesandexpectationsthatareinformedby
localandnationalviews.
Findlow(2007)appliedexpectancytheorytoexplainhowwomeninArabGulf
countrieswereusinghighereducationtoattainsocialstatusandeconomic
autonomyandtobringonlarger,morepervasivesocialtransformation.Incontrast
tomanycountriesintheMiddleEastandNorthAfricaandeventootherGulfStates,
womeninSaudiArabiafaceextensivelegalandculturalbarrierstoemployment.
ThisisasubtlereminderthattheMiddleEastisasizeableregionwithnoonesetof
rulesthatapplytowomenandonewheretheforcesofglobalizationarepushing
againstdeeplyheldculturalpatternsandbeliefsystems.“Innoareahastheforceof
traditionbeenfeltmorestronglyandtheeffectofglobalizationbeenmoreapparent
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thatthatofthestatusandrolesofwomen.ThepositionofwomenintheArabworld,
inparticular,isneitheruniformnorstatic.”(Kirdar2007,p.39).
TheshifttoglobalintegrationwithinSaudiArabiaistakingplaceinsmallstepsbut
isencouragedbythegovernment’sviewstowardeconomicdevelopment,changing
socialattitudesamongthepeopleandpracticalnecessity.Mostwesternerssee
Saudiattitudestowardswomenasarchaicandbasedonpatriarchicsystemsthat
holdnorelevanceinamodernworld.Thetreatmentofwomenisapopular
barometerformeasuringchangeinSaudiArabiaandtheinternationalperceptions
remainnegative.Yet,thereisevidencethatattitudesinSaudiareshiftingandthere
arenewopportunitiesforwomentoexperiencepersonalandprofessional
fulfillmentaccordingtomodernstandards.TodaywomeninSaudiArabiaareable
toattendco-edclassesattheKingAbdullahUniversityforScienceandTechnology
outsideofJeddah.NearlyonequarterofallKASPstudentsarewomen,many
travelingontheirown,withoutamalefamilymemberasachaperone(LeBaron,
2013).Thehighcostofhousingmeansasecondincomeisanecessityandaworking
spouseacceptableinthecurrenteconomicclimate.“Morethananything,changeis
comingthrougheconomics.“Fewermenarehappytocomehometotheirwifewith
herfeetup,”saysKhalidal-Khudair,founderofGlowork,acompanythatrunsa
websitetoconnectwomenandemployers.”(TheEconomist,2014).
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ModelsofStudentChoiceTheory
Earlystudiesusedsociologicalfactorstopredictstudentchoicetoattendcollege.
Hearn(1984)used1975surveydatafromalarge,nationallyrepresentativesample
ofcollegefreshmantoevaluatewhichsocioeconomicfactorsinfluencecollege
choice.Theanalysisidentifiedracialandotherincomerelatedfactorsas
determinantsofchoiceofcollegedestination.Italsoidentifiedtheimportanceof
students’perceptions,parentalinfluenceandreputationofschoolsassignificant
determinantsofchoiceofcollege.HosslerandGallagher(1987)elavuatedathree
phasemodelofcollegechoicebeginningwiththepredispositionorwillingnessto
attendcollege,particularyasitrelatedtoSESvariablesandthenconsideredthe
methodforchoosingaschoolbasedonhowtheygettheirinformation.Thefinal
phasewasthechoice,oftenfacilitatedbyoutreach,or‘courtship’(Hossler&
Gallagher,1987),onthepartoftheinstitution.Thepolicyimplicationsofthestudy
identifiedthesearchphaseasthebestwayforinstitutionstoreachstudentsand
increaseattendanceatcollege.
Thetheoreticalfoundationsoftheresearchofcollegeaccessandchoicehave
changedsincethe1990s.Previousliteraturereviewsshowedafocusonsociological
oreconomicapproaches(Paulsen,1990)whilethemorerecentresearchnow
includessocialandculturalcapitalasdriversforstudentchoice.Asthenumberof
studentstravelingabroadforeducationhasincreased,sotoohasthebodyof
literaturethatexaminesthefactorsthatinfluencethedecisiontostudyabroadand
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themechanismsofchoiceforwherestudentsgo.Perna(2006)providedanupdate
totheolderliteraturereviewstoidentifythenewscholarshipthathasemergedin
thelasttwodecades.
Increasingly,theliteratureonstudentchoicereliesonconceptualmodelsthatdraw
onmultipletheoreticalperspectivesandmethodologies(Toncar,ReidandAnderson
2006;Hackney,BoggsandBorozan2012).Perna(2006)proposedaconceptual
modelusingstudentchoicetheorythatincorporatedbotheconomicvariablesand
sociologicalapproachesbecauseneitherapproachaloneprovidedsufficient
understandingforstudentchoiceacrossdifferentgroups.ThePerna(2006)model
ofcollegechoiceincorporatedelementsofhumancapitaltheory,expectancytheory,
andculturalandsocialcapitaltheorytoexplainstudentchoiceinattendingcollege.
Theseelementswerelaterintegratedintotheproposedconceptualmodelof
studentchoicethatfutureresearchersreliedon.Figure6isthePerna(2006)
model.Itrepresentsacomprehensiveapproachtoevaluatinginfluenceona
student’schoicetoattendcollege.
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Figure6:Perna(2006)ProposedConceptualModelofStudentChoice
ThePerna(2006)modelofstudentcollegechoicewasdevelopedinanattemptto
explaintheenrollmentgapbetweenlowandhighincomestudents,evenafterthe
passageofTitleIVoftheHigherEducationActof1965ledtolargeincreasesin
financialaidtolowerincomefamilies.Themodelproposesfourlayers,orcontexts,
90
eachreflectingtheimpactsofthemajorstakeholdersoneachother.Themodel
beginswithanoutermostorfourthlayerthatmeasuresdemographicvariables,
economiccharacteristics,andpublicpolicycharacteristics.ThislevelusesSESdata
thatwouldnotbeavailableforSaudistudentsbuttherearepublicpoliciesinplace
intheU.S.andSaudiArabiathatareinfluencingstudentchoicetoattendcollege.
Layerthreeevaluatestheimpactofschoolsmarketingandrecruitmentpractices,
location,andinstitutionalcharacteristics.QSTopUniversities(2014)reportedthat
websitesandsocialmediawereincreasinglyimportantsourcesofinformationfor
internationalstudents.Theycitedastudythatshowedtherewereglobal
differencesinhowimportanttheInternetwasandhowstudentsusedit.The
importanceofsocialmediadifferedbyagegroupandregionbutprospective
studentsfrequentlyreportedthatsocialmediawasaprimaryinformationsourceto
compareandchoosebetweenuniversities.
ThesecondlayerofthePerna(2006)modelidentifiesthefeaturesandservicesthat
localcommunitiesprovidetostudentsandthebarriersimposedthatinterferewith
enrollingincollege.Therehasbeenasignificantincreaseintheavailabilityof
highereducationinSaudiArabia.Thegovernmenthasinvestedheavilyineducation
atalllevelsthroughoutthecountry,includingpreviouslyunderservedprovinces.It
ispossiblethatSaudistudents’choicetostudyabroadrelatestothequalityofthe
educationinthecountry.TheU.S.isadisproportionatelyfrequentdestinationfor
Saudis.AccesstofundingfromtheKASPprogramisthemajorsourceofmaterial
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supportandadeeperlookintoqualificationsforcandidacywillidentifybarriers
Saudistudentsfaceattheindividuallevel.
ThecentralorinnermostlayerofthePerna(2006)modelconcernstheindividual’s
habitus.Habitusreferstoaperson’sinternalizedsystemofthoughtsandbeliefs
thatcanonlybeunderstoodinthecontextoftheirsocialenvironment.Habitusis
closelyidentifiedwiththeearliestconceptionsofsocialandculturalcapitalas
developedbyPierreBourdieu.Bourdieu’sethnographicfieldworkinAlgeriainthe
1950sledhimtoseehowsocialandeconomicrelationshipswerebasedonpower,
domination,class,andsocialinequalities.Theserelationshipsledtotheunequal
distributionofallkindsofgoodsandservices,somematerial,someintheformsof
capitalorsocialpower.Salisbury,etal(2009)expandedonthenotionofhabitusas
theinternalmindsetthatdictatestheexpectations,tastes,andpreferencesthat
camefromlivedexperience.Thislivedexperiencewasthemanifestationofsocial
interactionsasdeterminedbygender,race,class,andpowerrelationsandservedas
muchtoinformchoiceasitdidtoconstrainit.Schultheis(2009)definedthehabitus
asasetofdispositionsandtendenciesthatledapersontoactinwaystheydeemed
possibleorpreferableforthembasedontheirattitudesandaspirations.Inthe
contextofthePerna(2006)model,thehabitusinformedstudentchoicetoattend
collegeandcanbeanalyzedasaninfluenceonforeignstudentswhochoosetostudy
intheU.S.
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Withintherealmofunderstandinghabitusareexpectancytheory,humancapital
investmenttheory,andsocialandculturalcapitaltheory.Socialandculturalcapital
theoryoutlinetheimportanceofsocialnetworksandconnectionsandpersonal
attributesthatincludelanguageskills,culturalknowledgeandmannerismsin
decidingwhetherornottoenrollincollege(Portes1998;Granovetter1973).Social
capitalisespeciallyvalidwhenitprovidesnon-materialassistancewiththecollege
choiceprocess.Socialcapitalcanalsobeunderstoodintermsofparental
involvementincollegeenrollment(PernaandTitus2005).Maternalinfluenceplays
aparticularlystrongroleinfemaleparticipationinhighereducationinArabGulf
States.Forexample,mothersintheU.A.E.,evenoneswithlowlevelsofeducation
see“adegreeasaformofinsurance–againsthavingtomarry,againstnotfindinga
husband,againstdivorce,orhusbandsgettingnewwives.“(Findlow2007,p.68).
Socialcapitaltheoryhasbeenappliedtoimmigrationdecisionsandtherolethat
socialnetworkscanplayinsuccessfulintegrationintoacommunity(Putnam2001;
2007).Thisroleoffacilitatingintegrationintoacommunityisimportantforforeign
studentswhendecidingwhetherornottostudyabroad.
Theuseofculturalcapitalparametersrelatestoearlierresearchonitsvalidityin
informingstudentchoice.McDonough(1997)showedthatculturalcapitalwas
positivelyassociatedwithSESfactors.Culturalcapitalreferstolanguageskillsand
culturalknowledgethatallowapersontoproceedalongachosenpath.Pernaand
Titus(2004)andHossler(1999)usedparents’educationalattainmentasaproxyfor
culturalcapitaltoshowitwasapositivepredictorofstudentchoiceoutcomes.
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SeveralelementsofthePerna(2006)modelhavebeenusedtostudywhy
internationalstudentschoosetostudyabroad.Waters(2006)focusedonthe
marketforinternationaleducationandthepreferenceespeciallyamongChinese
studentstostudyabroadtoacquireaWesterneducation.Studentchoicetheory
wasusedtoexplainhowlocalculturalinterpretationsaboutthesocialstatus
attainedbygoingtoanoverseasschoolswereimplicatedinthechoiceofwhereto
study.Theoverseas‘credential’wasmorethanjustfashionable,itrelatedto
employerpreferenceandalumniconnectionsforstudentsfromEastandSoutheast
Asiancountries.Salisbury,Umbach,Paulsen,andPascarella(2009)usedstudent
choicetheoryandthePerna(2006)conceptualmodeltofurtherexplorehuman
capitaltheoryasaneconomicexplanationforcollegechoice.Theycombineditwith
sociologicalfeaturesthatexploredhowinformationwasgatheredtotryandidentify
themechanismsofcollegechoice.Salisbury,etal.usedportionsofstudentchoice
theorytoidentifyhowdifferentSESvariablesinteractedwithsocialcapitalto
predictwhetherastudentwouldstudyabroad.
StudentsasConsumers
Beyondmodelsofstudentchoicethatevaluatetheeconomicandsociologicalfactors
thatinformthedecisiontoattendcollege,thereisrecentliteraturethatframesthe
issuesinvolvingwhereindividualschoosetoattendcollegeandhowtheyselecta
majorcourseofstudywhichusesthelanguageofmarketliberalizationtotreat
studentsasconsumersofhighereducation.Notonlyhaveuniversitiesbegunto
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lookatstudentsascustomers,evengovernmententitiesareusingtherationaleof
thefreemarkettoconsiderstudents,asthebeneficiariesofpubicsectorspending,
clientswhobehaveasrationalconsumerswhenchoosingtoattendagivenHEI
(SungandYang2008,TavaresandCardoso2013.)Thenormsandvaluesofthefree
marketarebeingusedtoevaluatepublicspendingonhighereducation,evenmore
soinrecentyearswheneconomicuncertaintyhasleftmanyquestioningthe
economicrelevanceofhighereducation.Metricsofefficiency,accountability,and
qualityassessments,moreusuallyassociatedwithprivatesectorinitiatives,are
beingappliedtopubliceducation.Inthatregard,studentshavebecomecustomers
anduniversitiesarenowserviceproviders(TavaresandCardoso2013.)
Themeldingofnotionsaboutpersonalfreedomandrationalchoiceareconverging
withtheviewthatHEIsneedtobeentreprenuerialandbusiness-likeiftheyhopeto
survive.Theconceptionsofthepurposeofhighereducationhavechangeditboth
politicallyandadministrativelyfromamerepublicgoodtoanindustrythat
functionstomeetthedemandsofthelabormarketswhilegeneratingitsown
revenuesthroughthecreationandprivatisationofknowledge(OlssenandPeters
2005.)Examiningstudentsasconsumersofaservicebeingprovidedina
competitivemarketopensupthefieldofstudentchoicetonowevaluatethemin
otherways.Theneedtounderstandhowtobestattractandretainstudentsinthe
increasinglycompetitvehighereducationmarkethasbroughtneweffortsto
determinetheconsumerbehavioraspectsofstudents.Theoreticalapproaches
basedonsocialpsychologyarebeingusedtobetterunderstandattitudes,
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perceptions,andmechanismsofchoiceforstudentstoday(KumarandKumar
2013.)
Muchofthisliteraturebuildsonclassicaleconomicsandtheoriesofhumancapital
aspositedbyBecker(1962,1993)andutilitymaximizingbehaviorthatconsidered
personalpreferences(HosslerandGallagher1987;Paulsen1990)butthese
previousapproacheshavefallenshortinansweringdeeperquestionsabout
individualchoicebeyondtheprimarydecisiontoattendcollege.Forexample,recent
workhaschallengedtheideathatstudentsactinafullyrationalmannerwhen
choosingaschoolandchoosingacollegemajor(Menon,SaitiandSocratous2007.)
Inmanycasesstudentsdonotfitthedescriptionofinformationseekers,a
prerequisiteforbehavingasarationalconsumerintheneoclassicalconceptionof
thefreemarket.Thepropensitytoseekinformationormakeobjectivedecisions
aboutwheretoattendcollegeorwhattostudyissuprisinglylow(Tavaresand
Cardoso2013;Menon,SaitiandSocratous2007.)Forexample,inexaminingwhat
factorsinfluencestudentstochoosebusinessmajors,itwasshownthatsocialimage
andfamily,schoolscounselors,andprofessorsweresignificantfactorsinstudent
choice(KumarandKumar2013.)Studieshaveshownthatthedecisionsmadeby
collegestudentsarenotpurelybasedoncost/benefitanalysisandutility
maxization.Often,preferencesareshapedbysocialisationprocessesand
evaluationsofquality(TavaresandCardoso2013.)Thisisasmallsampleofthe
issuesemerginginresponsetothechangingperceptionsabouthighereducation
andamovementawayfrompurelyeconomicrationalizationsforstudentchoice.
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Oneofthemostdifficultthingstoreconcileinthecurrentliteratureisthevariation
interminologyandabstractnatureofthestudiedpsychologicalinfluencesthat
makeevaluationdifficulttomeasure.“Thedifferentperspectivesadoptedinthese
approacheshavenotallowedfortheoperationalizationandmeasurementofthe
concept,whichhasinturnresultedintheabsenceofrelevantempiricalwork.”
(Menon,SaitiandSocratous2007,p.712.)Whatmostofthisresearchhasin
commonistheuseofestablishedtheoreticalapproacheswithinthedisciplineof
socialpsychologyasthebasisforunderstandinghumanbehaviorforthepurposes
ofmarketinggoodsandservices.GordonAllport,thepsychologistknowforhiswork
oncontacttheory,definessocialpsychologyasadisciplinethatappliesscientific
methodstoevaluatesocialinfluences,attitudes,andperceptions(Kendra)These
ideasarenowbeingappliedtothechoicesmadeinhighereducation(Kumarand
Kumar2013;Menon,SaitiandSocratous2007;SungandYang2008.)
Onethemethatrecursinvaryingdiscussionsistherelationshipbetweenstudent
commitmentandinstitutionalimage.Ghoshetal.(2001)foundastronglink
betweenstudenttrust,definedas“thedegreetowhichastudentiswillingtorelyon
orhavefaithandconfidenceinthecollegetotakeappropriatestepsthatbenefithim
andhelphimachievehislearningandcareerobjectives”(p.324),andenhanced
institutionalprestige.Thisenhancedprestige,inturn,wasassociatedwith
increasedenrolment,greaterstudentretention,andstrongerlevelsofalumni
donations.Trust,asitislinkedtostudentcommitment,isbasedonastudent’s
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personalexperienceaswellastheirincomingperceptionsabouttheschool.While
theresultsmaynotbeimmediatelyapparent,greaterspendinginareasthat
promotetrustareincreasinglyimportantasthemarketforstudentsbecomesmore
competitive.“Whiletrustbuildsincrementallyandrequiresalong-termstrategic
plan,distrustinacollegeislikelytohaveamoredramatic"catastrophic"effectby
reducingqualityperceptionsandbyincreasingmarketingcostssignificantly.”
(Ghosh,WhippieandBryan2001,p.323.)AccordingtoGhoshetal.,ignoringthe
trustneedsofstudentswillhavelongtermnegativerepercussions.
Acomprehensivemodelofuniversityimageasitrelatestostudents’supportive
attitudes,anearrelationtostudents’commitmentandidentificationwithan
institution,buildsonthenotionofcorporateimage(SungandYang2008.)Inthe
fieldofpublicrelationstheimportanceofcorporateimageandreputationiswell
studied.Afavorableimageisshowntobeacompetitiveadvantage.Asapublic
relationsconstruct,Sung(2008)attemptedtoevaluatethisintherealmofthe
servicesector,universitiesinparticular.Today,universitiesarespendingheavilyto
createabrandimage,bothtoimprovetheirprestigeandgeneralperceptionsof
quality.Thevalueofthebrandisseenasrelatingtogreaterstudentcommitment,
buildinglongtermrelationshipswithstudents,andgreaterwordofmoutheffects.
Studieshaveshownthatimagemattersevenmorewhenyouhavelittleornodirect
experiencewithaschool.Asmentionedearlier,thereisalackofconsistencyin
existingstudiesintermsofwhichvariablesarestudiedandhowtheyaremeasured,
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yet,basedontheexistingliterature,SungandYangidentifiedfourkeyareasto
analyzestudentsasconsumersinthecompetitivearenaofhighereducation.
Image,thefirstkeyareatheyidentified,sometimesreferredtoasreputationor
corporateidentity,referstotheviewthataparticularpersonholdsabout
something.Itisfurthercomplicatedbythepersonalnatureoftheseviews,thus
organizationsmustevaluatetheirimageforeverytargetgrouptheyhopetoserve.
Itisadifficultvariabletomeasurebecauseserviceimageslackclearlymeasurable
attributesandbecauseitisimpactedbytheemotionalexperiencesofthose
attendingaparticularschool.Thisemotionalattachmentisbuiltwhenstudentsfeel
valued,orconnectedtotheinstitutionandisstrategictoolthatHEIscanuseto
attractstudents,recruitfaculty,andattractdonationsandgrants(SungandYang
2008,p.361.)Inadditiontoimage,theSung(2008)modelincludedbrand
personality,thehumancharacteristicsassociatedwithabrand,andperceived
externalprestige,mostcommonlytheresultofthirdpartyevaluationstoexamine
students’supportiveattitudes.
Ratherthancallingittrust,SungandYangtreatedstudents’supportasloyalty.
Consumerloyaltyisassociatedwithsatisfactionofservicequality.Forstudentsthis
ismeasuredasperceptionsofoneness,securityandbelonging,trust,abeliefinthe
valuesoftheorganizationandasenseofcommunitybothduringtheirtimeatthe
universityandafter.Thefindingsofthestudyshowedasignificantrelationship
betweenthethreemainconstructsbutthestrongestfactor,particularlyfor
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freshman,wasexternalprestige.Fornewstudents,theperceptionofhowother’s
viewedtheuniversitytheywereattendingwasthemostsignificantdeterminantof
theirlevelofcommitmenttotheschool.Thefindingssuggestthatimproving
perceivedexternalprestigethroughspendingtoincreasevisibilityandbrandimage
and,inparticular,workingtoimproveinternationalrankings,maybethebestway
anHEIcanmarketitselftoday,bothathomeandabroad.
Inconclusion,thelimitedliteraturethatappliestheconceptsofcorporatebranding
andimagingtouniversitiesasserviceproviderspointstostudents’preentryimage
ofaparticularinstitutionandperceivedexternalprestigeasbeingsignificant
determinantsintheirchoicetoattendandformanattachmentorbecome
committedtoaninstitution.Preentryimagesareformedthroughcontactwith
schoolofficials,recruiters,websites,andothersources,mostlikelyfriends,family,
andotheracquaintencesthatprovidewordofmouthchannelsofinformation.
Universityimagechangesinresponsetoaperson’semotionalexperiencewiththat
institution,post-entry.It,likeperceivedexternalprestige,isanindividual-level
variablebasedonaperson’sownvaluesystemandassessmentofhowother’sview
theschool(SungandYang2008,p.366.)Theresearchpointstothecorrelation
betweeninstitutionalimage,students’trustintheinstitution,andtheresulting
commitmentstudentshavetowardaninstitutionasaninterlinkedsetoffactorsthat
bothengenderandreinforcetherationaleofconsumerchoiceinhighereducation.
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RecentStudies
TherearepreviousstudiesthatexaminestudentsfromSaudiArabiaandotherArab
GulfStates.“BridgingtheGap–ButHow:YoungVoicesfromtheKingdomofSaudi
Arabia”wasconductedbyEditSchlafferfromWomenwithoutBorders,withUlrich
Kropiunigg,andFawziahal-Bakr.PublishedinJanuary2010,thestudysurveyed
4,500maleandfemalestudentsinSaudiArabiafrom2006to2008.The
researchersundertooktheprojectwiththeexplicitunderstandingthateducation
willbeadrivingforceforsocialchangewithinthecountry.Thesurveycovered
attitudesinfourteenareas,highlightingagreementamongrespondentsthat
educationwasaprerequisitetohavingacareerandbothmenandwomenhadthe
righttoeducationunderIslamiclaw.Notsurprisingly,giventhehighrateof
unemploymentamongcollegegraduates,bothgendersexpresseduncertaintyabout
findingjobsaftergraduation.Questionsabouttheperceivedqualityofeducation
andpreparednessforworkintheprivatesectorrevealeddeepconcernsstudents
hadaboutenteringtheworkforceandestablishingthemselvesintheircareers.
Onsocialissuesstudentswereveryconservative,confirmingthatIslamicvalues
remainedimportantandsupportingtheviewamongstudentsthatSaudiculture
wassuperiortoallothersintheworldbutshouldchangetoincorporatemore
modernviews.Thesurveyshowedthatwhiletherewasmajorityapprovalfor
greaterequalityforwomen,67%ofwomenand85%ofmenapprovedofthe
statementthatawoman’spriorityshouldbecaringforthefamily.Yet,85%ofall
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surveyrespondentswantedbothafamilyandacareer.Thesurveyreviewed
attitudestowardengagementwiththeWest,concernsabouthowSaudiculturewas
perceivedabroad,interestinpoliticalparticipationwithinSaudiArabia,and
expectationsabouttheevolutionofwomen’srights.Manyaspectsofthissurveyare
directlyapplicabletoresearchonSaudistudentsattendingschoolsintheU.S.It
waspossibletoasksomeofthesesamequestionsandusethisstudyasacontrolto
comparestudentswhostudyabroadwithoneswhostayathome.
“WillingnesstoStudyAbroad:AnExaminationofKuwaitiStudents”byKaylee
Hackney,DavidBoggs,YunusKathawalaandJohnHayesisfroma2014paperthat
surveyedKuwaitistudentsintheirhomecountrytoidentifythepersonalskillsand
perceivedbenefitsassociatedwithwillingnesstostudyabroad.Demandforhigher
educationinKuwaithasexceededavailableplacementsatKuwaitUniversitysince
1990,resultinginasizeableincreaseinstudyabroadbyKuwaitis.Theauthorsused
expectancytheoryandstudentchoicetheorytocreateasurveyofstudentsatone
privateKuwaitiuniversityin2011.Therewere135usableresponses,mostlyfrom
businessmajorsandacrossallclasses,fromfreshmantograduatestudents.Results
identifiedthewillingnesstostudyabroadifapersonhadafriendorfamilymember
withinternationalexperience,theimportanceofforeignlanguageability,the
preferencesforanurbanlocation,andstrongpreferencetostudyabroadwith
others,ratherthanalone.ThepoliticalandculturalsimilaritybetweenSaudiArabia
andKuwaitmakethisstudyrelevanttothisresearch.
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“ExperiencesofMaleSaudiArabianInternationalStudentsintheUnitedStates”isa
studyconductedbyMollyElizabethHeyninadissertationsubmittedtoWestern
MichiganUniversityinJune2013.Thisisaqualitativestudyofninemalestudents
fromSaudiArabiaintheU.S.fortwoyearsorlonger.Itassessedtheparticipants’
beforeandafterperceptionsoftheU.S.,problemstheyencounteredintheirdaily
lives,barrierstosocialintegration,andchangestotheirpersonalvaluesandbeliefs.
Thisisaveryrecentstudy.Itisbasedoninterviewsanditidentifiespersonal
concernsofSaudimalesstudyingintheU.S.thatarerelevanttothisresearch.The
limitationsarethemaleonlypopulationandsmallgroupbutthisstudyprovidesa
usefulstartingpointtolearnaboutsomeoftheintimateconcernsthatSaudi
studentsface.
Noneofthesestudiesaskedstudentsabouttheimpactthatgovernmentpolicieshad
ontheirdecisionsrelatingstudyabroad.TheHeyndissertationdetailsearlier
researchonSaudiinternationalstudentsthatidentifiedthesourcesofacademic
difficultytheyencountered,adjustmentproblems,values-conflicts,andtheir
satisfactionwiththeireducationalandsocialexperiencesatcollege.Itisusefulto
seepreviousstudiesaboutthispopulationbutthecanonissmallandoutdated.
ThereisnoresearchabouttheevolutionofSaudistudent'sattitudes,especiallyfor
studentswhostudyabroad.TheWomenWithoutBorderssurveyaskedquestions
aboutshiftingattitudesbutonlyofstudentsinSaudischools.Saudistudentsinthe
U.S.areevenmorelikelytomoderatetheirviewsaboutreligiousandculturalnorms
andacceleratetherateofsocialandeconomicchangewhentheyreturnhome.
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Conclusion
ReviewingtheliteratureonthehistoricalnarrativeoftheU.S.government’suseof
highereducationforpoliticalpurposes,includingitsuseasatoolforinternational
diplomacyhelpsexplainwhythegovernmentworkedtoreopenthedoorstoforeign
students,includingSaudis,afterSept.11.Theavailableliteratureonthe
governmentofSaudiArabia’splanstoimprovebotheconomicoutcomesandreduce
politicaltensionsinsidethecountryshowwhytheyarespendingheavilyon
educationandhavemadeinternationalizationanewpriority.Therearelimitations
ontheavailabilityofdataforSaudiArabia.Theliteratureavailableisbasedon
informationprovidedbythegovernmentandnotsubjecttoexternalreview.There
isnofreepressinthecountryandpoliticallysensitivetopicsarenotsanctionedfor
reviewbythegovernment.Still,someindependentsourcesareavailableanditis
possibletodevelopanunderstandingofthebroadermotivationsoftheSaudi
government.Thereisnoliteratureshowingaclearlinkbetweenthepoliciesofthe
SaudigovernmentandSaudistudents’choicetostudyintheU.S.Inaddition,there
isnoliteratureconfirmingthattheprerogativesoftheSaudigovernmentarebeing
metthroughtheirpoliciesregardinginternationalizationofhighereducation.
Theliteratureonstudentchoiceprovidesusefulcontributionstoevaluatingwhya
persondecidestopursuehighereducationand,byextension,whytheyopttostudy
abroad.Muchofthetheoreticalworkdoneearliercanbemodifiedtostudythe
populationofSaudistudentsattendingHEIsintheU.S.Therewasnocurrent
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researchonSaudistudentswhochoosetostudyabroad.Inparticular,therewasno
researchonwhytheyarechoosingtostudyintheU.S.andwhatisbehindthelarge
increasesince2006.ThethreerecentstudiesonstudentsfromtheMiddleEast
providesomeinsightintothevaluesandexpectationsforobtaininghigher
education.TheyprovidedausefulstartingpointtofurtherexplorewhySaudi
studentsarechoosingtostudyintheU.S.andwhatimpactthatishavingonthem.
Forexample,noneofthesestudiesaskedstudentsabouttheinfluencethat
governmentpolicieshadontheirdecisionsrelatingstudyabroad.
TheHeyndissertationprovidessomeinsightintothelifeexperiencesofasmall
numberofSaudimenstudyingintheU.S.Thelimitationsofthisstudyareobvious:
thesmallnumberofsubjects,malesonly,andtheexperienceofstudentsatonlyone
school.IttellsnothingabouthowandwhytheychosetostudyintheU.S.oratthat
school.Itprovidesverylimitedresearchabouttheevolutionofattitudesofstudents
whostudyabroad.TheWomenWithoutBorderssurveyoffersafleetingglanceat
thelevelsofdiscontentwithintheSaudieducationsystem.Itprovidesonlyafew
cluesastowhySaudismaychoosetostudyabroad.Inaddition,itshowsa
willingnesstomodernizesocietywithoutoverturningtheculturalorderbytaking
stepstowardmeaningfulgenderequalityandenactingsocialreformsthatwilllikely
playoutintheeconomyfirst.Buildinguponthisresearchhasshownhowstudy
abroadimpactsstudents’attitudes.
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ThepreviousliteraturedidnotreviewexpectationsofSaudistudentsforobtaining
aneducationoutsideofthecountry.Modelsofstudentchoicebasedonexpectancy
theoryhavestrongvalidityinexplainingSaudistudents’attendanceatU.S.HEIs.
Expectancytheory,atitsheart,isaneconomicanalysisoftherationaleforattaining
education.Itviewsstudentsasrationalactorswhoseekeducationbasedonthe
perceivedvalueorbenefits.ThiswasausefulapproachtoevaluatingSaudistudents’
behavior.ItcontributedtoexplanationsaboutwhytheychoosetostudyintheU.S.
basedontheexpectedvalenceofaneducationfromanAmericanHEIcomparedto
anotherHEI.SaudiwomenwhostudyintheU.S.mayrepresentanacuteexampleof
expectancyandrisktaking.Manyaregettingeducationsinadvanceof
opportunitiestofindmeaningfulemploymentathome.Littlewasknownabout
SaudiwomenattendingforeignHEIs.
Applyingcontacttheory,itcouldbesuggestedthatSaudistudents,ifwellintegrated
intoacampuscommunity,willhaveboththetimeandappropriateenvironmentto
interactmeaningfullywiththeirU.S.counterparts,resultinginareductionofbias
andprejudiceonbothsides.Humancapitaltheoryanddiffusiontheoryalsooffer
notionsoftheimpactthatstudyabroadcouldhaveonanindividualandothers.
Togetherthesethreetheoriescouldbeappliedtostudyingthephenomenonofsuch
alargeincreaseinstudentsfromacountrythatissodifferentfromtheU.S.
Researchthatevaluatestheliklihoodofattendingcollegeorstudyingabroadhas
identifiedarangeofpredictorsandthemorerecentworkreflectsthecomplex
interplayofsocial,political,andculturalfactors,aswellaseconomicmotivations.In
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manycases,thereseachonlypartiallyappliestoSaudistudentschoosingtocometo
theU.S.Forexample,studiesusinghumancapitaltheoryproposethatfinancial
resourcesandfamilyincomewillcorrelatewithastudent’slikelihoodofchoosingto
attendcollege.ThesevariablesdonotrelatetoSaudistudentsintheU.S.sincethey
areeitherKASPstudentsorhaveprovensufficientpersonalwealthtoreceiveavisa
tostudyintheU.S.However,CabrereandLaNasa(2001)andPlankandJordan
(2001)showapositiverelationshipbetweenparents’educationandoccupationand
attendanceatfour-yearschoolsandchoosingtostudyforabachelor’sdegreerather
thananassociate’sdegree.ParentaleductionisoftenusedasasubstituteforSES
variables(McDonough1997;PernaandTitus2004)andisapplicabletoSaudi
studentchoiceinstudyingabroad.Parentalandfamilyinfluenceareexpectedto
playasignificantroleinSaudistudents’choices.
Also,humancapitaltheoryextendsbeyondparentalinfluencetoincludeextended
socialnetworksthatprovideotherkindsofsupportimplicatedinmigration
decisions.ItisarelevantcomparisontoSaudistudentschoosingtospendseveral
yearsataU.S.HEI,albeitwiththeintentiontoreturntotheirhomecountryupon
completingtheirstudies.Understandingtheimpactthatsocialnetworkshaveon
SaudistudentchoiceisimportantforHEIsthatwanttoincreasetheirSaudistudent
populationsandmonitortheirexperiencesinordertoensurefutureenrolment.
Perna(2006)identifiedliteraturethatusedexpectedfinancialcostsfortuitionand
foregoneearnings,gender,andraceasindependentvariables.Thesevariablesare
lessapplicabletothispopulationforseveralreasons.MostSaudistudentscomingto
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theU.S.arefinanciallysupportedbytheKASPorothergovernmentprograms.Also,
whilegenderisnotunimportant,inacountrywherethelegalandsocialrightsof
womenaresounlikethoseintheU.S.,thediscussionofthisissueandresearch
protocolsarenotapplicabletothemoregeneralquestionsbeingasked.TheKASPis
availabletobothmalesandfemalesandcurrentlytwenty-fivepercentofall
scholarshipsrecipientsarewomen.Raceisalsonotanapplicablevariablebecause
theKASPisavailabletoallSaudis,whetherSunniorShi’a.Therearelimited
demographicdataavailableonthereligiousbreakdownwithinthecountry.The
SaudigovernmentdoesnotpublishspecificcensusdataonSunniandShi’a
populationswithinthecountry.
Theexpectednon-monetarybenefitsofhighereducationhaverarelybeen
consideredinresearchonstudentchoice.Thispresentsaninterestingopportunity
forthisresearchproject.Thisistheoreticallyrelatedtoculturalcapitalandthe
acquisitionofsocialcapital.Forwomenthebenefitofhighereducationwas
identifiedasimprovedsocialstatus(Findlow2007).Non-monetarybenefitscan
representclearlyidentifiableimprovementsforqualityoflifesuchashavinghealth
insurance,lessliklihoodofsmoking,orgreaterliklihoodofvoting.ForSaudi
studentsthetimetheyspendintheU.S.couldresultinchangestomeasurements
thatconstitutegoodcitizenshiporpersonalfulfillment.Forexample,attitudes
abouthealth,socialwelfare,humanrights,andtheroleofgovernmentcouldbe
measuredtoshowchanges.Astudentcouldsimplybeaskedabouthowthese
attitudeshavechangedduringtheirtimeintheU.S.withoutplacingvalue
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judgementsonthem.Interviewdatamayprovidedinsightintooperationalizingthis
aspectofhighereducation.Othernon-monetarybenefitsareincreasedtolerance,
bettercommunicationabilitieswithpeoplefromothercultures,andpersonal
benefitsrelatedtoselfdiscoveryandhappiness(Allport1954;Bowen1997;
KenistonandGerzon1972).
Insummary,manyaspectsofthepreviousresearchwereappliedtostudyingthe
populationofSaudistudentsattendingHEIsintheU.S.ThePerna(2006)modelis
themostcomprehensivetheoreticalapproachtoevaluatingstudentchoice.Anew
modelthatwasanadjustedversionofthePerna(2006)modelprovideda
theoreticalframeworkforevaluatingtheimpactthatthedifferentkeyactorshave
onSaudistudentchoicetostudyabroadandparticularly,tostudyintheU.S.Under
thisframeworktheexpectednon-monetarybenefitswereevaluated.Inthefuture,
thesemayprovetobethemoreimportantoutcomesofthissocialexperimentonthe
partoftheU.S.andSaudigovernments.
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ChapterFour:ResearchMethodandDesign
ResearchMethod
Introduction
ThepurposeofthisdissertationistounderstandthefactorsthatinfluenceSaudi
students’choicetostudyathighereducationinstitutions(HEIs)intheU.S.,identify
theissuestheyface,andassesswhatimpacttheexperiencehadontheirattitudes
andvalues.Saudisareanunderstudiedpopulationofforeignstudentscomingtothe
U.S.Thereislittlespecificunderstandingofwhytheychoosetostudyabroad,how
theychoosetheschoolstheyattend,whattheirlonger-termaspirationsare,and
howtheyfeeltheirexperienceshavechangedthem.Thisisparticularlyinteresting
forfemalestudentswhocomprisetwenty-fivepercentofthetotalKASPrecipients
andhavefewercareeropportunitiesthanmalesduetorestrictionsonthetypesof
jobswomenmaylegallyhold.Also,theU.S.andSaudigovernmentsbothpublicly
statethattheyhopetoencouragegreaterunderstandingbetweenthecountriesand
fosterdeeperties.Thegeneralassumptionisthattheexposurewouldhavepositive
resultsbutthereisnodataconfirmingattitudinalshiftsineithercountry’s
population.
110
Thisstudyisbasedonmixedmethodologicalcomponents.Interviewsandanalysis
ofpublicdiscourseareausefulfirststagebecauseoftheexploratorynatureofthis
project.AsurveyinstrumentwasusedtogatherdataabouttheSaudistudent
populationintheU.S.Theresearchcomponentwasfacilitatedbyidentifyingsources
ofinformationandinterviewandsurveysubjects,andthenapplyingatheoretical
frameworktoexplorethekeyresearchquestionsandformulatetheresearch
hypotheses.Amodelofstudentchoicethatintegrateseconomicsandsociological
constructsprovidedamorecompleteunderstandingofSaudistudentschoicesand
theirexperiencesintheU.S.
Thisstudyusedamixedmethodsapproachtobetterunderstandthereasonforthe
largeincreaseinthenumberofstudentscomingtotheUnitedStatesfromSaudi
Arabia,andhowthesestudentshavechangedduetotheirtimehere.Whilethe
notionofcombiningquantitativeandqualitativemethodsinstudyisnolonger
considerednovel,aproperdefinitionofferssubstanceandcredibilitytoitsuse.
“Mixedmethodsresearchisaresearchdesignwithphilosophicalassumptionsaswellasmethodsofinquiry.Asamethodology,itinvolvesphilosophicalassumptionsthatguidethedirectionofthecollectionandanalysisofthemixtureofqualitativeandquantitativeapproachesinmanyphasesoftheresearchprocess.Asamethod,itfocusesoncollecting,analyzing,andmixingbothquantitativeandqualitativedatainasinglestudyorseriesofstudies.Itscentralpremiseisthattheuseofquantitativeandqualitativeapproaches,incombination,providesabetterunderstandingofresearchproblemsthaneitherapproachalone.”(Creswell&PlanoClark2007,p.5)Thisdefinitionhastheadvantageofhighlightingthevalueofusingmethodsthat
collectwordsincombinationwithmethodsthatcollectdatainnumericalform
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withinonetheoreticalframeworktoprovideamoregeneralizedunderstandingof
certainquestions(CreswellandPlanoClark,DesigningandConductingMixed
MethodsResearch2011.)Thereasonforusingamixedmethodologytostudythis
questioncanbeidentifiedaccordingtothetypologydevelopedbyGreene,Caracelli,
andGraham(1989)asdevelopment,initiation,andtriangulation.Inthisresearch,
theuseofinterviewsasaqualitativeapproachwasinaidofdevelopingthesurvey
instrument.Thequalitativeelementswereusedtoinitiateordiscoverperspectives
ofstakeholdersandformulatequestions.Triangulationseekstoallowcorroboration
offindingsfromonemethodtoanother(Greene,CaracelliandGraham1989.)
ResearchQuestions,Hypothesis,ConceptualModel
Thepresentresearchattemptstoanswerkeyquestionsthatexplaintheincreasein
thenumberofstudentsfromSaudiArabiastudyingintheUnitedStates,howthose
studentsmaketheirchoices,andhowtheyareimpactedbytheirexperiencesinthe
UnitedStates.Therolesofgovernments,Saudistudents,andHEIswerestudiedto
generatethefollowinghypotheses.
ResearchQuestionOneaskshowcantheincreaseinthenumberofSaudistudents
comingtotheU.S.forhighereducationbeexplained?Thefollowinghypothesiswere
predictedandtested:
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H1:SaudistudentsareinfluencedintheirchoicetostudyintheUnitedStatesbythe
availabilityofscholarshipsfromtheSaudigovernmentandbytheaccessibilityof
studentvisastotheUnitedStates.
H2:SaudistudentsperceivethathighereducationintheUnitedStatesisbetterthan
inothercountries.
H3:SaudistudentsperceivethatadegreefromaU.S.schoolwillenhancetheir
employmentprospectsbetterthanadegreefromaschoolinSaudiArabia.
ResearchQuestionTwoasksaboutexpectedoutcomesofthisstudy.Thisstudy
identifiedmotivationsofSaudistudentstostudyintheU.S.andtheirmechanismsof
choice.Hypothesis4and5considerthesestatements:
H4:Saudistudents’primarysourceofinformationaboutwheretostudyintheU.S.
isfamilyandsocialnetworks.
H5:Saudistudentsareinfluencedintheirchoicebyaschool’sreputation,rankings,
orhowwellknownitisinSaudiArabia.
ThisstudyreviewedattitudesofSaudistudentstowardtheUnitedStatesandhow
SaudistudentshavechangedsincecomingtotheU.S.intermsofpersonaltolerance,
familyandgenderissues,andopennesstoculturalchange.Saudistudents
experiencelittleinteractionwithnon-Muslimsorpeoplefromotherracesbefore
comingtotheUnitedStates.Therearestrictlyenforcedrulesanddeeplyheldsocial
viewsregardingfamilyandgenderrelationsinSaudiArabiainstarkcontrastto
thoseheldbypeopleintheUnitedStates.ThiscontrastpresentsachallengetoSaudi
studentswhomustreconciletheirownbeliefsystemwiththesocialnormsthat
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prevailintheUnitedStates.ThefollowinghypothesespredictthatSaudistudents
willchangeafterlivingintheUnitedStates.
H6:SaudistudentshaveamorefavorableopinionoftheU.S.thanwhentheylivedin
SaudiArabia.
H7:SaudistudentsintheU.S.aremoretolerantofpeoplefromotherculturesand
religionsafterlivingintheUnitedStates.
H8:SaudistudentsintheU.S.agreethatchanginggenderrolesofmenandwomen
inSaudiArabiaarepartofapositiveglobaltrendtowardincreasedgenderequality.
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ConceptualModel
Basedontheliteraturereviewonstudentchoiceandinordertoaddressthe
parametersoftheresearchquestionsitwasappropriatetoidentifyatheoretical
frameworkthatconsideredtheinfluenceofeachoftheprimaryactorsonSaudi
studentsasanorganizingprincipleforthisresearch.Perna(2006)notedthat
quantitativestudiesofstudentchoicetoattendcollegearemorecommonthan
qualitativeresearch.Themostcomplexworkusedmultilevelmodelingtoinclude
thestate,students,andparentalinvolvementalongwithotherformsofsocialand
culturalcapital.Yet,qualitativestudieshaveprovedusefulforgainingdeeper
insightaboutparticulargroupsorunderstandinghowspecificcontextinforms
studentchoice.Perna(2006)suggestedthatqualitativestudiesofstudentchoiceare
betterdesignedwhenbasedonquantitativeresearch,oftenbecausesomuchofit
usednationaldataandincreasedtheexternalvalidityofthework.Yet,inthecaseof
apopulationwithsolittlepreviousstudy,theuseofbothtechniquesisappropriate.
Figure7istheconceptualmodelforevaluatingthetypeanddegreeofinfluence
eachofthestakeholdershasonSaudistudentsintheU.S.Itisamodificationofthe
Perna(2006)proposedconceptualmodelofstudentchoice(seep.64)usedto
explaintheenrollmentgapbetweenlowandhigherincomestudents.Several
elementsofthatmodelarenotapplicabletoSaudistudentswhohavealreadymade
thechoicetoattendcollegebutotherelementswereusedtocreateatheoretical
frameworktofurtherexplainSaudistudentchoices.
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Figure7:ConceptualModelforSaudiStudentChoicetoStudyintheU.S.
ThisconceptualmodelforSaudistudentchoicetostudyintheU.S.comprisesthree
levels,eachonerelatingtoaspecifictypeofcontextualinfluenceonstudentchoice.
LeveloneconsidersU.SandSaudigovernmentpublicpolicy.TheU.S.government
hasadoptednewrulesandmeasuresthatmakeiteasierforSaudistudentstoget
studentvisastocometotheU.S.TheSaudigovernmentisfundingstudyat
preapprovedschoolsandforcertainareasofstudy.TheSaudigovernmentisalso
limitingthenumberofstudentsitwillprovidescholarshipstoatanyoneschoolin
anattempttohavethemintegrateintothelargerpopulation,inkeepingwithboth
contacttheoryanddiffusiontheory.Thismodelallowedforassessmentofthe
impactthatgovernmentpolicyhadonSaudistudents’choiceofwheretostudy,
SaudiStudentHabitasDemographicsSocialCapitalCulturalCapitalHumanCapital
U.S.HigherEducationInstitutionsProductDifferentiationMethodsofOutreach
InstitutionalCharacteristics
PublicPolicyofU.S.andSaudiGovernment
EducationforPublicDiplomacySoftPower
ContactTheoryDiffusionofInnovationTheory
CollegeChoice
116
includingprovidingSaudistudentsamanageableprocessforobtainingavisato
studyintheUnitedStates.
LeveltwoconcernstheimpacttheU.S.HEIshaveindeterminingchoiceofSaudi
students.StudiesshowthatstudentschooseHEIsintheU.S.becausetheyoffera
differenteducationthanothercountries,especiallySaudiArabia.Thisresearch
questionedthemotivationsofSaudistudentsandwhatmechanismsSaudistudents
useinchoosingwheretostudy.Theresponseswerederivedfromstudents’
expectationsabouthowaU.S.educationwillimpacttheircareerandfuture
opportunities.Also,HEIsreachstudentsthroughvariousmarketingchannels,
includingonlinesources,printmedia,andforeignstudentadvisors.Thisresearch
exploredtheimpactthesemethodshadonstudentchoice.Existingstudiesshow
thatthewaystudentsobtaintheirinformationisimportantandhasradically
changedinrecentyears(QSTopUniversities2014.)Anecdotalevidencesuggests
thatfactorsimpactingstudent’sexperiences,includinghowwelltheirreligious
needsaremet,maybeimportant(Perez-Pena2012.)DatafromtheIIEand
Brookingsshowpreferencesforschoolsinmetropolitanareasandcertainstatesbut
thatmaybeonthebasisofhavingafamilymemberorfriendalreadyinattendance
atthatHEI.ThisresearchconfirmstherolethatsocialnetworksplayinwhereSaudi
studentschoosetostudyintheUnitedStates.
Thethirdlevelisthemostindividual.Thisresearchexploredstudent’saccessto
formsofsocialcapitalandculturalcapitalthatcorrelatewithcollegechoiceasthey
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relatetohabitus,thevaluesandexpectationsthatarecommontoaparticularsocial
group.Variablesassociatedwithexpectancytheory,humancapitalinvestment
theory,andsocialandculturalcapitaltheorieswereusedtounderstandhowfactors
relatedtotheindividual’slifepredictschoolchoice.Socialcapitalreferstothe
influencethatparentsandwidersocialnetworksplayinchoosingtostudyabroad
andwheretogo.Socialandculturalcapitaltheoryoutlinetheimportanceofsocial
networksandconnectionsandpersonalattributesthatincludeculturalknowledge
andmannerismsindecidingwhetherornottoenrollincollege(Portes1998;
Granovetter1973.)Manystudiesaboutsocialcapitalandstudentchoiceidentify
SESvariablesassignificantpredictors.SESdataforSaudiArabiaisnotwidely
availablesotherewouldbenoabilitytoplacesuchinformationintomeaningful
contextforanalysis.Inkeepingwithpreviousresearchthatusedparental
involvementasaproxyforSESdata,demographicdatacollectedincludedparental
attitudesandeducationlevels.
Culturalcapitalisthemostpersonalassessmentofinfluencesonstudentchoice.It
viewspersonaltoolsthatincludelanguageabilities,beliefinthelikelihoodof
accomplishingsomething,opennesstoideas,andexposuretoforeignersthrough
travelorinteractionwithexpatriatesaspredictorsincollegechoiceandchoiceto
studyabroad(Hackney,etal.2014.)Saudistudentswereaskedaboutprevious
traveloutsidethecountryasaproxyforculturalcapital.
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ResearchDesign
Qualitativeandquantativeresearchisoftenconductedasacyclewhenresearching
newsocialproblemsorthosewhereaninitialphaseofexplorationisnecessaryto
determinekeyvariablesandconstructotherresearchinstruments(RemlerandVan
Ryzin2011.)Thiswasafirststudytoexaminethispopulationofstudentsinthe
UnitedStates.Usingmixedmethodsallowedtheresearchertocarefullyidentify
whichfactorswereimportanttostakeholdersandassesshowbesttoorganizethe
researchandapplyacomprehensivetheoreticalframework.Qualitativeinterviews
alowedfortheexplorationofthepopulationofSaudistudentsintheUnitedStates
andthepreparationofasurveyinstrumentthatwasadministeredonlinetoSaudi
studentsacrosstheentireU.S.
Interviews
Nineteensemi-structuredinterviewswereconductedwithelevenSaudistudents
andeightadministratorsatHEIsinthelocalNewYork/NewJerseyarea.Thereare
manyHEIsintheimmediateareathatoperateindiversesettings,suchasurban,
suburban,publicorprivateschools,therefore,arepresentativesamplingofHEI
experiencewaspossible.Theadministratorsinterviewedworkedwithinternational
studentsinavarietyofcapacities,fromacademicadvisementtovisacompliance
andlivingarrangements.Theyrepresentedabroadsamplingoftheeffortsputforth
byschoolstoprovidenecessarysupportsforgrowinginternationalstudent
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populations.ManyworkeddirectlywithstudentsfromMiddleEasterncountries
andhadfamiliaritywithstudentsfromSaudiArabia.ChainsamplingofSaudi
studentsofferedanrangeofstudentinterviewsbasedongender,levelofstudy,and
geographicaldispersionthatfacilitatedthedevelopofthesurveyinstrument.
Severalinterviewswithstudentswereconductedinpublicmeetingplacesincluding
cafesandcoffeeshops.Otherswereconductedoverthetelephone.Allinterviews
withschooladministratorswereconductedintheirofficesattheirrespective
school.
Allparticipantswereinformedthattheirnames,thenameoftheirschoolandany
personalinformationandanswerswouldremainconfidential.Participantswere
providedaninterviewconsentformwithaudiorecordingapprovedbytheRutgers
UniversityIRBtosignandonetokeepfortheirpersonalrecords.Theconsentform
identifiedthattheinterviewswereconfidential,allpersonalinformationwouldbe
removedupontranscriptionandacodednumberassignedtotheinterviewthat
wouldbestoredseparatelyinapassword-protectedcomputer.Furthermore,no
personalidentifierswouldbeusedinthedissertationincludingtheirname,school
oranyotherinformationthatwouldreasonablyleadtoidentification.Contact
informationfortheprimaryresearcherandfacultyadvisorwasprovided.The
interviewsrangedfromtwentyminutestolongerthanninetyminutesinseveral
cases.AllinterviewswereconductedinEnglish.WhilemanySaudistudentshave
strongEnglishlanguageskills,someofthoseinterviewedwerenewlyarrivedand
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onlybeginningtheirlanguagestudiesbeforemovingontotheiracademicstudies.In
onecaseastudentwasinterviewedthroughaninterpreter.
InterviewquestionsofadministratorsatHEIswerepreparedbasedonanalysisof
currentliteraturepublishedbyindustryadvocatesandjournalsdedicatedto
internationalhighereducation.Thesepublicationsfocusedonmarketingefforts,
problemsandconcerns,financialbenefitsassociatedwithinternationalstudents,
andongoingeffortstointegrateandmonitorinternationalstudents’experienceson
campus.
InterviewquestionspreparedforSaudistudentsweredesignedinaccordancewith
Figure7,theconceptualmodelforSaudistudentchoicetostudyintheU.S.In
additiontodemographicquestions,studentsweredirectedtoanswerquestionsthat
relatetogovernmentinfluence,mechanismsofchoice,socialandculturalcapital,
humancapitaldevelopment,andtheimpactofstudyingintheU.S.ontheirattitudes
andvalues.TheRutgersUniversityInternalReviewBoardapprovedallquestions
showninAppendixA.
Theinterviewsweredigitallyrecorded,transcribed,andthencodedusingNvivo
qualitativeanalysissoftware.AccordingtoRemlerandVanRyzin(2011)codingis
theprocessoftaggingorsortingtext,inthiscaseinterviewconversations,intoa
seriesofvariablesorotherstrandsthatfacilitateitsinterpretation.Codingsoftware
suchasNvivooffertheopportunitytoapplyquantitativemethodstoqualitative
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databutinthiscasethesoftwarewasusedtoorganizetheinterviewresponsesand
identifyoverlappingareasofconcernamongstudentsandschooladministrators.
Forexample,newareasofconcernemergedfromtheinterviews,including
problemswithacademicpreparationandplagiarism.Also,schoolofficialsreporta
lackofavailableassessmenttoolsthatallowsthemtounderstandifstudents’
personalandnon-academicneedsweremetthroughexistingprograms.Many
expresseduncertaintyabouthowtointegratestudentsfromSaudiArabiaintothe
campuscommunity.
Thecodingalsohighlightedseverallinguisticandrhetoricalpatternsspecificto
Saudistudentsthatwereusedwhenpreparingtheonlinesurvey.Forexample,most
literatureonhighereducationintheUnitedStatesreferstotheliberalartscore
requirementsasthefoundationoftheeducationalsystem.Saudistudents
universallyusedtheterm“generaleducationcourses”torefertotheclassesthey
wererequiredtotakeinordertosatisfytherequirementsoftheirdegree,nomatter
whattheirmajor.Thislanguagemirrorsthediscourseintheliteratureprovidedto
SaudistudentsfromSACMastheadministratoroftheKingAbdullahScholarship
ProgrambutisnotcommonlyusedbystudentsoradministratorsintheUnited
States.ThecommonreferenceintheU.S.isliberalartscourses.Theinterviewsand
analysisusingNvivoprovidedvaluableinsightintotheissuesthatSaudistudents
facedandtheassociatedpatternsofspeechthattheywouldrecognizewhentaking
thesurvey.
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SurveyDesignandAdministration
Thisresearchisadescriptiveexplorationaboutthepopulationofstudentsfrom
SaudiArabiawhochosetostudyintheUnitedStates.Theuseofanonlinesurvey
providedtheopportunitytoreachstudentsatalllevelsofstudyacrosstheentire
country.Therewerenopriorsurveysonthistopicbutportionsofthesurvey
attemptedtoreplicatequestionsaskedofSaudistudentsattendinguniversityin
SaudiArabiaandquestionsusedfortheWorldValuesSurvey.Thosesurveyswere
administeredinArabicandweredoneinperson.Notallrespondentstothose
surveyshaveacounterpartinthepopulationofSaudistudentsattendingschoolsin
theU.S.,whichincludesstudentsstudyingEnglishinpreparationofpursuingan
academicdegree.Still,itisusefultousequestionsfromthesepublishedsurveysto
providebenchmarkscomparingstudents’attitudesindifferentsettings.
ThesurveywaspreparedusingQualtricsSurveySoftware.Thesurveyconsistedof
24closedendedquestions.Thefirsttwoquestionsaskstudentstoconfirmthey
consenttoparticipateinthesurveyandthattheyareSaudistudentscurrentlyliving
andstudyingintheU.S.Applyingsurveylogicallowedfornegativerespondersto
thesequestiontoautomaticallyexitthesurveyandreducethenumberofnon-
usablesurveys.Questionsthreeandfourprovidedlistsofchoicesofinformation
sourcesandschoolfeaturesthatattractedstudents.Theselistswerederivedfrom
interviewresultsanddiscourseanalysisfromallstakeholdersandorganizedinto
individualquestionsforsimplicityandorganizationalclarity.Choiceswere
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randomizedtoprovideadifferentorderforeachrespondentandpreventover-
responsesforthefirstfewchoices.Questionsfivethroughtenaskstudentsto
evaluatetheirperceptionsabouteffortstheircurrentschoolmakestoaddresstheir
needs.ManySaudistudentscometotheU.S.asEnglishlanguagelearnersandattend
aseriesofotherschoolsbeforereturningtoSaudiArabia.Specificcarewastaken
whenwordingthesequestionstohighlightthatonlythecurrentschoolthestudent
isattendingisbeingevaluated.Studentswereprovidedthreesimplechoices
indicatingtheythinkitisenough,theywishtheschoolwouldoffermore,orno
opinion.
Questionseleventhroughfifteenaskstudentstorespondtostatementsabouttheir
experiences,theirfutureexpectations,andopinionsabouttolerance,theUnited
States,andchangingthecultureinSaudiArabia.Questionfifteenisacompositeof
severalquestionsaskedinthe“BridgingtheGap”surveyandtheWorldValues
SurveySaudiArabia2003.InconsiderationthatthissurveywasgiveninEnglishto
apopulationthatspeaksArabicasitsprimarylanguage,respondentswereoffered
choicesthatreflectedagreementasfollows:stronglyagree,agree,neitheragreeor
disagree,disagree,andstronglydisagree.Theremainingquestionsaskedabout
individualcharacteristicsincludinggender,degreebeingsought,amountof
previoustraveloutsideofSaudiArabiaandparentaleducationalattainment.Care
wastakentoofferanequalnumberofpositiveandnegativeresponsesandnotto
overburdenthesurveyrespondentswithcomplicatedlanguageoranexcessive
numberofquestions.OverallquestiondesignwasimprovedwiththehelpofFowler
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(1995)andRemlerandVanRyzin(2011)inordertoimprovequestionclarity,avoid
ambiguity,andimprovetheefficiencyofthesurvey.Pretestingofthesurveywas
doneamongSaudistudentswhowereinterviewedtoconfirmthequestionswere
clear,thelanguagewasunambiguous,andthelengthofthesurveywasnotan
imposition.Studentcommentswereincorporatedandfinaladjustmentsmade.
ThesurveywaslaunchedinDecember2015.(AppendixB)Studentgroupsat
universitiesacrosstheUnitedStatesweresentemailsaskingSaudistudent
memberstoparticipateinthesurvey.Theemailscontainedanexplanationofthe
study,theconsentformapprovedbytheRutgersUniversityIRBandananonymous
surveylinkthatcouldbesharedwithotherSaudistudents.Over450emailswere
sendandapproximately25SaudiStudentOrganizationslistedontheSACMwebsite
wereapproachedthroughFacebookand175Saudistudentorganizationswere
contactedonTwitter.ThesurveywasclosedonFebruary15,2016with262
completedsurveys.
StrengthsandLimitations
Researchintoanytopicisimpactedbytheavailabilityandreliabilityofinformation.
Thisresearchhasbeenhelpedbytheavailabilityofpublicrecordsandpeer
reviewedpapersinpublishedjournals.Thereareextensivepublicmaterials
concerningU.S.governmentattitudesaboutforeignstudentsthatofferinsightinto
thepoliticalandeconomicmotivationsoftheU.S.government.Theyconsistof
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congressionaltestimony,U.S.governmentpolicypapers,interviews,etc.Published
studiesbyindependentresearchorganizationsoftenincludeddataobtained
throughFreedomofInformationActapplications.Theavailabilityofprimarysource
documentsaswellasextensivesecondarysourceshavecontributedtothisresearch
byallowingforthedevelopmentofthehistoricalnarrativethatinformsthepresent
caseofSaudistudentsintheUnitedStates.
TheSaudigovernmentismorechallengingbecauseofthelackoftransparencyand
limitationsonjournalistswritingaboutthecountry.ThegovernmentofSaudi
Arabiapublishesinformationonofficialgovernmentwebsitesanddataisavailable
frominstitutionalorganizationssuchasUNESCOandtheCIA.Inaddition,theSaudi
ArabiaCulturalMission(SACM)inWashington,D.C.isasourceofinsightabouttheir
roleinsupportingSaudistudentsintheU.S.SACMmonitorsstudentsoncethey
arriveintheU.S.andconstitutestheformallinkbetweenthestudentsandtheir
homecountrywhilelivingabroad.ManypublicationsfromtheSaudiArabian
MinistryofHigherEducationareinArabicandareavailableinEnglishtranslation.
Othersourcesofinformation,includingsurveysofstudentsandcitizensinSaudi
ArabiaweredoneinArabicandlatertranslatedtoEnglishforpublication.Research
onanytopicconcerningSaudiArabiaislimitedbythelackofpublicinformationand
thelackofindependentpolicyanalysisfromacountrywithanauthoritariansystem
ofgovernmentthatallowsforlimitedpublicdissent.
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ValidityandUses
SomeofthefindingsarecomparablewithpublisheddatafromNAFSAaboutbroad
categorizationstoshowvalidity,includinghowstudentsgatherinformationand
respondtooutreacheffortsbyHEIs.Otherresultsarecomparabletothelargein-
countrystudyofSaudistudentattitudesconductedbyWomenwithoutBorders
publishedin2011.Themorefinelydetailedinformationprovidedfromthis
researchisavaluablecomponentofthestudy.Forexample,somefindingsare
usefulforHEIswhohopetorecruitmoreSaudistudents.Otherfindingsmay
indicateiftheintentionsoftheKASPprogramarebeingmet.Thisaspectofthe
researchmaynotbeimmediatelyapparentsinceSaudistudentsareonlybeginning
toreturntothecountryandentertheworkforce.Also,anymoderationinsocial
attitudeswillbeborneoutoverdecades,ifatall.Thisresearchpresentsanearly
stageinassessingiftheSaudigovernment’seconomicandsocialgoalsare
successfullymet.
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ChapterFive:FindingsonInstitutionalActorsThischapterwillfocusontheinstitutionalactorsinvolvedinforeignstudent
mobilityintheUnitedStates.Theexplanatorydimensionsofthisresearchwill
includethekeyactors’mainmotivations,examinedaseconomic,political,and
ideological.Theirgoalsandthemeansbywhichtheycarrythemoutwillalsobe
reviewed.Interviewresultsuncoveredspecificareasofconcernthatshapedthe
actionsofhighereducationinstitutions.TheseinstitutionalactorsaretheU.S.
government,thegovernmentofSaudiArabiaasthespecificinstitutionpromoting
studyabroadtotheU.S.bytheirstudents,andU.S.HigherEducationInstitutions
(HEIs)andthesupportingindustry,whichconsistsoforganizationssuchasIIE,
NAFSA,OBHE,andBrookingsInstitute.
U.SGovernment
U.S.governmentdepartmentsandagenciesinvolvedinthisdiscussionaretheU.S.
Congress,theDepartmentofStatewhichincludestheconsularofficesabroad,SEVIS,
theStudentandExchangeVisitorInformationSystemaspartofSEVIP,theStudent
andExchangeVisitorProgram,theDepartmentofHomelandSecurity(DHS),
ImmigrationsandCustomsEnforcementAgency(ICE),andtheU.S.Borderand
CustomsServicewhichcoordinateswiththeDepartmentofStateatthepointof
entryintothecountry.ThePresidentoftheUnitedStatesandCongresshavebeen
participantsinshapingU.S.lawsandprogramsforforeignstudentscomingtothe
U.S.andhowtheyaresupervised.Eachoftheseactorsisresponsibleforprotecting
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nationalsecurityandfightingterrorismwhilekeepingthedoorsopento
internationalstudentsandpromotinginternationaleducationasapolicytool.
U.S.GovernmentMotivations
TheU.S.governmentactivelysupportsforeignstudentscomingtothecountryfor
highereducation.Economically,highereducationisoneofthecountry’slargest
exports.NAFSA(2014)reportedthatinternationalstudentscontributed$26.8
billiontotheU.S.economyinthe2013/2014schoolyear.Thiswasan8.5percent
increasefromlastyearand,accordingtotheBrookingsInstitute,resultedinthe
creationofover340,000jobs.In2015,NAFSAreportedtheamountroseto$30.5
billionandinternationalstudentssupportedmorethan373,000jobsinthe2014-15
schoolyear(NAFSA:AssociationofInternationalEducators2015.)Theeconomic
contributionofforeignstudentsissurprisinglylarge.Asacomparison,themovie
industryintheU.S.grossed$11.1billionindomesticticketsalesin2015(YearlyBox
OfficeResults),underscoringtheeconomicsignificanceoftheindustry.
TheU.S.governmentuseshighereducationforideologicalreasons.Sincetheendof
WorldWarIIandthebeginningoftheColdWartheU.S.hasusededucationboth
hereandabroadasawaytospreadAmericanvaluesandculture.Manyforeign
leaderstodaycitetheirtimestudyingabroadasshapingtheirvaluesandinfluencing
theirpolicydecisions.Congressidentifiedthisasoneoftheimperativesforre-
establishingthenon-immigrantstudentvisaprogramafter9/11.
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TheothermotivationforU.S.governmentactionstowardSaudistudentsispolitical.
SaudiArabiaistheU.S.’smostsignificantallyintheArabianGulf.SaudiArabia’soil
wealthandpositionasthelargestproducerinOPECisthebasisfortheU.S.-Saudi
relationship,oneofthemostimportantrelationshipsfortheU.S.intheMiddleEast.
InrecognitionoftheimportanceofthisrelationshiptheU.S.governmentadjusted
itsvisapolicyattherequestofKingAbdullahin2005.
U.S.GovernmentGoalsandMeans
FortheU.S.Government,thegoalofsupportingforeignstudentscomingtotheU.S.
servesaneconomicpurpose;itfurtherenhancesourownhumancapital
development.Long-termexposuretointernationalstudentshelpsU.S.students
developtheinterculturalskillsneededtosuccessfullyoperateintheglobal
economy.Itprovidesthebasisformanyinternationalexchangesandimproved
traderelations.Thepersonalrelationshipsthatforeignstudentsbuildserveasthe
basisforincreasedfuturecommercialandpoliticalexchanges.Anothergoalrelates
tothecurrentanti-AmericansentimentcausedbytheU.S.waronterror.After9/11
andtheU.S.invasionofIraq,theU.S.lostmuchofitsgoodreputationintheregion.
RebuildingtrustandgoodwillintheMiddleEastisasteptowardsreestablishingthe
UnitedStates’cultural,political,andeconomicinfluenceinworldaffairs.
Themeansforaccomplishingthesegoalswastheeasingofvisarestrictionsin2005
toclearthebacklogofstudents,particularlyfromSaudiArabia.Thisispartofa
largervisionformaintainingstrongtieswithothercountriesbutstudentsfrom
SaudiArabiahavebecomeanincreasinglylargesegmentofthepopulationof
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foreignstudentscomingtotheU.S.TheImmigrationandCustomsEnforcement
AgencyoftheU.S.DepartmentofHomelandSecurityimplementedandoverseesthe
StudentExchangeandVisitorProgram(SEVIP)thatprovidedamechanismfor
issuingandtrackingnonimmigrantvisastostudentsandtheirdependentswho
cometotheU.S.Thissystemwasimplementedinthewakeoftherealizationsofthe
originsoffifteenofthenineteenperpetratorsofthe9/11attacksthatwereinthe
U.S.onstudentvisas.SEVIS,thecomputerizedsystemthatschoolsandstudents
mustnowuse,wasimplementedbeginningin2005to“trackandmonitorschools;
exchangevisitorprograms;andF,MandJnonimmigrantswhiletheyvisitthe
UnitedStatesandparticipateintheU.S.educationsystem.”(U.S.Immigrationsand
CustomsEnforcement,2016)SEVISisusedbytheU.S.governmenttoensurethat
foreignstudentsarehereforeducationalpurposesandarecomplyingfullywiththe
termsoftheirvisas.
Theeventsof9/11andtheirimpactonU.S.governmentpolicyandpractices
TheinitialreportthattwooftheidentifiedhijackerswereintheUnitedStateson
studentvisaimmediatelycausedwidespreadcondemnationoftheprogramthat
allowedthementryintothecountry.Readingthetestimonyfromthosefirst
hearingsisinformativeandsomewhatshocking.Itwouldbemanymonthsbefore
thevisastatusofthevarioushijackerswasknown.Itisdifficulttobelievethatthere
wassuchalackofcapacitytomonitorincomingstudentsandthenlearnthatmany
previouslyproposedsystemsformonitoringstudentvisaholderswerenever
implemented.Inaddition,thetestimonyshowedtherewasnocooperationamong
agenciesaboutpeoplewhoremainedunaccountedfor.
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Theseearlyhearingsalsofocusedonthefactthatfifteenofthenineteenalleged
perpetratorswereofSaudiArabianorigin.TheSaudistudentpopulationcame
underseverescrutinyinthefollowingyears,andallinternationalstudentsfaced
increasedscreening.Thelackofaccurateorfinelydetailedinformationintheearly
daysaftertheattacksputaspotlightonasystemthatwaseasilymanipulatedand
hadfew,ifany,crediblecontrols.OneoftheSaudihijackerswasimmediately
identifiedasintheUnitedStatesonastudentvisa.Hehadoverstayedandwasnot
attendingclasses.ThiswouldhavebeenfoundiftheSEVISnotificationsystemthat
wasauthorizedbutneverfundedorimplementedhadbeenoperational.Thiswas
thecaseofalessonnotlearned;oneoftheconvictedterroristsfromthe1993
bombingoftheWorldTradeCentercameinonastudentvisa.He,too,haddropped
outofschoolandwasnevertrackedbythegovernmentfordeportation.
Theinitialhearingshighlightedthatlittlewasknownaboutthecriteriausedforvisa
approvals.OnlythreepercentofSaudivisaapplicationswereturneddownbyU.S.
consularofficersinthatcountryin2000and2001,anextremelylownumber.Yet,at
thattime,nearlytwentyfivepercentofallU.S.visaseekersworldwideweredenied
visasbyothercountries.TheStateDepartmentofficialsmaintainedthatSaudi
Arabiawasalowfraudcountry,thus,documentationpresentedwasassumed
legitimate.Also,moststudentswereabletoprovideevidenceofpersonalfinancial
resourcessotheywerenotlikelytoseekworkwhilehereinviolationoftheirvisas.
Noadditionalscrutinywasapplied.Studentsfrompoorercountriesweremore
regularlydeniedvisas(U.S.Congress,2008).
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TheconclusionamongthemembersofCongresswasunequivocalthatnational
securitywasthesingularpriority,paramounttoeducationalandculturalexchange.
Sincetherewasnosystemtotrackstudentsanddeportthem,theywouldbekept
outofthecountry.Asix-monthmoratoriumontheissuanceofvisaswasproposed,
whichcouldbeextendedifneeded.Additionalactionwasproposedtocoordinate
theimplementationofSEVIS,thecomputerizedstudentdatabase,withINSand
otherStateDepartmentofficials.Therewasconcernaboutthemoratoriumfrom
Congressionalmemberswhosestateshadlargepopulationsofforeignstudents,in
particularCalifornia.Thelossofrevenuefrominternationalstudentswas
mentionedatthattimebutnotwidelydiscussed.
AreadingofthecongressionalrecordsfromOctober2001tothepresentshowsa
similargroupofthemesandconcernsexpressedamongthestakeholders.The
testimoniespresentedandthebillsputforwardinitiallyhadtodowiththehuge
backlogofstudentvisasandtheproblemshighereducationinstitutions(HEIs)had
inimplementingSEVIS,thedatabasetheywereresponsibleforregularlyupdating
witheveryacceptedforeignstudent’sstatus.BySeptember2002therestrictionson
studentvisaswascausingwidespreadconcernatthoseschoolswithlargenumbers
ofinternationalstudentsinthemiddleoftheirstudiesthere.Manyforeignstudents
wereunabletoreenterthecountryafter9/11tofinishtheirdegrees(U.S.Congress,
2004).
133
Moreimportantly,thefalloffininternationalstudentscreatedotherrealproblems,
suchasthelackofmastersanddoctorallevelcandidatesinmanyadvanced
programsintheSTEMsubjects,andthelossofrevenuetodestinationschoolsand
theircommunitiesfrominternationalstudents.Thevisadelayswereencouraging
thebeststudentsandscholarstochooseprogramsinothercountries.These
concernswerefrequentlyvoicedbymembersofCongressandmembersoftheHEI
community,butoftendeliveredaspartofawiderconversationonthenational
importanceofeducationalexchangeswithforeignstudentsandthelong-term
impactonforeignstudentswhoreturnhomeimbuedwithdeepknowledgeabout
Americaanditsvalues.Asoneuniversitypresidentaftertheothertestified,thelist
ofnamesofforeignleadersandtheiradvisorswhoattendedschoolsintheU.S.is
long.TheserelationshipsarevitaltotheU.S.nationalinterestsinthelongrun.
EvenColinPowellwasfrequentlyreferencedasastrongadvocateforinternational
educationasawaytodisseminatethevaluesofdemocracyandpromotelong-term
linksbetweeninstitutionsandpeoplehereandabroad(U.S.Congress,2004).
Otherconcernsaboutthevisabacklogrelatedtotheincreasinglycompetitive
marketforinternationaleducation.Capturingforeignheartsandmindsthrough
crossculturalexchangeisimportantbutsoisenticingthebestengineeringstudents
tochooseHEIsintheUnitedStatesoverChina,Canada,andagrowinglistof
countriesofferingprogramsinEnglishandwithstateoftheartresearchfacilities.
Therewerecallstoconcretelyaddressthevisabacklog,whichhadreachedacritical
stageby2005(Wildavsky2010).Today,themostrecentchallengefacingHEIs
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relatestogeneralimmigrationissuesintheU.S.,wherethetopscience,math,and
engineeringstudentscanonlystayforshortperiodsaftergraduating,thereforenot
contributingtothelongtermgrowthoftheU.S.economy.Inaddition,the
opportunitytoremainintheU.S.upongraduationandhavelong-termresident
statusmightserveasstrongincentiveforthebeststudentstochoosetheU.S.over
anothercountry.This,alongwithincreasingcompetitionfromothercountries,has
reducedtheU.S.shareofinternationalstudentsfromtwentythreepercentin2000
tosixteenpercentby2012(Choudaha,2014).
TheStudentVisaBacklog
InMarch2003,atacongressionalhearingentitled“Dealingwithforeignstudents
andscholarsinaageofterrorism:visabacklogs,”RepresentativeNickSmithof
Michigannotedthatinthedayssince9/11welearnedthatthenineteenterrorists
receivedatotaloftwentythreevisasatfivedifferentposts,includingstudentvisas.
AccordingtoSmith,“Evenmoretelling,sixmonthsaftertheterroristattacks,
approvalnoticesforstudentvisaswereissuedfortwoofthehijackers,Mohammed
AttaandMarwanAl-Shehhi.”Inotherwords,howcouldthisstillbehappening?
Smith’scommentshighlightedtherealitiesthatcreatingasystemtoprevent
terroristsfromcominginasstudentswasadauntingchallengethatthenationhad
notyetmet.Inaddition,itwasclearthatstudentsfromSaudiArabiaremaineda
seriousconcern.
ThenumberofstudentsapprovedforvisastoentertheU.S.comingfromSaudi
Arabiafelltoatrickle.ThereisnoavailabledataforthenumberofSaudistudent
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visadenialsbutthenumberofapprovalsforallstudentsworldwidefelland
approvalsforSaudistudentscomingtotheU.S.fellmostacutely.
ThisproblemwasaddresseddirectlybytheKingofSaudiArabiaduringhisApril,
2005visittoWashington,D.C.(WeeklyCompilationofPresidentialDocuments,
2005).PresidentBushreleasedajointstatementwithSaudiKingAbdullah.In
additiontotheverylonglistofstrategicintereststheU.S.shareswithSaudiArabia,
includingoil,Iraq,thenon-proliferationofnuclearweaponsintheregion,the
Palestinianissue,andU.S.supportforSaudimembershipintheWTO,therewas
specificmentionoftheneedtoexpandculturalandeducationalexchanges.Within
monthsofthismeetingasecondconsularofficewasopenedinSaudiArabiato
enablepotentialvisaapplicantstohavetheirnewlyrequiredinterviewsinamore
timelyfashionandbyearly2006thebacklogwasbeingaddressed.Thecurrentrate
ofgrowthforSaudistudentsbeinggrantedF-1visasisfasterthantherateofgrowth
forallstudentsbeinggrantedvisas.Today,nearlyhalfofallSaudiswhoattend
schoolsoutsideofthecountrychoosetostudyintheUnitedStates.
TheSaudigovernmentwasnottheonlygrouppressingtheU.S.forsomevisarelief.
AccordingtoBloombergNewstheindiscriminantapplicationofthenewsecurity
ruleswashurtingschoolsalloverthecountry,especiallythosewithprogramsin
technologythatreliedheavilyonforeignstudents.By2006theStatedepartment
hadcreatedfivehundredandfifteenmoreconsularjobs,trainedstaffed,and
automatedmanyofitssystemstobettercoordinatewithothergovernmentagencies
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(BloombergBusinessweekTechnology,2006).Theresultswereevidentinthe
reductionofthebacklogandincreaseinthenumberofforeignstudentsstudyingin
theU.S.
SaudiArabianGovernment
KingSalman,theMinistryofHigherEducation(MOHE)whichwasestablishedin
1975tooverseemattersregardinghighereducation,andthevariousSACM,Saudi
ArabianCulturalMinistriesaroundtheworldaredirectlyinvolvedinthemovement
andsupervisionofstudentsabroad.TheDeputyMinistryforScholarshipAffairs
managestheKASP,theKingAbdullahScholarshipProgram.TheGeneral
AdministrationofPlanningundertheMOHEiscurrentlyimplementingthe
government’splanstoexpandthenumberofschoolsandupdatethecountry’s
curriculum.Italsopublishescomprehensivereportsonthestatusoftheprograms,
includinghighereducationinsideSaudiArabiaandtheKASP.
TheGovernmentofSaudiArabia’sMotivations
ThegovernmentofSaudiArabiafacesalonglistofchallenges,someduetodomestic
socialconditions,othersrelatingtothepoliticalturmoilintheregion.Thedeathof
KingAbdullahbinAbdulaziz,onJanuary23,2015,addstothesechallenges.Amain
motivationoftheSaudigovernmentiseconomic.SaudiArabiahasayouthbulge
withmorethansixtypercentofthepopulationundertheageofthirty.
Unemploymentisaconsiderableproblem,evenamongcollegegraduates.
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ThedatainTable14showscontinuedunderemploymentofSaudisintheirown
country.TheIMFanticipatescontinuedeconomicgrowthinthecountryrelatedto
theenergysectorbutconfirmsthatthereisaneedtoimprovethecompetitiveness
ofworkersintheprivatesectorandreformthelabormarkets.Jobcreationinthe
privatesectorremainsasignificantchallenge.
Table14:UnemploymentinSaudiArabia
OverallRate SaudiCitizenRate
1999 4percent 8percent
2001 4percent 8percent
2003 5percent 10percent
2005 6percent 12percent
2007 5percent 11percent
2009 5percent 10percent
2011 5percent 12percent
2013 6percent 12percent
2014 5.5percent 11.5percent
Source:IMFCountryReportNo.13/229July2013andIMFCountryReportNo.
14/292September2014
Theeconomicconcernsofhighunemploymentandrisinglivingcostsarefueling
politicalproblems.Thereisgrowingdiscontentinsidethecountryoverthelackof
economicopportunitiesandthereispressuretoaddresstherestrictionsthatlimit
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accesstojobsforwomen,whoareincreasinglyseenasanecessaryeconomicforce.
Theyouthbulge,highunemploymentforcollegegraduates,anover-saturatedpublic
sector,andtherisingcostoflivingthathasmadethetwo-incomehouseholda
necessityareallsourcesoftensioninsidetheKingdom.TheKinghasneverfaceda
seriouschallengetohisruleandtherehavebeenonlymutedcallsforthe
establishmentofaconstitutionalmonarchy.Nevertheless,KingAbdullahchosenot
toignorethegrowingpressureonthecountryforsometypeofreform.Education
policyisattheheartofthesereforms.
ThereisalsoanideologicalmotivationfortheSaudigovernmenttosupportthe
internationalizationofeducation.ThecountryhasitsowndividebetweenIslamic
sects,theSunniandShiapopulationsinsidethecountry,andthecountryfaces
challengesfromterroristsbothinsideSaudiArabiaandinnearbycountries.The
SaudigovernmentismotivatedtoaddressthemoreextremeIslamicideologiesthat
arefuelingtheinstabilityintheentireMiddleEastNorthAfricaregionand
undermineSaudiArabia’spositionasthemostinfluentialcountryintheGulf.
SaudiGovernmentGoalsandMeans
ForthegovernmentofSaudiArabia,thegoalofsupportingalargenumberofSaudi
studentsattendingschoolsintheU.S.two-fold.TheSaudiGovernmentisusing
educationasawaytobuildhumancapital,hopingitwilldiversifytheeconomy
beyondoilandbuildadomesticworkforcecapableofexpandingtheprivatesector.
Theothergoalistomodernizethesocietybyopeningituptowesternnormsand
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standards.Thereisaneedtosecularizetheeducationsystemandreformcurricula
andteachingmethods.TheSaudigovernmenthasalsoinferredthatithopesto
reducetheappealofradicalIslamamongdisaffectedyouth.
EducationPolicyinSaudiArabia
TheEducationPolicyDocumentissuedbytheSupremeCommitteeforEducational
PolicyCouncilofMinistersin1969providesthefoundationforeducationinthe
country.TheMinistryofHigherEducation(MOHE)wasestablishedin1975to
overseeallmattersregardinghighereducation.TheestablishmentoftheHigher
EducationCouncilin1993createdaformallystructuredagencywithachairman
andspecificlawsthatcovertheadministrativeandregulatoryissuesofthe
Kingdom’shighereducationpolicy.TodaytheHigherEducationCouncilunderthe
MOHEisresponsibleforallmatterspertainingtopost-secondaryeducationinthe
Kingdom.TheMOHEisactivelyworkingtoimprovequalityandavailabilityof
highereducationwithintheKingdomandhasbegunaninitiativetomodernizethe
entiresystemtomeettheneedsofthe“knowledgesociety.”WhiletheK-12
educationiscriticizedforitsheavyemphasisonreligiouseducation,since2000the
governmenthasinstitutedplanstoaddressdeficienciesandsupportpreviously
underrepresentedgroupswithinitssociety,includingpoorerstudentsandShiitesin
pursuinghighereducation(MOHE2013).
The2013assessmentreportpublishedbytheSaudiMinistryofHigherEducation
DepartmentofPlanningandInformationofferedadetailedreviewofprogressto
dateandthenextstepsneededtomeettheirgoalofupdatingtheeducationsystem.
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Thewordinginthesereportsemphasizeseconomicdevelopment,notspecifically
socialchangesalthoughthatisthesubtextoftenreadintotheKing’sstatementson
educationreform.UnlikeotherGulfStatesthathavechosentoimporteducation
fromdevelopingcountries,theSaudiapproachhasbeentoundertakealarge-scale
transformationofitsowneducationsystem.Theeffortsincludeincreasingthe
numberofprimaryschools,collegesanduniversitiesalloverthecountrytoinclude
underservedareas,improvingmanagement,evaluatingcurriculaforquality,and
adoptinginternationalmeasurementstoassessperformance(Education,2013).The
countryhasbegunadministeringinternationalassessmentteststolowerschool
childrenandkeepingotherdatathatisusableforlongitudinalevaluations.
Increasingphysicalcapacityandmodernizingcurriculaareattemptstoraisethe
country’seducationalprofiletomeetrecognizedinternationalstandards.
AccordingtotheMOHE,since1990thenumberofpublicandprivateuniversities
grewfrom7to33by2011,thenumberofcollegesincreasedfrom83to543and
academicdepartmentsgrewfrom400to2,393.Geographicdiversityisidentifiedas
apriorityinordertoprovideaccesstoeducationamongallthe85provinces,many
oftheminpreviouslyunderservedareas.Studentenrolmentinhighereducation
rosefrom404,000in2000tomorethan1.1millionin2012.Thegovernment
providesamonthlystipendtoeveryonewhoundertakesfulltimestudy.According
totheMOHE,85%ofallregisteredstudentsqualifyforthestipend.Graduate
studentsaregivenanannualstipendofapproximatelyUSD20,000(Jamjoom,
2012).
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Inadditiontoprovidingsupportsforinternetuseandonlinecourses,theMOHEalso
nowtracksinternationalrankings,suchastheUSNewsandWorldReportandthe
ChineseShanghaiJiaoTongRankingofWorldUniversities,withthegoalofseeing
theirownuniversityrankingsimprovebasedonobjectivelymeasuredinternational
standards.TheKingSaudUniversity,theonlySaudischooltobreakintothetop400
intheworld,movedupfrom247thplacein2009to197thinUSNewsandWorld
Reportin2012.TheMOHEpublicationspresentthisasavalidationofthe
government’seffortsatoverhaulingtheentiresystem,a“comprehensive
renaissance”accordingtotheMOHE,andconfirmationthatSaudiuniversitiescan
successfullycompetewiththeirregionalandinternationalcounterparts(Education,
2013).
EducationreformisanexpensiveundertakinginSaudiArabia.Accordingtothe
SaudiArabiaBusinessCouncil,thegovernmentisallocating$54billiontoeducation
for2014,25%ofitstotalbudget,thehighestamountintheworld.Thisrepresentsa
3%increaseoverlastyearandcontinuesatrendofbudgetallocationsof20%or
greatersince2000.TheMOHEidentifiesalonglistofcurrentinitiativesincluding
1,900buildingprojectscurrentlyunderway.Theseprojectsrangefromschool
refurbishmentstobuildingentirenewcampuses,suchastheSAR9.4billion(USD
2.6billion)beingspenttoexpandKingSaudUniversitytoincludeacampusfor
womenandUS$750millionforateachinghospital.Intotal,theneartermbudget
forexpansionexceedsUS$12billion,whichincludessevennanotechnologyresearch
centersaspartoftheoverallefforttodevelopthenation’sprimaryresearchbase.
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University-housedresearchcenters,scienceparks,andtechnologyincubatorshave
beenbuiltasoutreachforumstoprivatecompanies.
Bysomemeasurethecountryisadvancingtowardthedevelopmentofamore
competitive,technologydriveneconomybutitsglobalrankingsforintellectual
activityandcompetitivenessshowlimitedresultstodate.TheUNWorld
InternationalPropertyOrganization,WIPO,rankedSaudiArabia42of142countries
forglobalinnovationin2013,upfrom48in2012.Yet,thecountry’srankingfor
KnowledgeandTechnologicaloutputwasonly78of142,showingthatknowledge
creationisalongtermproject,onethatrequiressustainedeffortandincreasing
connectivitytootherknowledgecommunities(GlobalInnovationIndex2013).
InternationalizationandtheKingAbdullahScholarshipProgram
TheMOHEidentifiedinternationalizationoftheeducationsystemasanecessary
steptowarddevelopingagloballycompetitiveknowledgesociety.Accordingto
MOHEpublications,akeycomponentofthisisfosteringculturalexchangeby
acceptingforeignstudentsintothecountryandencouragingSaudistostudyabroad.
TheKingAbdullahScholarshipProgram(KASP)isoneofthemostambitiousefforts
ofanynationintermsofgovernmentfundedoutwardmobility(Altbach2014).The
SaudigovernmentspentapproximatelyUS$2.4billionontheprogramin2011and
budgetedUS$5.9billionforscholarshipssupporting185,000studentsandfamilies
studyingabroadin2014(SABC2014).
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Scholarshipshavebeenfundedbythegovernmentsince1927whenfourteen
studentsweresenttoEgypttostudyindisciplinesrangingfromSharialawto
agricultureandmedicine.Thenumberofstudentsfundedbythegovernmentgrew
withthestate’srevenue.Theresponsibilityforsupervisingscholarsabroadwas
formallydelegatedtotheMOHEin1975.In2005,aDeputyMinistryforScholarship
AffairswasestablishedtooverseetheKingAbdullahScholarshipProgram(KASP).
TheKASPrepresentsamajorefforttointernationalizetheeducationofyoung
Saudisanddramaticallyimproveskillsinthesciences,technology,andother
prioritydisciplinesincludingbusinessadministration.ItisalsotheSaudi
government’sresponsetothestrainedrelationshipwiththeU.S.afterthe9/11
attacks,whenfifteenofthenineteenattackerswereSaudicitizens.After2001,visa
approvalsforSaudistudentstryingtostudyintheU.S.felltoatrickle.In2005,King
AbdullahpersonallyapproachedPresidentBushtoaddresstheissue,hopingto
amendsomeofthenegativeperceptionsofthecountrybysendingyoungSaudisto
theU.S.,promotebetterU.S.-Saudirelationsinordertocombatextremism,andalso
provideSaudistudentswithopportunitiesforadvancededucation.
EducationreformisthemeansbywhichtheSaudigovernmentistryingtoaddress
theeconomic,political,andideologicalchallengesitcurrentlyfaces.The
governmentisspendingheavilytoincreasetheavailabilityofschoolstopreviously
underservedcommunities.KingAbdullahwasattemptingtochangethecultureof
thecountryandtoencouragecurriculumreformbypresentingmodernizationof
educationinanIslamiclightandasanationalsuccessthatprovesthesuperior
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worthoftheSaudipeople.Thescholarshipprogramisakeycomponentofthis
effort.
WhydoesSaudiArabianotsimplyimportschoolslikeotherGulfcountriesinan
efforttobringitsowneducationsystemuptointernationalstandards?Thisiswhat
nearlyalltheotherGulfcountrieshavedone.TheSaudigovernmentisoptingto
senditsstudentsabroadratherthaninvitingforeignschoolsintothecountry.The
KASPisthemeansbywhichtheSaudigovernmentisexposinglargenumbersofits
beststudentstowesternstyleeducationandmodesofliving.TheKASPisofferedto
bothShi’iteandSunnistudents.TheKASPwaslaunchedin2005asafive-year
initiative.Itwasreneweduntil2020andKingSalmanhaspledgedtocontinue
Abdullah’spoliciesbuttheinternaltensionbetweenthevoicesforreformandthe
powerfulreligiousconservativesremainanissue.
ScholarshipsaregiventoSaudimenandwomenwhowishtostudyatthelevelof
bachelor,masters,PhD,ormedicalfellowship.Womenarenearlyonequarterofthe
SaudiscurrentlystudyingintheU.S.Studentsareawardedscholarshipstostudyin
approvedcountriesandatapprovedschoolsbasedonthelevelofstudy.Aschool
mayonlybeapprovedforstudyattheundergraduatelevelandrequireaseparate
approvalforhigher-levelstudy.Theapprovedlistforscholarshipsispublished
annuallybytheMOHE.Theprocessforgettingontheapproved/recommendedlist
isnotmadepublicbutdoesconsiderregionalandprofessionalaccreditation,such
asbytheMiddleStatesAssociationofCollegesandSchoolsandtheAACSB,the
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AssociationtoAdvanceCollegiateBusinessSchoolsofBusiness.ESLprogramsmust
beaccreditedbyoneoffourprofessionallanguageassociations.Therearereports
thatthegovernmentmayplacelimitsonthelengthofstudyandwhichschoolsare
approvedinanefforttoreigninspending(Kottasova,2016)becauseofthecurrent
budgetcrisis.
TheKASPwasfirstinstitutedin2005forstudybeginningin2006.TheUnited
Stateswastheonlycountryapprovedforstudyin2006andAustralia,NewZealand,
China,andelevenotherAsiancountrieswereaddedin2007.Canadaandtwenty-
twoEuropeancountrieswereaddedin2008.TheMOHEremovedtheU.K.fromthe
approvedlistforscholarshipsin2009becauseitreachedthesaturationlevelfor
Saudistudents.TheKASPsponsorspreviouslyself-fundedstudentsinapproved
countries.SponsorshipforAustraliawasendedafteroneyearduetotheheavy
concentrationofSaudistudentsatspecificuniversities.Accordingtothe
government’swebsite,limitsareplacedonthepercentageofSaudiArabianscholars
atanygivenuniversityorESLprogramtoensurethattheconcentrationwillnotget
toolarge.ThegovernmentopenlystatesthatithopestoencourageSaudistudents
tointegrateintothelocalcommunityforthesocialexposureandacademicbenefits.
AccordingtotheSaudiArabiaCulturalMission(SACM)approvedareasofstudyare
degreeprogramsinmedicalandhealthsciences,engineering,business,science,
technology,andmath.Thelistofapprovedacademicdisciplinesforgraduate
studentsismoreextensive.
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StudentsregistertheirapplicationsontheMOHEwebsite.Onceapprovedthey
attendaninformationforumprovidingthemwithdetailsabouttheirrightsand
responsibilitiesintheprogramaswellaspreparatorysessionsonwhattoexpectin
theirdestinationcountry.Afterattendingtheforumanofficialcertificateof
academicacceptanceisissuedandthestudentcanapplyforastudentvisa.Oncethe
visaisgrantedthestudentreceivesanofficialdecreefromtheMOHEandthe
scholarshipisfundedandairlineticketsareprovided.
Thewifeofascholarshipstudentorcompanionofafemalestudentiseligibleto
studyEnglishoranotherlanguage,payableatthegovernment’sexpenseandsimply
withtheapprovaloftheculturalattachéattherelevantembassy.Thesecompanions
arealsoeligibletoapplyforscholarshipsoncetheysuccessfullycompletetheir
languagetraining.Itshouldbenotedthatthereisanincreaseofunaccompanied
femalesnowstudyingoutsidethecountry(Lebaron2013).
SupervisionofscholarshipstudentsisundertheauthorityofthevariousSaudi
culturalmissions(SACM).Thisincludesacademicsupervision,fundsdisbursement,
workingwithstudentsongainingfulladmissiontotheprogramsoftheirchoice,and
monitoringeachstudentonaregularbasis.TheSACMalsosupervisesstudentswho
studyinacountryattheirownexpense,maintainingarelationshipwiththemby
offeringroundtripairlineticketsbacktoSaudiArabiaandbonusesforoutstanding
academicperformance.Insomeinstances,thestudentmaybecomeeligiblefora
scholarship,evenifthecountryisnolongerontheapprovedlistforstudy.
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Applicationsarereviewedonanindividualbasis(SaudiArabianCulturalBureauin
Canada,2014).Acceptancetotheprogramisnotguaranteedbutapplicationsare
stillencouraged.
U.S.HigherEducationInstitutionsandSupportingIndustry
ThelistofinstitutionsofhigherlearningthatSaudistudentsattendcomprises
Englishlanguagelearningprograms,communitycolleges,four-yearcolleges,and
fulluniversitiesofferingadvancedlevelsofstudy.Theorganizationsthatactively
monitorandsupportstudentmobilityincludetheIIE,theInstituteforInternational
EducationandNAFSA,theNationalAssociationofForeignStudentAdvisors,aU.S.
basedorganizationthatpromotesstudyabroadandfacilitatesallaspectsof
internationalizationofhighereducation.Dataandanalysisaremadeavailableby
internationalpublicandprivateorganizationssuchastheOBHE,theObservatory
forBorderlessHigherEducation,theBrookingsInstitute,UNESCO,andotherU.N.
agencies.
U.S.HigherEducationInstitutions(HEIs)andtheSupportingIndustry
Motivations
TheeducationprovidersintheU.S.aremotivatedtoacceptforeignstudentsfor
manyreasons.Economically,asasupplierofhighereducation,theywanttoattract
foreignstudentsbecausetheygeneraterevenueandtheyprovideacriticalmassin
master’sdegreeanddoctoralprogramsindisciplinesthatdonotattractenoughU.S.
studentstoproceed.Theseareofteninprogramsthatcontributetoaschool’s
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internationalreputationandgeneratepatentableresearch.Manyuniversities
reportthattheseprogramswouldhavetobeeliminatedifnotforinternational
studentenrolment.EveningeneraleducationprogramstheU.S.hasthecapacityto
enrollmorestudentswithoutreducingthequalityoftheeducationorstudent
experience.
ThereisalsoanideologicalmotivationthatisbehindtheeffortsofHEIsandthe
supportingindustrytosupporttheincreaseinforeignstudentscomingtotheU.S.
Universitiesandcolleges(HEIs)supportstudentmobilityinordertoencouragethe
internationalizationofAmericanschoolsandstudents.HEIsseeeducationasa
publicgoodthatcreatesbetter-informedcitizensbothhereandabroad.Also,
exposuretostudentsfromforeigncountriesisbelievedtoenhancethelearning
experienceforU.S.studentsbecausetheyprovideotherperspectivesandexpose
Americanstudentstoculturesandbeliefsystemstheywouldotherwisenever
encounterupclose.Studyabroadandexposuretointernationalstudentsismore
highlyprizedthanever,andisnowbeingmandatedintopbusinessschools.
HEIsarepoliticallymotivatedtoseegovernmentpoliciesthatfacilitateforeign
studentscomingtotheU.S.Currently,thesupportingindustryisadvocatingfor
changestoU.S.immigrationpolicythatpreventsforeignstudentsfromstayingin
theU.S.oncetheycompletetheirstudies.Theyarguethatrestrictiveimmigration
policysendsmanyforeignstudentstoothercountriesthatofferopportunitiesfor
workexperienceandpossiblepathwaystocitizenship.Easingofvisarestrictionsto
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allowforeignstudentscompletingtheirstudiestheopportunitytostayandworkin
theU.S.isawaytoimproveU.S.competitiveadvantageinenticingtalentedstudents
andscholarstocometotheU.S.
HEIsandtheSupportingIndustryGoalsandMean
ThegoalofHEIstodayistoattractmoreforeignstudents,especiallyfromadiverse
groupofcountries.TheSaudistudentsareaparticularlyattractivepopulationsince
manyareprovidedfullscholarshipsbytheircountry.Anothermainadvantagefor
theU.S.isthatinternationalstudentscurrentlymakeuponlyfourpercentofthe
totalstudentpopulationwhereastheycompriseseventeenpercentofthestudent
populationintheU.K.andtwentytwopercentinAustralia.TheU.S.hasadequate
capacitytoabsorbanincreaseinthenumberofinternationalstudents.Also,since
China,India,andSouthKoreamakeupfortysixpercentofforeignstudent
enrolment,havingareliablesendingpartnersuchasSaudiArabiacouldprovide
significantcushionincasepoliticalrelationswithoneofthosecountriesdeteriorate
andtheirstudentsarenolongerwelcomeintheU.S.orchoosetostudyelsewhere.
HEIsintheU.S.haveadoptedtheSEVIScomputerizedsystemformonitoringforeign
studentswhoareattendingtheirschoolsasoneofthemeansforaccommodating
thegovernment’snewrulesforacceptingforeignstudents.Also,thesupporting
industryfunctionsasthemeansbywhichHEIsencourageandmanageagrowing
numberofinternationalstudentsintheU.S.TheissuesfacedbyHEIsandtheir
politicalconcernsareaidedbythesupportingindustryofhighlyprofessionalgroups
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thatpublishandanalyzedata,identifytrendsandissuesamongthestakeholders,
andadvocateforpolicychangestovariousgovernmentagenciestoincreasethe
numberofinternationalstudents.
InterviewFindingsofHEIs–EmergentConcerns
TheinterviewfindingswereanalyzedbyusingNvivosoftwaretosortandorganize
theresponsesintonodes.Thenodesrepresentspecificareasofcontentthatare
mentionedduringtheinterviewsandarebasedonindividualthemesortypesof
informationprovidedintheinterviews.Codingcanshowinterconnectionsbetween
eventsaswellastherelevanceoffactorsthatwerenotpreviouslyrecognized.Inthe
caseoftheinterviewdatafromthevariousHEIadministratorsthefollowingnodes
weremostprominent,basedonthefrequencyofthereferencesintheinterviews.
TheEffortsofSchoolscomprisesresponsesthatrelatetowhatactionsHEIsare
takingtofacilitateinternationalstudentssenseofwelcome,socialandcultural
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
EffortsofSchoolsKASP/SACM/Visas
Students'ExperiencesGroupInteractions
AcademicPrep/Plagiarism
ReferenceNodes
ReferenceNodes
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assimilation,andacademicsuccess.Itincludesstudentorientationandissues
relatedtocampusinternationalizationaswellasprogramsoreffortstoaddress
otherareasthathavebeencodedintoseparatenodes.Thosenodescontain
commentsandobservationsratherthandirectaction.Administratorsatvarious
HEIsofferedcommentsthatrelatedtotheireffortstoserveforeignstudentsmore
oftenthanallotherareasofdiscussion.TheKASPandSACMareinstitutionsthat
haveanimpactonthechoicesthatSaudistudentsmakeandinformtheeffortsthat
HEIsmaketowardensuringSaudistudentsremainincompliancewithvisa
requirements.Students’Experiencescontainsresponsesthatexplorethelived
experienceofSaudistudentsfromtheperspectiveofHEIofficialsandGroup
Interactionsincludeadministrators’viewsaboutbehaviorofSaudistudentsasa
singlecohortthatimpedestheirfullintegrationintocampuslife.Academic
preparednessandplagiarismemergedasamatterofconcernaboutSaudistudents’
abilitytomeettherigorsofU.S.highereducationandtheirunderstandingof
plagiarismanditsconsequences.
EffortsofSchools-StudentOrientationandInternationalization
Beyondvisacompliance,someschoolshaveestablishedextensiveprogramsto
provideorientationsandongoinghelptoforeignstudentstoensuretheirsuccess.
ForotherHEIs,theissuessurroundingintegrationandsocialadjustmentare
addressedonanadhocbasis.Orientationprogramsoftenconsistofaone-hour
sessiononmaintainingvisacompliance.Forafewschoolstheeffortsaremore
extensiveandcontinuethroughouttheyear.Itisunusualforaschooltodowhat
thislarge,flagshipcampusisdoingtosupportforeignstudents.
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“Ibelievewehaveoneofthebestorientationprogramsinthecountry.It’saweek-longconferencestyleorientationprogram,withalotofpre-orientationmodulesthatthestudentsgothroughandthenatorientationtheycomeinandstaywithustheentireweekandweofferthem,Icansharetheprogramwithyou,weofferthemsessionsonpayingbill,openingbankaccounts,culturaladjustments,opportunitiesforsocialinteraction,meetingthemoversandshakersoncampus.”Thedesiretoincreasethesizeoftheforeignstudentpopulationcomeswiththe
realitythatcertainpreparationsneedtobemade,andhopefullywillbeinplace
beforethestudentsarrive.Asuccessfulexperienceforthestudentswhocomefrom
overseasisimportanttoofficialsatHEIs.Schooladministratorsarebeginningto
recognizetheneedtoestablishprotocolsandmarshalresourcesneededforboththe
foreignstudentpopulationtohaveasuccessfulexperienceandthedomestic
studentstointeractmeaningfullyandlearnfromtheirforeigncounterparts.
“Wearelookingatstudentswhocomefromeducationalbackgroundsthatareverydifferentfromhere.Theydon’thavethecriticalthinkingskills.Inaplacelikeours,wearealmost150yearsold,ourfacultyintheschoolisusedtoteachingastudentfromarigoroushighschoolprogram.Thesestudentsoftenhavealanguageissueandabackgroundoftotalnon-involvementintheclassroom,wheretheyjustsitandlisten.Wewerefindingthattheyweresufferingacademically,whichaffectstheirentireexperience.”
“AsournumbersgrowwehavecreatedsomethingcalledtheglobalvillageoncampusandwiththepartnershipwithINTO.Itsnotjustaboutincreasingmarketingandrecruiting,thewholeteamisdedicatedtostudentsservices,andthatmeanseverythingthatmakessuretheyaresucceedingacademicallybutalsothatweareattemptingtostarttogetthedomesticpopulationtoparticipateandbecomeglobalcitizens.”
Levelsofcoordinationbetweentheschools’manydepartmentsarevaried.The
rangeofissuesisdiverse,someacademic,andsomehighlypersonal.Foreign
student’sneedsareoftenbestaddressedonanindividualbasis.Thesestudents
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requiremorethananinitialorientation;theyfaceongoingchallengesthatmany
administratorsaddresswiththem.HEIofficialsidentifiedproblemsthatwere
uniquetothispopulation.Forexample,inadditiontomeetingthestandards
imposedonthembySACM,Saudistudents,manywhotraveledtotheU.S.withtheir
families,neededhelpfindingdoctors,appropriatehousingfortheirfamiliesand
schoolsfortheirchildren,aswellastransportationsolutions.Administratorsfrom
schoolsatalllevelsnotedthatmanySaudisaremarriedorabitolderthanthe
generalpopulationsofinternationalstudents.Foreignstudentsfaceother
restrictionsthatcanimpedetheirprogressforpersonalreasons.
“Theirimmigrationstatusaffectstheirlivesinwaysthatyoudon’teverthinkabout.Justthefactthattheyhavetoberegisteredasfulltime,anAmericanstudentcandropaclassformanyreasons,beitamentalhealthissueorwhatnot.Theycan’tevertakethreecoursesinsteadoffour.“ “Wehavejustone,amaleSaudistartingaPh.D.inliterature.He’scomingherewithawifeandsixchildren….Whenhefirstcametotheofficehewasstruggling.HewasfirstinPhiladelphiaandwasinaneighborhoodthatwasn’tworking.Canyouimagedealingthatmanychildren?Theyareallalmostschoolageandthekidsarehavingadjustmentissues.”
Thereareschoolsthathaveembracedcomprehensiveinternationalizationor
createdinternalstructurestocoordinateresourcesacrosstheentirecampusthat
promoteglobalizationamongthestudentbodyandprograms.Likethepartnerships
somesmallerschoolsestablishedwithoutsideorganizations,theseeffortsare
aimedatincreasingthenumberofforeignstudentsandensuringtheyintegrateon
campusandhaveapositiveexperience.Theyarealsomeanttohelpdomestic
studentsbenefitfromtheirpresenceoncampus.Thisisnosmalltask.Yet,forthe
RutgersUniversityflagshipcampusinNewBrunswick,N.J.,itearnedtheprestigious
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SenatorPaulSimonAwardforCampusInternationalizationin2014.Theschool
establishedtheGAIACenterforGlobalAdvancementandInternationalAffairsfive
yearsagotobringtogetherallservicesrelatedtointernationalstudents,domestic
studentsstudyingabroad,creatingglobalprograms,andcentralizingscholarand
facultymobility.TheGAIAisthecenterforeverythingglobalandinternationalat
RutgersNewBrunswick.
Atotherschoolstheprocessofincreasinginternationalizationofthecampus
requiredpartnershipswithoutsideorganizationsthathadbothexpertiseand
resources.Onelargeprivateuniversityembracescomprehensive
internationalizationbyviewingalloftheirstudentsthesameinanefforttofully
integrateinternationalsintothestudentcommunity.Asoneadministratorsaid:
‘Wehavereallytriedtomainstreamandnotseparateourinternationalstudents.Wetakeasomewhatdifferentapproachthansomeotherschools.We’vemadeeverythinginternational.Throughoutourconversationsweevenseeourdomesticstudentsasinternational.We’vereallytriedtonotseparateandhavespecializedprogramsforinternationalstudents.”Often,havingforeignstudentslivewithpeoplewhoarenotfromtheirhomecountry
isusedasaprimarytooltoencourageintegration.
“Forusitisarealfocus,tobreakthemupawayfromtheirfellowcountrymen,becausetheyareheretolearnEnglish….Ifpossible,wetrynottoputstudentsfromthesamelanguagebackgroundinthesamehomestay,orinthesamedormroom.…Andthat’sforboththesocialandlanguagereason.” “Forallofourfreshmenyoucannotchoosewhoyouwanttolivewith.Withgeographicaldiversitythehopeisthatevery…wehaveabout21%ofinternationalfreshman,upfrom6%sevenyearsago.Noweveryroom,85%ofeveryfreshmanroomhasatleastoneinternationalstudentinit.”
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GroupInteractions-Integrationintothecampuscommunity
SaudistudentsarriveatHEIsinachainoffriendsandfamilymemberswhorelyon
eachotherassourcesofinformationandclustertogetherintightknitgroups.The
resultisthat,onceoneSaudistudentchoosesaprogram,manyfollow.Whilethey
areoftenatightknitgrouptheyfrequentlycomewithsufficientEnglishlanguage
skillstoallowthemtonavigatetheirtransitiontotheU.S.
“ThestudentsendupthisprogramfromotheroroftenthroughtheSaudiembassyorcontactsfromalumniorcurrentstudentswhoworkintheSaudiembassy.Wemustbeonalistsomewhere.Wedoattractquiteafewofthem.”
“WeareonthelistofapprovedschoolsforSACMandmostofthestudentswhocometousfromSACMareherebecausetheyhavefamilyhereintheNYarea,orhadfamilycomehere,orareinterestedintheNYarea.”
“Yes,oftentheycomehereafteracousindid.Weactuallyhaveseveralherenowwhoarecousins.I’mnotsureifinSaudiArabiathatactuallymeanstheyarecousins.” “Some[Saudistudents]havefriendsfromeverycountryandhangoutwithallothersbutmostSaudistendtosocializewithotherSaudis.Especiallythefemales,theytendtohangoutmainlywithotherSaudifemales.Butthat’snotahardrule,becausewehavesomethathavefriendsofallnationalities.” “Iwould[saytheSaudiStudentclubisaveryimportantsourceofinformationandemotionalsupportforSaudistudents.]”ManyschooladministratorsfelttheneedtoorganizemoreeventstohelpSaudi
studentsmeetandmakefriendswithAmericanstudents.Asthefollowing
statementsshow,therangeofeffortswasvariedbuttheconsensuswasthat
bringingtheSaudistudentpopulationintothewidercommunitywasanareaof
concern.
“Wedon’tdoanythingatallexcepttointroducethemtootherstudents.IdofindthatmostoftheSaudistudentsworkoutsidesotheycreateagroupwithinthemselvessotheytalktoeachother.”
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“Weencouragethemalltointegrateasmuchaspossible.Weadvertisedifferentactivitiesthataregoingonon-campusandweworkcloselywithourpartnersatthecollegetointegratestudentsonthecampus.WeworkwithCampusMinistrytopromotevolunteeringandwehavesomeacademicconnectionsatthecollegethathelpus,too.”
“Wehaveanofficeofstudentsupportservicesthatrunsprogramsthathelpstudentsintegrate,suchashavinginternationalweeksandmonths.Wedoattempttobringtogetherallofourstudents.”
“Sowestartwithorientation.That’simportantforus,pre-arrivalintoourorientationprogram.Thefriendshipprogramissortofourcontinuedprogrammingforthesemester,andthroughthatthere’sconversationhours,opportunitiestobringtogetherdomesticandinternationalstudents.There’saninternationalwomen’sgroupthatbringstogetherspousesandchildren.Thefriendshipprogramdoesalotofdifferentthings;holidaydinners,addressstudentissuesduringschoolbreaksandthingslikethat.”
“Wejustsetupagroupofinternationalambassadorsthatarecomingearlytothecampus.TheyarecomingearlyandsomeareAmerican,someareinternational.Theirjobwillbetointegratealltheforeignstudentsintootherareasoftheuniversity.”
SACM,theKASP,andVisaCompliance
Theattitudesaboutinternationalizationandtheapproachestomanagingissues
concerningforeignstudentsvaryfromoneschooltoanother.Ingeneral,the
school’sadmissionsdepartmentsengageinrecruitingandmarketingtoforeign
students.Onceforeignstudentshavebeenacceptedtheadmissionsdepartments
havenofurthercontactwiththem.AllHEIshaveanOfficeofInternationalStudent
Services(OISS)thatmanagesvisacompliance,withlittletimeforanythingelse.The
needsofSaudistudentsaregreaterthanothersbecausetheOISSmustinteract
regularlywiththeSaudiArabianCulturalMission(SACM)inFairfax,Virginia.SACM
administerstheKingAbdullahScholarshipProgram(KASP)andmaintainsstrict
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rulesonstudentacademicperformanceandreportingrequirements.Helping
studentsstayincompliancewithU.S.governmentvisarequirementsisapriorityfor
theOISS.ForSaudistudentsitgoesbeyondtheOISSandoftenrequiresextensive
effortsonthepartoftheindividualprogramdirectors.Commentsfrom
administratorsatvariousschoolshighlighttheeffortsrequiredtokeepSaudi
students’documentationinorderwithboththeU.S.governmentandSACM:
“Ihavetowritelettersallthetime…Iamwritingquiteafewletterstothebodythatisfundingthem….Sometimesattheendofeachsemesteroryear,dependingonthestudentandhowcloseoftabsthegovernmentsarekeepingonthem,Ihavetowritedowntheactualcoursestheytook.Theywanttomakesurethecourseshelpthemwithwhytheyareeducatingthem.”
“Idosendareport[toSACM]everysession.Wehavefour-weeksessions.Ishowupdatestotheiradvisorsabouttheirgrades,whopassesandtheirattendance.Igivenotessuchasthestudentisdoingverywell,thestudentisonacademicprobation,andthissortofthing.”
“Oncetheygetthevisaandcomeheretheyareallours.Allthetrafficinthis officeisbasedonthat….Theimmigrationpieceisaverynichearea,that legalareawherewenotonlyhavetohelpstudentsmaintaintheirstatuswe havetomaintaininstitutionalcompliance.Thegovernmentputsalotof responsibilityontheinstitutionitself.” “WearesuperluckybecauseJandherdepartmentareincredible.Shewill,ifsheseesastudent’svisaisgoingtobeheadedtowardtrouble,andthestudentisn’tresponding,shewillsay[tome]“Getthatstudentinmyofficenow.”Because,oftenifyouarehavingtroublewithyourvisa,youhavetogotoyourhomecountrytoresolveit.Moststudentsdon’twanttodothat.”
AcademicConcerns
Englishlanguagetrainingisofferedinseveraldifferentsettingsandwithdifferent
levelsofemphasisonacademicpreparation.Someprogramsarelocateddirectlyon
collegecampusesandofferstudentstheabilitytointegratewithotherstudentswho
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arethereasregulardegreeseekingstudents.Someoftheselanguageprogramshave
strongacademiccomponentsthataredesignedtopreparestudentsforcollegelevel
work.Some,suchasthespecializedprogramatBoroughofManhattanCommunity
College,havebeendevelopedforstudentswhohavebeenacceptedtotheschoolbut
havebeenreferredtotheprogrambyacademicadvisorsforintensivelanguageand
academicskillstraining.ThisdiffersfromallotherESLprogramsbecauseitis
specificallyavailableonlytoacceptedstudents,notjustpeoplewhowanttolearn
theEnglishlanguage.
Interviewswithschooladministratorspointedtoacademicpreparationforcollege
levelstudyandcombattingincidentsofplagiarismasmajorareasofconcern.These
commentscomefromadministratorsappliedtoSaudistudentsatalltypesof
schools:
“Inourprogram,wetrytogetthemtotakeourEnglishwritingcourse,whichisonlyaoneandahalfcreditsbutitdoesgototheelectives…Themaster’sorPh.D’swhocomeherearenotpreparedforcourseswiththatmuchheavyreadingandwriting.IfIseeoneofthosestudents,andIgenerallyonlyneedoneortwomeetingswiththem,Iwilltellthem‘donottakethatclass.’” “WeabsolutelyseethisasaproblemnotonlyfromAsianstudents,whoarefamousfortherotelearningbutalsofromtheformerSovietcountriesandMiddleEasterncountries.Languagelearningisabituniqueinthatinordertoproduceideasyouneedtolearnthelanguagetoexpressthoseideas.” “Soacademicintegritybecomesabigthing[forstudentswhocomefromcountrieswhereeducationisbasedonrotememorizationandwithheavyemphasisonIslamicstudies.]”
Almostuniversally,schooladministratorsspokeabouttheneedtoprovidetraining
forunderstandingandavoidingplagiarism.Theseriousnessoftheproblemshould
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notbeunderestimated.Plagiarismisacauseofextensiveconcernforprogram
directorsandforeignstudentswhohaveexperiencedsetbacksbecauseofit.
Commentsfromadministratorsatalltypesofprograms,fromEnglishlanguage
learningtoashighasPh.D.levelshowedthisisacommonconcern.
“Yes,inmanycountries,includingSaudiArabiaplagiarismisacceptableanditgetsthemintoanawfullotoftrouble.Wetrywhentheyfirstgetheretoeducatethemaboutitbutwehavelotsoftroubleexplainingwhatthisisandtheconsequencesoftheiractions,whattheyarerisking.Wetrytogothatextramiletoeducatethemandacceptthattherearedifferentactivitiesthere.” “Wehaveaverystrictcodeaboutplagiarism.Ourteacherswillusedifferentonlineprogramstoseetheyarenotplagiarizing.Ithappenssometimesandthestudentfails.Wehaveanacademicorientation[atthebeginningofeachfourweekmodule]whereouracademicsupervisortalksaboutwhatconstitutesplagiarismandthestudentstypicallywouldhavesomesortofplagiarismexposuretowhatisandisn’tplagiarismintheirwritingclasses,aswell.” “Thoseareallareas[academicintegrityandplagiarism]wehavebeenworkingveryhardon.Itisahugecomponentofourorientation.”
CulturalSensitivity
EvenculturalsensitivitybecameanimportantpointofdiscussionforHEIsthatwere
increasingtheirpopulationofinternationalstudents.
“Andallofthisdidcomeoutofit.Partofoureffortstoalleviatesomeofthesesituationshavebeentodeveloptrainingprogramsforstaff.TherearedefinitelysomestaffthatarenottrainedtobeculturallysensitiveMaybeyoujustneedtobetteralignpeoplewiththeneedsofthestudents.Ithastobecomepartofyourjobexpectations.Sowehavehadinternationalstudentsfaceissueswithadministratorsorfacultyandsometimesitwaslanguage.” “Andthestaffhasgottogetusedtoteachingsomanydifferenttypesofstudents.”
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MeasuringSuccess
MeasuringsuccessinoneareawheremanyHEIsarenotwellorganized.TheEnglish
languageprogramsusepassingtheTOEFLorotherinternallydesignedlanguage
testsasonemeasureandsomeeventrackcollegeacceptancesandgraduationrates.
Universitiesdonotseemtohaveonemeasurementtodeterminehowsuccessfully
theymeettheneedsofforeignstudents,howwelltheyintegrateoncampus,andthe
impacttheymakeonU.S.students.RutgersUniversitydoesundertakeextensive
assessment,bothselfdirectedandbyusingoutsideanagency.Thereisaclearneed
forschoolstotrackattitudesandknowledgeofincomingdomesticstudentsand
againwhenthesestudentsaregraduatingtoevaluatewhatimpactforeignstudents
hadonthem.Ifthestatedgoalofbringingmoreforeignstudentstocampusisto
helpdomesticstudentsbuildtheirinterpersonalskillsandbecomemorecompetent
globalthinkersthenthisisanimportantsteptotake.Thesecommentsreflectthe
rangeoftheattitudesabouthowHEIsmeasuretheirsuccessinservinginternational
students.
“Someareacademicallyboundandsomearegeneral.Sotheirultimategoalsdeterminethatbutonemeasureis,iftheyareacademicallybound,dotheymatriculateintoauniversity?”
“TheSaudiswhofinishourprogramdosucceed.Andourprogramisnotparticularlyeasy.Thereare12levels.Thehighestthreelevelsaretough.Iftheycangetthroughthoselevelstheyarepreparedtodoundergraduatework.ThereisalotofsuccesswiththeSaudiswhocompleteourprogram.”
“Wearedefinitelyattemptingto–that’sthebeautyofthisprogram,thepartnershipwithINTO….retentionisreallyimportantandthatiswhatofferingtheseservicesisabout.Ourgraduationratesareimprovingfromtheseprograms.”
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“Wewantallourstudentstoleavehereasglobalcitizens,whateverthatmeans.Butitmeansalot.”
“Thegoalforinternationalaswellasdomesticstudentsistobuildcompetenciesthatareneededtosurviveintheworldandtogainthisacademicexperienceanddegree.”
“Wehavetoundertakeaqualitativeandquantitativeapproachtomeasuringsuccess.Partofthemeasureablestrategieshasbeentoinviteanoutsidesurveyandsurveytheentirecampus,whichwedidforthefirsttimelastyear.…Thatkindofalargermeasureisbeingundertakenbycentraladministrationandbeingverywellsupported.Thesethingscostalotofmoney.”
Conclusion
Inconclusion,asnotedbytheIndianblogger,Gyanoprobha,thereiswidespread
variationinthemeaningoftheterminternationalismwhenitisappliedto
education.Thewritersettledonadefinitionthat“internationalismasanideologyof
educationinnoneotherthattheattempttounderstandandbuildbridgeswith
peoplewhoaredifferentfromwhatweare.“(Gyanoprobha2005).Whilethe
broadestliteraturefromthewebsitesoftheHEIspresentsasimilarview,the
executionofthevisionisrarelydoneonacoordinatedbasiswithinanyone
institution.Hence,thepeoplewhoactuallyserveinternationalstudentsareoften
notawareoftheothereffortsoccurringintheschoolandarerarelyabletoaccessor
recommendexistingprogramsthatmighthelpanindividualinternationalstudent.
TheexceptiontothiscaseistheGAIACenteratRutgersUniversity,eventhoughthe
administratorattheprogramadmittedtheyconstantlyworktogetthemessageout
withinthelargercollegecommunityabouttheirexistenceandcoordinateservices
amongthehundredsofschoolsanddepartmentswithintheuniversity.Formost
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HEIs,supportsforforeignstudentsoftencomedirectlyfromtheprogramsthey
attendandareincomplete.Theireffortsatfullintegrationofinternationalstudents
arehaphazard.Noschool-widesystemforevaluatinghowwellU.S.studentslearn
abouttheirforeignclassmateswasevidentformostHEIs.Thelong-termbenefitsof
havingforeignstudentsoncampusareimplied,butnotclearlyshown.
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ChapterSix:FindingsonSaudiStudents
StudentsinSaudiArabiaareincreasinglychoosingtopursuehigherdegreesboth
insidethecountryandbygoingabroad.Totalenrolmentinhighereducationinthe
countryrosefrom404,000in2000tooveronemillionin2012(SaudiMinistryof
HigherEducation).TheKASPsupportsSaudistudentswhoarepursuingdegrees
outsideofthecountryasdetailedinTable15.
Table15:KASPStudents,NumberofStudentsvis-à-viscategory,2011
Level Men Women Total Percentage
Bachelor 64,109 11,156 75,265 53
Master 17,579 13,455 31,104 22
Doctorate 5,028 2,760 7,788 6
Fellowship 1,996 772 2,768 2
Other 6,541 3,349 9,890 7
Total 95,253 31,492 126,745 90
Accompanying
Personnel
StudyingLanguage
14,478 10
Total
141,223 100
Source:SaudiArabiaMOHE‘TheCurrentStatusofHigherEducationintheKingdom
ofSaudiArabia,2013”
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TheUndocumentedElementsoftheIncreaseinSaudiStudentsAttending
SchoolsintheU.S.
TherapidincreaseinthenumberofSaudistudentscomingtotheU.S.forhigher
educationsuggestedtheneedforthisstudy.Thereislittleornoinformationabout
theSaudistudentswhochoosetoattendHEIsintheUnitedStates,beyondbasic
geographicaldestinationsandlevelsofstudy.Thereisnoresearchthatspecifically
addresseswhytheychoosetostudyabroad,whytheychoosetheU.S.ingreater
proportionthanotherdestinations,howtheychoosetheschooltheyattend,and
whathappenstothemoncetheycometotheU.S.Forexample,importantquestions
ariseaboutwhethertheirattitudesandvalueshavechangeastheyspendyearsin
theU.S.Also,whatproblemsdotheyfaceasforeignstudentsfromaconservative
Muslimcountry?
Saudistudents’behaviorisinclearcontrasttotheglobaltrendsininternational
studentmobility.TheU.S.andSaudigovernmentssharethegeneralassumptions
thathighereducationwillimprovetheirnation’seconomicoutputandexposureto
foreignstudentswillhelpdevelopinterculturalskillsthatcanencouragedeeper
politicalandeconomicengagement.TheU.S.governmentsupportstheSaudi’s
desiretostrengthenitspeople’srelationshipwiththeU.S.byincreasedexposureto
U.S.customsandvalues.TheSaudigovernmentprovidesfinancialsupportfor
studentstogoabroadtoalonglistofcountries,notjusttheU.S.Thesupportive
attitudeandactionsofthegovernmentspartiallyexplainstheattendanceofSaudi
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studentsatHEIsintheU.S.butthisstudyprovidesinformationaboutSaudi
students’personalmotivations,experiences,andattitudestowardculturaland
socialchange.
InterviewFindingsforStudentsfromSaudiArabia
TherehavebeennopreviousstudiesofSaudistudentsusingthetheoretical
frameworkappliedtootherpopulationsofstudentschoosingtoattendcollegeor
studyabroad.Semi-structuredinterviewsofstudentsfromSaudiArabiaattending
HEIsintheUnitedStateswereconductedaccordingtothetheoreticalframework
outlinedinChapter3(Figure7,p.94)andbasedontheliteratureexaminingcurrent
andhistoricalfactorsthatmightinformSaudistudents’choices.
TheinterviewfindingsforSaudistudentswereanalyzedbyusingNvivosoftwareto
coordinatetheresponsesbasedonindividualthemesandtypesofinformation
provided.Theinterviewquestionswerebasedonthetheoreticalmodeltoexamine
pushandpullfactorsthatwouldresultinSaudistudentschoosingtostudyinthe
U.S.andtochooseaspecificinstitution.Thefollowingnodesweremostprominent,
basedonthefrequencyofthereferencesintheinterviews.
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TheKASP,SACM,andVisasareapushfactorforSaudistudents.Thisnodecontained
responsesthatidentifiedtheimpactthattheseinstitutionshadonSaudistudents’
choicesaswellastheeaseofobtainingvisastostudyintheU.S.WhytheU.S.and
thisSchoolshowedthepullfactorsthatdrewSaudistudentstotheU.S.including
theirdesireforabettereducationthanavailableinSaudiArabia,theirbeliefabout
thesuperiorityofU.S.highereducation,andotherfactorsthatinformedtheir
individualschoolchoice.SocialNetworkscontainsresponsesthatidentifytherole
thatfamilyandfriendsofSaudistudentsplayinprovidinginformationandsupport
networks.Thesenetworksalsoserveasapullfactorforstudentswhocometothe
U.S.andchooseaspecificschool.SocialandCulturalCapitalencompassbothpush
andpullfactorsthatconcernstudents’expectations,parentalsupport,andprevious
exposuretotheWest.GlobalNormscontainsresponsesaboutSaudistudents’
personalexperiencesencounteringpeoplefromotherracesandreconcilingtheir
conservativevalueswithwesternnorms.SaudiIdentityandImageemergedasarea
wherestudentsreflectedculturalprideandconcernsaboutmisconceptionstheyfelt
mostAmericanshadaboutSaudiArabiaandtheMiddleEast.
0% 5% 10% 15% 20%
GlobalNorms
SocialandCulturalCapital
WhytheUSandthis
SaudiIdentityandImage
KASP/SACM/Visas
SocialNetworks
ReferenceNodesSaudiStudents
ReferenceNodesSaudiStudents
167
RoleoftheSaudiGovernment,theKASPandSACMInterviewingSaudistudentsshowedseveralimportantfinding.TheSaudi
government’sinfluenceonthestudents’decisiontostudyabroadandwhereto
studywassignificant.MoststudentsidentifiedthefundingfromtheKASPasthe
reasontheystudiedabroadorchosetheschooltheyattended.TheKASPpays
tuitionandfeesateachschooltheSaudistudentsattendbuteachstudentreceives
thesamelivingstipend,nomatterwheretheygo.Studentsfrequentlyreportedthat
findingaschoolinaplacetheycouldaffordtoliveinformedtheirchoicesofwhere
toattendschoolintheU.S.Itwasevenreflectedintheirchoiceofwhichcountryto
attendschoolin.
“Actually,atthattimeIdidn’tevenconsiderstudyingabroadbutwhenIlearnedabouttheprogramIrealizedthiswasmychance.Itwasallaboutthemoney.Iwantedtostudyinabettercollegeandabetterplaceandabettereducationalenvironmentbutitwasthemoneythathelpedme.”
“Thenamebrandrecognitionwaspartofit.GoingtoJohnsHopkinswaspartlyaboutthenamebutIalsowouldn’thavechosenthatschoolifIwasnotonthescholarship.TherewasnowayIcouldhaveaffordedthetuitionorbeenabletomovetoBaltimore.TheKASPplayedintomywillingnesstogotoanamebrandschool.”
“MostofSaudisdon’twantacrowdedcitysomanySaudisareinIndianaandMississippi.ThesmallcitiesandcheapcitiesarebestforSaudis.”
“TheygetabudgetsothestudentswhocomeheretoNewYorktendtohavespecificreasonsbecauseitisexpensive.IusedtohavethesamepositioninRuston,Louisiana,affiliatedwithLouisianaTech.ItwasfarcheaperthanNYCandthatwasaprettypopulartypeofplacethatSaudistudentswentto.” “SACMmakeeverythingeasyforus.TheygiveuscoursesforGREandtheygiveusafinancialmoneyfordoingTOEFL,“Why?”theywantusgotobestuniversityinUnitedStates.TheywantMIT,Hartford[Harvard].”
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SACMplayedaroleformanystudentsinchoosingaschooliftheydidnotalready
haveinformationaboutaspecificschoolorcontactsintheU.S.directingtheir
choices.Studentsreportedtheychosespecificmajorsinordertoqualifyfora
scholarship.Also,manySaudisreportedthatthelimitsplacedbySACMonthe
numberofSaudistudentsatanyoneschoolresultedinthemchoosinganotherHEI
toattend.
“ThereisawebsitefromSACMtheytoldyouhowmanyELSisopening,letyougothere.ThethingisthetimeIchooseIfindalmostallofthemisfull.IhavethreechoicesandoneofthemisthisbecausethereisroomandIcanapplyhere.OtherwisecanIwaitanothersixmonthforotherstofinish.” “ThecounselorattheculturalmissionhehelpedmetogetintoWeberStateUniversityinUtah.Thatwaseasyforhim,orforthemtogivemeanadmission.BecauseIdidn’tknowwheretogo.Formyself,IappliedtoLouisianaandFlorida.IhadadmissionfromFloridaandLouisianabuthegavemeadmissioninUtahandtheytoldmeit’sprobablycheaperforyouifyougothere.“ “IknewwhatIwantedtostudybecausetheKASPatthetimewaslimitedto10differentmajors.IchoseprelawastheirdesignforwhatIwantedtostudy.”
ObtainingVisasMostalsofoundthatobtainingavisatotheU.S.wasnotasignificantobstacleto
comingtotheU.S.oncetheywereacceptedtoaschool.
“No,Ittooklessthanoneday.AllSACMstudentsgotvisalikethis(snappingfingers.)Thevisadidn’ttakealotbecauseIcomewith58SACMstudentswhocameonthesamedayIcome.WhenalotofstudentsfromSACMtheymakeiteasyforus.” “Itwasn’thardbutittakeslotsofsteps,especiallyafter9/11.Butwehadthreeembassiesandevenonlytwolocationsofthethreeforvisainterviews.Ihadtotraveltothecapitalcityandstayforthreenights.” “IknowtheUSvisaprocesswasveryeasybecausetheschooldideverythingforyou.AllIhadtodowasgototheembassy.Thevisaprocessisbarelyamemory.IjustremembersomeonetellingmetoneverlosetheI-?Idon’tevenrememberwhatitiscalled.Irememberbeingtoldtoneverloseitorgooutwithoutit.”
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ExpectancyTheory–WhyTheU.S.
Expectancytheoryiscommonlyusedtoexplorethechoicetoattendcollege.
Expectancytheorystatesthatanindividualwillbemotivatedtoexerteffortortake
ariskbasedontheperceivedvalueoftheexperience(VroomV.H.,1982).Ithas
beenusedtounderstandthemotivationbehindselectedbehaviorofindividualsand
hasbeenappliedtoU.S.students’willingnesstostudyabroad.Expectancytheory
closelyalignswithmanystudiesaboutstudentcollegechoicethatexamine
socioeconomicandpersonalcharacteristicsassociatedwithattendingcollege.This
theoreticalapplicationwasappropriateforexaminingthemotivationofSaudi
studentstochooseaschoolintheUnitedStatesandshowedthatSaudistudents
perceivedthevalueofattendingandHEIintheU.S.tohavesubstantialbenefits.
TherewaswidespreadbeliefamongtheSaudistudentsthattheywouldgetabetter
educationintheU.S.thaniftheyattendedauniversityinSaudiArabia.Subjects
wereavailableintheU.S.thattheycouldnotstudyinSaudiandtheoverallqualityof
theteachingwasacommonconcern.Studentsalsovoicedpositiveopinionsabout
schoolsinothercountriesliketheU.K.,Canada,andAustralia.Currentlyschoolsin
theU.K.andAustraliaarenolongerontheKSAPapprovallistsincereaching
saturationlevelsimposedbytheprogram.
“IthinkwesterndegreeshavemoreweightbutIthinkthethereisahierarchy.DegreesfromtheU.S.,Canada,andtheU.K.areonpar.” “It’samajorofcomputerscience.SecurityisalsoamajorandIhavethechoiceofthosetwothings.Inmycountrywedon’thavethismajor.ThisisonereasonIchoosetheUnitedStates.”
170
“HereeducationisconsideredstrongeducationcomparedtoSaudiArabiaandtheteachershavealotofknowledgeandtheygraduatefromfamousuniversityandwhenyoureturnbacktoouruniversitywhereIstudymyteacherarefromIndiaandtheydon’tordidn’tspeakEnglishverywellsosometimeIcan’tunderstandthemandtheycan’tgiveyouthepointtheywantyoutoknow.Hereforme,Ireallyunderstandeverysinglethingtheyteachme.” “IalsowantedtheU.S.becauseIwenttoothercountries.IdecidetheU.S.wasmuchbetter.IwenttoMalaysiaandIwenttoLondon.WhenIsawtheirsystemandwhenIsawtheU.S.IimmediatelymadeupmymindtocometotheU.S.” “MostofSaudiswhodecidetogetabachelor’sdegreethey’dlookintostudyinginanothercountrybecausethehighereducationinSaudiArabiaisnotwellorganized.It’skindofmessedupabit.Theprofessorsarecorruptedandstuff.”
“MostprofessorsinSauditaketheireducationfromtheU.S.soIhavetogototheU.S.togetmyeducation,too.MostoftheSaudiprofessorwenttotheU.S.,orU.K.,orAustralia.”AllSaudistudentshadhighexpectationsabouttheirfutureemploymentprospects.
ManysaidtheywouldliketostayintheU.S.andworkforsometimeafter
completingtheirstudies.Thiswasunexpected,asitwaspreviouslybelievedthat
Saudistudentsimmediatelyreturnedhomeoncetheyearnedtheirdegrees.
“IwanttogobacktoSaudibutIwanttostayfirstanddotheOPTprogram.It’sonetotwoyearsbecauseitgiveyouabetterchanceforajobinSaudi.”
“Iwillgototheuniversity.Iwanttoteachattheuniversityandbeaprofessor.That’swhyI’minterestedineducation.” “IwouldlovetostayandworkheresoI’mgoingtoworktowardthat.” “LongtermI’dratherworkforaninternationalentitylikethesecretariatsideoftheUN.I’mintheprocessoftryingtogetajobattheWorldBankbuttheyhaveamillionrounds,soI’monroundnumberfour.”
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SocialandCulturalCapital,SocialNetworks
SocialcapitaltheoryisusefulinexplainingthemechanismofchoiceforSaudi
studentsandprovidedvaluableinsightintohowbesttorecruitthem.Socialcapital
isdefinedas“anindividual’saccesstoinformation,resourcesandsupport,acquired
throughparticipation,orinteractionwithotherswhoparticipate,insocialnetworks
orstuctures.”(Salisbury,etal.2009,p.123).Socialcapitaltheorypredictsthat
familysupportandextra-familialnetworksplayaroleinstudentmobility(Portes,
1998).Socialcapitalworkstofostersocial,political,andeconomicintegrationfor
peopleandiswidelyassociatedwithimmigrantcommunitiesandmigrationissues
(Schultheis2009;Cheong,etal.2007).Saudistudentsarerelyingheavilyoninput
fromfamilymembersorotheracquaintenceswhoarestudyingabroadassourcesof
informationandassupportsystemsinchoosingwheretostudy.
MarketingtechniquesusedbyHEIsdidnotplayalargeroleininfluencingthe
studentsinterviewed.Thatmaybebecausethesearerelativelyneweffortsonthe
partofschoolstoincreasethenumberofSaudistudentsenrolledintheir
institutions.ManySaudistudentsusedtheInternettogetinformationaboutschools
butfamilyandsocialnetworksalsoplayedimportantroleinchoosingwhereto
study.Saudistudentsreliedonparentalmoralsupporttomakethedecisiontostudy
abroadaswellasnetworksoffriendsandfamilytoprovidethemwithinformation
andothersupportwhentheycametotheU.S.Oftenonepersoncameand
establishedalongnetworkofsiblingsandcousinswhothencametotheU.S.
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“ImentionedthatmyfatherhadgonetoschoolinDCandwehadfamilyinthearea...ThesecondfactorwasaverynearanddearfamilyfriendwhoIconsidertobelikeanuncle.HewenttoAmericanandotherfamilyfriendswentthereforbothundergraduateandlawschool.Theyendedupwritingalumnilettersofrecommendationforme.” “Yes,mygrandparentsarebothherewhichiswhy,whenwecametotheUSwecamehere.IdidmyundergraduateinthisareaandcamebacktodomyPh.D.inthisareabecauseIwantedtobenearfamily.Andonthethemeoffamilialconnections,I’vehadfourofmysecondcousinscometoSeattletostudy,atSeattleUniv.andsomeofthecommunitycollegesaroundherebecauseweareherefromSaudiArabia.”
“Yes,Ihavetwofriends.OneinNewJersey,well,nearbyNJinDelaware.HesuggestedIcomeoverhere.Wegotalmostthesamedegree[inSaudiArabia]andhecomeherebeforeme.” “Myfirstlandedwasasadnessstory.Ididn’thaveanyhotelbooking.Ididn’tbookhotelanddidn’thaveaplacetogoandwhenIcameheretoaskabouthomestayorsomeplacetogotheysayyouhavetoorderfromthewebsite.WhenIcallmyfriendfromNewJerseyhebookahotelformefortwoorthreenightuntilIfindanapartment.AndIdo,Ifind.” “Yes,becauseIhavesomefriendsthatwenttoschoolherebeforeme.WhenwefinishedhighschoolandtheytoldmeallabouttheUS,Iwasworkingforanoilcompany.IdecidedwhenIhadachancetogobacktoschoolIknewIwantedtogototheUS.” “Ididn’tknowanybodythere[WeberStateCollegeinSaltLakeCity,Utah].Iwentthereforatwo-yeardegreeandtransferred.”[Butlaterhisyoungerbrothersandcousinsallattendedthesameschool.] “Yeah,Ihavetwobrotherswhoalreadyfinished.TheywentbackandnowIalsohavetwoinMissouri.” “ButoneofmyuncleshewenttoStanfordandgraduatedfromStanford.HegotaPh.D.andthenhemarriedanAmericanwomanandhelivedintheUSfor10yearsorsomethingsohewashelpingmeintheprocessofthepapersandhewasencouragingme,andmyfather,too.ThenIcametostudy.”Levelsofparentaleducationdifferedbuteachpersonansweredintheaffirmative
thattheirparentsweresupportiveoftheirdecisiontocometotheU.S.forhigher
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education,evenproud.ItisclearthateducationisapriorityforSaudifamilies,even
iftheyremaininSaudi.Almosteveryoneinterviewedhadsiblingsthatwere
attendinguniversityathomeorintheU.S.
“Myfatherwasverysupportiveandmymotherwaslikesometime“Don’tgo,Iwantyouhere,Ineedyouhere.”ButIwaslike,“Comeon,itisonlyoneyearmaybethreeyear.” “Yes,they[threebrothers,threesisters]went[touniversity],theyfinishedabachelor’sinSaudi.” “MyparentswereverysupportivebuttherestofthefamilyfeltI’dbetaintedifIwentalone.ButIwaslikeIdon’tcareandmyparentsdidn’tcare.”
Intermsofotherformsofculturalcapital,thereisnoclearpatternofprevious
languageabilityorexposuretoAmericansorWesternersamongthestudents
interviewed.SomeofthestudentshadlivedintheU.S.aschildrenwhiletheirown
parentsearneddegreesfromU.S.schools.OtherSaudistudentshadnevertraveled
outsideofthecountry.Someknewwesternersfromtheirworkplacebutothershad
almostnopriorexposuretoanyonewhowasnotSaudi.Also,havingEnglish
languageskillswasoccasionallyadecidingfactorbutthedesiretoimprovetheir
languageskillswasoftenaprimaryincentivetostudyintheU.S.
“MydadhadgonetoschoolatGWandIgrewupgoingtoDCsoIalwayswantedtogotoschoolthere.Itmadeiteasierbecausefamilywasinthearea.” “IwentuntilsecondgradetoschoolinSaudiandthenhighschool.EverythingelsewastheU.S.” “No,mymomwashereonscholarshipbutmyparentssaidthey’dfigureoutawaytopayforitifIendedupgettingintoaplacelikeHarvard.Formethen,it[KASP]wasn’taninfluence.[My]parentsarebotheducated.[My]fatherhashisPh.D.ineconomicsfromClarkUniversity.He’saprofessorinRiyadhandhe’sgotacolumnthathewritesaboutcultureandeconomics.Mymomisawebdeveloperforafinancetypecompany.”
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“…HesaidcompaniesandgovernmenttheypreferthepeoplewhograduatefromU.S.universityratherthanSaudiuniversitybecausetheyknowhowtospeakEnglishandwritinginEnglishbetterthanSaudiuniversitygraduate.” “Englishnowinmycountryisasecondlanguagethatisimportant.” “AtthattimeIthoughtthatitwasallabouttheU.S.orU.K.andalsoCanadaandAustralia,allplacestocompare.Ichosethose4countriesbecausetheyallspeakEnglishandIalreadyhavegoodEnglishsoIamnotgoingtospendawholeyearstudyinganotherlanguage.Iwantedtogorightaway.IdecidedtogotoacountrywheretheyteachclassesinEnglish.”
HumanCapitalHumancapitaltheorysuggeststhateducationandtrainingprogramswill
strengthentheaggregateskills,knowledgeandproductivecapacityofpeopleand
contributetoeconomicgrowth(Al-Yahya,2010).Itisaneoclassicaleconomic
approachtodevelopinganation’shumanresourcesthatisbeingembraced
worldwide.EvidencesuggestsitmaybeamotivatingfactorforSaudistudents
choosingschoolsintheU.S.ratherthaninothercountriesorinSaudiArabiabut
thereisnoconfirmationthatSaudistudentsareseekingeducationintheU.S.rather
thaninanothercountryasawaytobuildtheirownproductivecapacity.Yet,Saudi
studentsreportedunexpectedintellectualgrowthasaresultoftheU.S.systemof
highereducation’sliberalartsfoundation.
Studentsprovidedenthusiasticfeedbacktoquestionsabouttheliberalartsclasses,
orgeneraleducationcoursesastheSaudistudentsconsistentlycalledthem,that
theywererequiredtotake.Nearlyeverystudentsawthemasapositiveexperience
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thatopenedthemtonewideasand,inmanycases,ledthemtochangetheircourse
ofstudyorpursueaminorinafieldtheyhadneverpreviouslystudied.
“Yes,Itooksocialwork.Ilikedit,itwasoneofthegeneralrequirements,butitwaslike,wow,interesting….Itwasanopeneyesthingforme.” “Yes,ItookpoliticalscienceandIreallylikedit.Ididnothavetotakesomanybecausetheywouldnotbecountedtomydegree.IhadtotakeEnglishcompositionforwritinganditwasreallyfun.Wehadtoreadlotsofinterestingarticleaboutcultureandstuffandwritesomekindofopinions.” “IjustknowasmallknowledgeabouteverysubjectsoeverytimeItakeasubjectIgetveryinterestedandIreadmoreaboutit.Idon’tremembertakinganycourseIeverregretted.“
“Yes,IthinktheSaudigovernmentrealizesthatbuttheycan’tputtheirfingeronit.ForSaudi,theyknowthatcomingfromaU.S.schoolovercomingfromallotherschools,itisveryprestigious.Idon’tthinktheycantellyouthatit’sbecauseoftheliberalartsbuttheyfeelthatpeoplecomingfromU.S.schoolsaresomehowmoreabletosucceedintheworkplaceandyourperceptionaboutthemisthattheywillbemoreabletosucceed.Butit’snotbecausetheyunderstandit’sbecauseoftheliberalarts.Theydon’tknowwhatitis.” “WeneededtotakegeneraleducationcreditsandItookapoliticalscienceclassbecauseIhadtoandendedupgettingadualdegreeinitbecauseIfoundthingslikeinternationalrelationstobesointeresting.SoIthoughtwhynot?I’lljustgetadualdegree.”
StudentsasConsumers,WhyThisSchoolStudentswereawareofinternationalrankingsandfeltthatattendingaschoolinthe
U.S.thatwaswellknowninSaudiArabiawasimportant.Increasingly,theyseethe
nameoftheschoolasmattering,exceptatthePh.D.level.Adoctoratedegreeis
respectedfromeveryschool.Thisattituderegardingaschool’sinternational
rankingandreputationwasvoicedbynewerstudentsandmayreflectamaturingof
theSaudisunderstandingofeducationintheU.S.,suchasthenotionthatthequality
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ofeducationmaydifferbetweenschools.Also,asotherSaudishavereturnedhome
aftercompletingtheirstudiesintheU.S.theyhavebecomemembersoftheworking
establishmentwhoarebetterabletoevaluatedegreesfromvariousschoolsinthe
U.S.
“Before20yearsold[ago],10yearsago,thethingyouaretalkingaboutisreal.AnycertificationfromtheUSisabigmatter.ButnowmostofthebossesarestudyingintheUnitedStatesandtheyknowthebestcollegesandimaginewhattheydoifIcometothemwithHartford[Harvard]certification.Whatyouwilldo?AndmostofthemhavefromnotbignamecollegesandIhaveHartford[Harvard]whoshouldIhire?” “Yes,[IwantVirginia]becausetheGeorgetownhavegoodreputationandalotoffamouspeoplefromthisschool.[I]wanttogothereandthebusinesslawisagoodmajorcomparinganotheruniversity.Businesslawisstrong.” “”Yes,rankingsareimportanttome.Yes,beforeIcameIlooked[online]fortop100ratings,alsoShanghairankings.” “FirstIcheckedtheuniversitiesthatwereapprovedthanIwenttoGoogleandthenIwenttoUSNewsRankingtoseetherankingfortheschooltogetinformationaboutacceptancechancesandgetinformationabouttheschoolsandgetreviews.” “IwasintheinternationalprogramatHarvardandwemaketheseT-shirtsfortheHarvard-Yalegameandwemadeshirtsthatsaid“InmycountrynoonehasevenheardofYale.”ButinSauditheyknowHarvardisoneofthebestschoolsinthecountry.” “WhentheydoalotofhiringintheMiddleEastalotisbasedontheuniversitywhereyouwent,notnecessarilyqualifications.Theydon’tlookindepthattheresume.IalsowantedtobeabletoworkintheUSsoIknewthatareputableuniversitywithstrongcredentialswoulddothat.”
AttitudesabouttheU.S.ManystudentscametotheUnitedStatesastheirfirstchoicebecausetheyfeltan
affinitywithAmericancultureandbecausetheywantedtoliveandstudyina
countrywhereEnglishwastheprimarylanguage.That’susefultoknowsincemany
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othercountriesareestablishingprogramsthataretaughtinEnglishbutthe
country’sprimarylanguageissomethingelse.Saudistudentsfrequentlyidentified
strongEnglishlanguageskillsasanimportantbenefittotheircareerbackinSaudi.
ItisunclearifSaudistudentswouldhavepreferredschoolintheU.K.Many
studentsnotedthattheU.K.wasmuchclosertoSaudiArabiathantheU.S.butithas
longbeenoffthelistofcountriesavailabletoKASPstudents.Itisunclearhowmany
wouldhavechosenitovertheU.S.giventhepositiveviewmanyexpressedaboutlife
intheU.S.andtheiroverallexperienceatU.S.schools.
“SinceIwasyoungitwasalwaysmydreamtocometotheUS.IalwayswatchmoviesabouttheU.S.andevenlistentosongs.EvenJohnnyCash,Ilistentohim.Ilikethelifehere.” “IonlythoughtaboutU.K.orU.S.buttheKASPwon’tsendmethere.“
“Butintermsofacademics,whenyoulookatworlduniversityrankingstheU.S.dominatesthehighereducationalmarketbecauseitispartoftheserviceeconomyandnotanationalrightlikeitisinSaudiArabia.” “TheU.S.hasaculturalhegemony.EvenSaudiswhoneverleavethecountrywatchAmericanTVshows.Wedon’twatchFrenchmoviesandAustralianTVshows.Despitethefactthatit’snotlikethemoviesit’smorefamiliarthangoingtoNewZealand.IdoubtmanySaudisevenknowwhereNewZealandis.”
“Itisonlyfivehours.NomoreBritishbecauseitalreadyhasalotofstudents.IdidstillwanttocometotheU.S.”ManySaudistudentshadgoodknowledgeoftheU.S.systemofgovernmentand
favorableopinionsaboutdemocracy.Insomecasestheirknowledgewas
sophisticatedandthelanguagewasnuanced.
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“Thesocietyislookingfor,andthewholeworldislookingfordemocracy.ButIunderstooddemocracywhenIcamehere.I’mnotsureI–IhaveapositiveopinionbutIdon’tlikethetwopartydemocracy.Ilikethemultiplepartydemocracy.” “ButIthinkitispositive.FromwhatIunderstoodaboutdemocracyit’sacertainfreedom.” “Ithinkit’s[democracy]alotbetter,actually.IkindoflikepoliticsandIfollowitandfromwhatI’vefollowedbackinSaudiArabiaorhereoreveninChinafromwhatIseeSaudiArabiaandChinahavealotalikeintermsofpoliticalsystem.Thegovernmentdoesn’tlikepeopletoaccesscertainthingssotheyjustblockitormakeitafelony.Forexample,ifsomeonewanttocriticizesomethinggoingoninthecountryinthenewspaperhecannotdoitorhewillgotoprisonandbeinlotsoftrouble.Ifhejustgoesinthestreetandshoutsorchantsweshouldhavedemocracyhewillgotojailforlife.Andthat’sinbothSaudiArabiaandinChina.ThosekindsofthingsIdon’tthinkitisfair.”
“Iguess[myunderstandingofdemocracy]hasgottenmoresophisticated.IseethewayAmericandemocracyworksandtherearelotsofproblemswithit.IthinktheU.S.wouldliketoseeblanketdemocracybutitdoesn’tworkwelleverywhere.Thereisafantasylandabouthowyoucanpushdemocracy.I’dcallitthebiglieorthefallacyofthebigpushthatwearegoingintoprovidethem[IraqandAfghanistan]withdemocracy.” “Yes,andcomparedtoChina,inSaudiyoucanopenupandlookatFacebook.Saudidoesn’tcareaboutwhatyouaregoingtosayunlessyoudon’tmakeanynoisethatisgoingtohurtthegovernment.Soyoucanotherwisedowhateveryouwant[inSaudiArabia.]”
ExperiencesintheU.S.Notsurprisingly,allSaudistudentsfeltthattheirunderstandingoftheU.S.wasvery
differentthanwhentheyfirstcametothecountry.Manyexpressedconcernsabout
Islam-phobiabutfewweredirectlyimpactedbyit.Theywereconcernedthat
certainstereotypicalimagesofSaudimenandwomenwouldresultinpeoplebeing
unfriendlyorgrosslymisinformed.Insomecasestheydidfindthepreconceived
notionsaboutSaudis,mainlyaspresentedinthemedia,tobeupsettingtothem.Yet,
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theoverallexperiencewhenfirstarrivingintheU.S.wascultureshock.Forsomeof
theSaudis,theirownpreconceivednotionsweretested,aswell.
“Idothinkthatwhatyoulearninbooksisverynarrow.AndbecausetheMiddleEastissoprominentinthenewsisbecauseofISISandAlQaedaandallthewars.Butyoudon’tseeanythingelse.Likeyousaidbefore,meetingpeopleandgettingtoknowthemchangesyourperceptionsaboutthem.ThemediahelpscreatethisIslam-phobicfervorthatiswaymorepresentthanitwasevensevenyearsago,whichwaswaycloserto9/11.Inoticeitmuchmore.IthinkthatISISisapartofitandpeoplenowthinkIamdifferent.Thereareallthesepeoplethatdon’tknowhowdifferentwearecomparedtohowweareportrayed.EspeciallytheimagesofSaudiwomen.IwantallthesefeministstomeetSaudiwomen,onlybecauseIthinkthatalotoftimes,they’llwanttolookatwomenintheMiddleEastandthinkabouthowhorriblethingsareforthem.” “100%.Igotacultureshock.ImagineIdidn’twentoutside[ofSaudiArabia.]IsawpicturebeforeIcomebutitwasreally,youknow,unusualforme.InNewYorkalotoftechnologyandstuff.Ididn’tknowaboutit.FirstdayIrentacarfromtheairportandtheruleofthedrivinghereistotallydifferentfromhome.Eventheparking.Ican’tparkinginfrontoftheredthingforwater[firehydrant]andIdidn’tknow.OrIhavetogotoalotofspaceandIgotaspace.Igotaticket.” “Someofthem[people]sounexpected.Youthinkhewillrejectyoubutwhenyoucometohimandaskhimhe’ssofriendlyandwelcoming.Manypersonhavedifferentpersonality.Forme,inmyopinion,theblackpeopletheysoamazing.ImeantheysofriendlyandtheysmileandImean,hecouldtakemetohotel.Hesaidgotothere,gotothere,andhetellmetotakethistrain,nothistrain.” “FormeIspent24yearsoldandIdidn’tsawanySaudigaybeforeinmywholelife.NotopenlygaysoIhavenoinformationaboutthis.” “Ithinkso[myunderstandingoftheU.S.isdifferentfromwhenIfirstcame.]ThemediawastheprimarysourceofwhatIknewoftheU.S.beforeIcamehere.ThemediaisnotreallyprotheUS.Likeeverything–whatisagainstpro—thecons,andthepeopledoesn’tliketheU.S.ordoesn’tlikethepolitics,themediawastheprimarysource.” “Ididnotfeelunwelcome.Someofmyfriendsareimmigrants,someareAmerican,someareSaudilikemewhowanttogobackhome.”
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Itwassurprisingtohearthattherighttoopenlycriticizethegovernmentwas
somethingthatyoungerSaudisstruggledtoaccept.Thesecommentscamefrom
youngSaudiswhohavebeenintheU.S.forashorttime.Theyreflectdeeply
traditionalnotionsofrespectforauthoritythatmaynotbeasevidentamongolder
studentsorthosewhospendmoretimeoutsideofthecountry.
“Alittlebit,[itwasasurprisetohearpeoplespeakingcriticallyofthepresident]Iknewthat,Ididnotknowthatthereisalmostnolimitationofwhatifyouwanttotalkabout.IthoughtthereissomekindofboundariesthatyoucannotgobeyondbutIrealizedthatanyonecansayorcriticizeandmakefunofwhateveryouwantaboutanyone.” “OnethingIdon’tlikeaboutdemocracyisitcannothavelikelines.Youknowsometimesyougottohavesomelinesnottocross,likeforexample,whenthefellowordaughterispastageofeighteen,notallofthembutinmostcasestheytalkrudetotheirparents.” “IsitgoodthatAmericanshavesomuchfreedomtosaythings?IthinkitisbadandIthinkpeopleshouldnotbeabletosaysomanythings.”(TranslatedbyanotherSaudimalestudent.)
SaudistudentsreportthatAmericansareoftenpoorlyinformedaboutSaudiArabia
andtheMiddleEast.MostSaudistudentswantedtoeducatepeopleaboutSaudi
Arabia.ManyfeltsomeirritationwhenotherswerecriticalofSaudiArabia.Oneof
thestatedgoalsoftheKASPistoreintroduceAmericanstoSaudisinamorepositive
lightaftertheeventsof9/11.ThereisnomistakingtheSaudigovernments
intentionsofhavingtheKASPadministeredbytheCulturalMission.Saudistudents
arehereasculturalambassadorsfortheircountry.MostSaudistudentsseethat
thereislittleclearunderstandingaboutSaudiArabiaamongtheirfellowstudents.
“Alotofforeignstudenthere,whenItellthemIamfromSaudiArabia,theystartaskingaboutlocallifethereandwhyyoucanmarryfourwomeninsteadofone,andwhyordoyoustillrideacameltogotowork.TheyconsiderSaudiArabia
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likedesert,likewhattheyrecordinginthemoviesandpeoplearenotmodern.Buttheyaremoderninsomecities,theyhaveafancycar,theyhavesamethingsasyou,theyareeatingMountainHouse.”
“Yet,itisbutnotonlyaboutSaudiArabiabutabouttheentireregion.InthemediathereisaconstantproblemaboutbeingsobiasedagainsttheMiddleEast.So,unfortunately,thosearethekindofarticlesyoufindonMSNorAOLorCNN,youknow.Theyareaboutthewomanwhogetarrestedfordrivingbuttheydon’tlookintootherthingslikecharityortheimportanceofcommunityortheengagementwithothers,andtheculture,likeschoolsandinstitutionstohelparoundtheworld.” “ItsurprisedmethatsomanyAmericansthinkthatIslamisallaboutjihadandterrorism.WhenithappenedinNewYork,Ididn’tblamepeopleforthinkingthat,butnowIcanknowwhatisgoingoninChinaandIcanknowwhatisgoingoninSouthAmerica.” “WhenpeoplemeetmetheyarealwayssayingthattheyaresurprisedIwaswearingaskirtornotcoveringmyhair.Peoplearealwayssayingtheyexpectedmetobedifferent.Theysaytheyexpectedmetohavetheseothercharacteristics.Isay,“Well,youhaven’tmetanySaudiwomen.”Theyallhavepersonalities,andeveniftheycover,it’sachoiceandtheyaren’tthisoppressedgroup.” “Ifeelsobad[thatAmericansdon'tknowaboutSaudiArabia.]Mostpeoplethinkyouareoilyourself.OneguyaskedmeifIhadanoilcompany.Isaid“Ohyeah,Ihaveanoilpipethatcomesrightintomyroom.AndIhaveoilonmyhandsallthetime.”Andwelaughedaboutitbutthefirstthingtheyhaveonlytheirmindistwothings:oiloraboutthebadside,terrorismandjihadis.EspeciallysincethereweresomanySaudisontheairplaneson9/11.” “Democracyandhumanrights,andthingslikethat,IdefinitelythinkIseethemasareaswherethingscanbeimprovedinbothcountries.IactuallygetupsetwhenpeoplecriticizeSaudiArabiaintermsofhumanrightsbecauseItrytoshowthemhowmuchworseitwouldbetoliveundertheTaliban.Thereisaconstitution(notreally)butadocumentthatenshrinespeoples’rights,butItrytomakepoliticalargumentsthatway.ButIfeelIhadtheright,asaSauditocriticize.I’dbeoffendedwhenpeopleoutsidetherealmwouldcriticize.”
ChangingAttitudesandViewpointsaboutGlobalNorms
Attendingschoolwithbothmenandwomenfromawiderangeofethnicand
religiousbackgroundswasaneyeopeningexperiencefortheSaudisbuttheyall
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reportedbecomingmorecomfortablewiththisandidentifiedthemselvesasmore
tolerantnowthanbeforetheycamehere.ManySaudishadlittleornoexposureto
non-MuslimsbeforecomingtotheU.S.Theirinteractionswithothersleftthemwith
lessfear,deeperunderstandingofthemeaningofhumanrights,andgreater
understandingofotherpeople.Exposuretoothersdidincreasetoleranceinthose
studentswhowereinterviewed.Manyfacedsituationswheretheyhadtomakea
personaldecisionabouthowtoreact.Mostchosetowatchandlearnarerefrain
fromjudgingotherswhentheybehavedinwaysthatwereanomaloustoSaudi
culturalexpectations.
ThisresearchattemptstofindacorrelationbetweenbeingaSaudistudentinthe
U.S.andchangesintheirattitudesaboutglobalnormsonhumanrightsandcreating
alesstraditionalsocietyathome.Saudistudentsagreedthatlawspreventing
discriminationwerenecessaryfordefendedhumanrights,someofwhichthey
didn’thaveintheirowncountry.Whileitisunlikelythatlivingandstudyinginthe
U.S.willturnthesepeopleintodemocracyactivistsoncetheyreturntoSaudiArabia,
mostgiveunguardedopinionsaboutthevalueofafreepressandfreedomof
speech,aswellasamoreequalsocietyformenandwomen.MostSaudistudentsare
comfortablewithsocietychangingtoallowgreaterfreedomforpeople,although
howthatwillbemanifestedorhowthatchangewilloccurwasleftunspoken.
“Somepeopleinmycountrysaiddon’tgo.Ifyouseeblackpeopletheyaredrugdealeranddon’tgotothem.Anddon’tmakefriendwiththembecausemaybetheydosomethingtoyou–especiallyyouarefromMiddleEast.Isayok,I’llfollowyoursuggestingandwhenIcamehereitwasn’ttrue.”
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“Someofthem[myviews]arechanging,someofthemwerestraightandtotallychange–imaginewithmesomeonewhodidn’teversaworinteractwithawomanbefore.Andsuddenlyhewillstudywithawomananddoinghomeworkwithapartner….Youhavetochange.Someofthemchangingandwhenhereturnback[toSaudiArabia]hewanttoreturnbacktoUnitedStates.” “Yeah,especiallythehumanrightsissue.Ilookatsomeofthesubjectsyoumentioned[samesexmarriage,issuesrelatingtoreligiousfreedom,freespeechandafreepress]andthehumanrightsissues,Iaminfavororthem,inanywaywithoutlimitingpeople,withoutthespecificsofthesubject,ifithastodowithraceorgenderorotherthings.Butit’sadifficultsubjecttotalkabout,especiallywhensocietyisveryhomogenous.”
“Backhomewedon’thavethisvariety[ofpeople]butIammoretolerantofdifferentpeoplethanbefore.Athomealmost90%ofthepeopleareMuslims.Andeveniftheyaregayorsomethingtheywillnotshowit.” “Livinghereandbeingpartofacommunitythatisverydiverse,I’msureI’mmoretolerantthanwhenIfirstgothere.” “Yes,Ithinkit’schangingafterallthestudyabroadbutalsothingsinSaudiarechanging.Theyusedtothinkthathavinggoodrelationshipswitheverybodywasthebestidea.Youkeepthemfromcriticizingyourdomesticpolicybykeepinggoodeconomicrelations,sellingthemoil,givingallthischarity.Withtheotherhandtheyarepushingtheirpopulationdownandnoonesaysanything.Globalizationisexpandingandnowpeopleknowwhatishappening.” “Oncetheygetoveryournotdrinkingandtheyrealizeyouaren’tjudgingthemfordrinkingitisokay.Butthehookupculturewasalsoveryjarringtome.Iwaslikewhatishappening?Whatisthis?NowIjustseeitasteenagebehavior.”
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Chapter7:SurveyResults
Thepurposeofthischapteristoexaminethefindingsofthesurveyinrelationtothe
researchquestions,explorethefindingsaboutSaudistudents’experiencesattheir
schools,andmakecomparisonsbetweengroupsofstudentshereandinSaudi
Arabia.Thechapterwillbeginwithadescriptionofthesamplepopulationtoshow
thatitisanadequaterepresentationofSaudistudentsintheU.S.anddatato
addressthekeyfindingspresentedintheresearchquestions.Thecomparisonofthe
opinionsofSaudistudentsintheU.S.incontrasttoSaudiswhodidnotleaveSaudi
Arabiaforhighereducationisoneoftheoriginalintentionsofthisresearch.
KeyFindings
ThissectionwillshowthekeyfindingsofthesurveyadministeredtoSaudistudents
intheU.S.astheyrelatetotheresearchquestionsandhypothesisstatedinChapter
4.Itwillbeginwithadiscussionofthesurveypopulationtohelpdevelopapicture
ofwhotheyare.Thepicturepresentedisasamplepopulationthatclosely
resemblesthepopulationasdescribedinSaudigovernmentpublications.The
studentsreportthattheKASPwastheprimaryreasontheychosetostudyoutsideof
thecountryandthatthemajorityreceivedfundingthroughthegovernment.Very
fewstudentstravelledtotheU.S.beforecomingheretostudyandparental
educationlevels,aproxyforotherSESvariables(McDonough1997)indicatea
broadrangeofeducationalattainmentbytheparentsofstudents.Thiscoincides
withtheSaudigovernment’seffortstoprovidescholarshipstostudentsallacross
thecountryandespeciallyinpreviouslyunderservedareas.
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TheSurveyPopulation
Therewere262completedyielding205usablesurveysofSaudistudentsattending
HEIsacrosstheUnitedStates.Completedsurveyswereincludedonlyifthe
participantwasaSaudinationalorcitizen.Saudistudentswerecontactedbyemail,
Facebook,andTwitter.Theratioofmaletofemalecorrespondstothenumbersof
SaudistudentsstudyingundertheKASPasreportedbytheSaudiMinistryofHigher
Education(SaudiArabianMinistryofHgherEducation,2013).Accordingtothe
Saudigovernment,womencompriseapproximately25%ofallstudentsobtaining
highereducationoutsidethecountry.Inaddition,respondentsarestudyingfor
degreesinsimilarproportionstoallKASPstudents(SaudiArabianMinistryof
HgherEducation,2013).Thegenderofthesurveyrespondentsanddegreestheyare
seekingareshowninFigures8and9.
Figure8:GenderofRespondents Figure9:DegreesRespondentsare CurrentlySeeking
MaleRespondents 148 72%FemaleRespondents57 28%Total 205 100%
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Figure9showsDegreesRespondentsareCurrentlySeeking.Thissurveysample
comparespartiallywithallstudentsstudyingabroad.AccordingtotheMinistryof
HigherEducation38%ofallSaudistudentsstudyingabroadareseekingBachelor’s
degrees,44%Master’sDegrees,and8%Ph.D.
AreyoucurrentlystudyingintheU.S.aspartoftheKingAbdullahScholarshipProgram?Answer
Response %Yes
145 71%No,butIwasinthepast.
14 7%
No,IwasneverpartoftheKASP.
46 22%
Total 205 100%AccordingtotheMOHE,asof2013theKASPwasfunding76%ofallSaudistudents
studyingabroadwhiletheremaining24%wereself-fundedorgovernment
employees.Thesurveysamplehasasimilarprofile.
WouldyouhavestudiedoutsideofSaudiArabiawithouttheKASP?Answer
Response %Yes
59 29%No
106 52%N/A,IdidnotparticipateintheKASP.
40 20%
Total 205 100%
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Figure10:TotalNumberofYearsRespondentslivedintheU.S.
Figure11:PreviousNumberofTimesintheU.S.BeforeComingforHigher
Education
Legend:Never75%,
1-2times16%,
3timesormore9%
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Figure12:Father’sHighestLevel Figure13:Mother’sHighestLevel ofEducation ofEducation
KeyFindingsforResearchQuestionOne:Howcantheincreaseinthenumber
ofSaudistudentscomingtotheU.S.forhighereducationbeexplained?
SaudistudentshavebeenchoosingtoattendHEIsintheUnitedStatesatafaster
ratethananyothercountry.Theliteratureandinterviewresultshelpedclarifythe
researchquestionsandhypothesesthatexplainthisphenomenon.Thesurvey
resultsforH1–H3areconsideredhere.
H1:SaudistudentsareinfluencedintheirchoicetostudyintheUnitedStatesbythe
availabilityofscholarshipsfromthegovernmentofSaudiArabiaandthe
accessibilityofstudentvisastotheUnitedStates.
Thesurveyresultssupportbothelementsofthishypothesis.Policiesofboththe
SaudiandUnitedStatesgovernmentsareinfluencingSaudistudents’decisionto
cometotheU.S.topursuehighereducation.
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TheavailabilityofscholarshipsinformedSaudistudentchoiceaboutwhereto
attendcollege.Morethanjustchoosingthecountry,thescholarshipprogramsalso
influencedwhichschoolsstudentschosetoattendduetotheavailabilityoffunding
toHEIsontheSACMapprovedlistandthecostoflivingassociatedwithdifferent
areasoftheU.S.
50% Respondentschosetheircurrentschoolbecauseofthescholarship
program.BeingontheSACMapprovedlistwasthemostfrequentreason
citedforwhystudentschosetheircurrentschool.
52% ReportedtheywouldnothavestudiedoutsideofSaudiArabiawithoutthe
KASP.
34% Agreed/stronglyagreedtheywouldhavechosenadifferentschoolorone
inadifferentcountryexceptfortherestrictionsofthescholarship
program.36%disagreed/stronglydisagreedthattheywouldhavepicked
adifferentschoolorcountrytoattenduniversity,indicatingthatonly1in
3hadadecidedpreferencefortheU.S.ortheHEItheyattended.
11% Citedalowercostoflivinginaplaceasoneofthereasonstheychoseto
attendschoolthere.TheKASPgiveseachstudentasetamountforliving
expensesandimpactedwhereintheU.S.somestudentschosetoattend
university.
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GettingavisatostudyintheUnitedStateswasnotanobstacleforSaudistudents.
• 69%agreed/stronglyagreedthatgettingavisatostudyintheU.S.waseasy
withonly12%disagreeing/stronglydisagreeing.
ThisresultcomplieswithfindingsabouttheU.S.government’sactionstoestablish
SEVIPandothereffortstofacilitateandsupportSaudistudents’attendanceatHEIs
inthecountry.SEVIS,theStudentExchangeandVisitorInformationSystem,was
implementedin2005toaddressthevisabacklogforforeignstudentsattending
HEIsintheU.S.thatresultedfromtheeventsof9/11/01.From2001to2005Saudi
studentsexperienceda75%dropinvisaapprovals.AccordingtotheU.S.
DepartmentofState,sincetheimplementationoftheSEVIScomputerizedsystem,
therehasbeenanearly15-foldincreaseinthenumberofF-1visasapprovalsfor
SaudistudentsstudyingintheU.S.
H2:SaudistudentsperceivethathighereducationintheUnitedStatesisbetterthan
inothercountries.
Surveyresultssupportthishypothesis.TheUnitedStatesishometomoretoprated
universitiesandcollegesthananyothercountryandhasacompetitiveadvantagein
highereducation.
• 67%ofSaudistudentsagreed/stronglyagreedtothestatement“higher
educationintheU.S.isbetterthaninothercountries.”
191
• Whenaskedtochoosefromalistofreasonsstudentswereattractedtoa
school,33%chose“AdegreefromaU.S.schoolwouldbebetterthanadegree
fromaschoolinanothercountry.”
•
H3:SaudistudentsperceivethatadegreefromaU.S.schoolwillenhancetheir
employmentprospectsbetterthanadegreefromaschoolinSaudiArabia.
SurveyresultssupportthishypothesisandshowSaudistudentsfrequentlyseek
educationintheU.S.asawaytoimprovetheirjobprospectswhentheyreturn
home.Inaddition,thesurveyresultsidentifythatSaudistudentsoverwhelmingly
feltthatEnglishlanguageabilitieswouldenhancetheircareerprospects.Thismay
alsosupportSaudistudentchoicetoattendHEIsintheU.S.,asanEnglishspeaking
country,despitemanyotherschoolsincountriesontheSACMapprovallistoffering
degreestaughtinEnglish.
23% Said“adegreefromthisschoolwillhelpmegetabetterjobthangoingtoa
universityinSaudiArabia”asareasontheywereattractedtotheircurrent
school.
68% Agreed/stronglyagreedthattheywereconfidentthattheywouldgetajob
aftercompletingtheirstudies.Interestingly,nearly25%responded
neitheragreenordisagree,whichmaybeareflectionofthedramatic
downturnintheiremploymentprospectsgiventhecurrenteconomic
developmentsinSaudiArabia.
192
95% Agreed/stronglyagreedthatstrongEnglishlanguageskillswouldbean
importantbenefittotheircareer.Thisdatacorrespondstointerview
findingsthatSaudistudentswerechoosingtheU.S.becausetheyfeltthat
theywouldbecomebetterspeakersiftheylivedandwenttoschoolina
countrywhereEnglishwastheprimarylanguage.
KeyFindingsforResearchQuestionTwo:Whataretheexpectedoutcomesof
thisresearch?
Theexpectedoutcomesofthisresearchweretoprovideinformationaboutthe
motivationsofSaudistudentstostudyintheU.S.,theirsourcesofinformation,the
challengestheyfacedasstudentsintheU.S.,andtheirattitudesabouttheU.S.and
othersocialandculturalissues.Thesurveyfindingsofferedsomeconfirmationof
expectedoutcomesbutinmanycaseshighlightedotherfactorsthatstudents
reportedassignificant.Hypotheses4and5relatetomotivationsandmechanismsof
choiceofSaudistudents.
H4:Saudistudents’primarysourceofinformationaboutwheretostudyintheU.S.
isfamilyandsocialnetworks.
Thesurveyresultsdonotfullysupportthisstatement.Whilesocialnetworkswere
importanttheywerenottheprimarysourceofinformationforstudents.Figure14
identifiessurveyresultsforwhereSaudistudentsgottheirinformationabout
schoolstheyappliedtointheUnitedStates:
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Figure14:SaudiStudents’SourcesofInformation
• SaudistudentschosetheInternetandsocialmedia51%ofthetimeand
friendsandfamilyandsocialnetworksonly44%ofthetime.
• StudentsreliedonadvisorsfromSACM15%ofthetimeandalumnifrom
schools14%ofthetime.
• Studentsinfrequentlyusedothersources,mainlyrecruitmenteffortsby
HEIs.
H5:Saudistudentsareinfluencedintheirchoicebyaschool’sreputation,rankings,
orhowwellknownitisinSaudiArabia.
Thishypothesisissupportedbutotherfactorsalsomatteredinstudent’choice
aboutwheretoattendschool.Figure15identifiesthefactorsthatattractedthemto
theschooltheycurrentlyattend.
194
Figure15:WhatAttractedStudentstoTheirCurrentSchool
• InnearlyequalmeasureSaudistudentsidentifiedschoolranking(34%)and
havingheardorreadpositivethingsaboutaschool(36%)asreasonsthey
wereattractedtotheschooltheycurrentlyattend.
• Only11%wereattractedtoaschoolbecauseitwaswellknowninSaudi
Arabiayetinanotherquestion61%agreed/stronglyagreedthatemployers
inSaudiArabiacareaboutwhichschoolyouattended.
• 19%chosetheschooltheycurrentlyattendbecauseithasamajortheycould
notfindinSaudiArabia.
195
• Oneofthemoresurprisingfindingstothesurveywasthat36%ofSaudi
studentschosetheschooltheycurrentlyattendbecausetheyfelttheycould
beacademicallysuccessfulthere.Thiswastiedforthesecondmostchosen
responsetofactorsthatattractedstudentstotheschooltheycurrently
attend,justbehindbeingontheSACMapprovedlist.So,whilerankingand
reputationareimportant,Saudistudentsweremoreconcernedwiththeir
academicsuccesswhenconsideringwheretoattendcollegeintheU.S.
• 53%agreed/stronglyagreedthattheydidnotconsidersomeschools
becausetheyreadorheardnegativethingsaboutthem.
• Hypothesis6–8considerchangesinhowSaudistudentsfeelaboutthe
UnitedStatesandchangesinculturalviewssincestudyingintheU.S.
H6:SaudistudentshaveamorefavorableopinionoftheU.S.thanwhentheylivedin
SaudiArabia.
SurveyresultssupportthehypothesisthattheirtimeintheU.S.hasimprovedtheir
opinionofthecountry.
• 60%agree/stronglyagreethattheyhaveamorefavorableopinionoftheU.S.
nowthanwhentheylivedinSaudiArabia.
• 9%disagreed/stronglydisagreedthattheyexperiencedachangeinopinion.
StudentsfromSaudiArabiadonothavefreeandopenaccesstoinformation
abouttheworldoutsideoftheircountry.Interviewsidentifiedthatmany
196
SaudistudentsalreadyhadapositivepredispositiontowardtheU.S.despite
havinglimitedexposuretoAmericancitizensandAmericanculture.
•
H7:Saudistudentsbecamemoretolerantofpeoplefromotherculturesand
religionsafterlivingintheUnitedStates.
Resultsofthesurveysupportthishypothesis.Saudistudentsdonothavethesame
opportunitiesathometoliveandattendschoolwithadiversecommunityofpeople.
Theyoverwhelminglyreportthattheyaremoretolerantofothersafterlivinginthe
U.S.
• 88%agree/stronglyagreedthatmeetingdifferentpeoplesuchasAsians,
African-Americans,Christians,andJewsmadethemmoretolerantandopen
toothercultures.
• 44%agree/stronglyagreedthattheyoftenfeltthatpeoplewere
uncomfortableordidnotlikethembecausetheywereSaudiorMuslim.
SaudinationalsenjoyahighdegreeofprivilegeintheircountryandIslamis
theonlyreligionlegallyallowed.Itmaybeanunusualexperienceforthemto
personallyexperienceintoleranceandrelatestothefindingthat86%ofthe
Saudissurveyedagreed/stronglyagreedthatmoststudentsattheirschool
knewtoolittleaboutSaudiArabiaortheMiddleEast.
• 85%agreed/stronglyagreedthatlawsforbiddingdiscriminationbasedon
thesefactorswereimportantforprotectinghumanrights.Thisisindirect
contrastwithlawsinSaudiArabiaandmayprovidethebasisforchangein
198
H8:SaudistudentsagreethatchanginggenderrolesofmenandwomeninSaudi
Arabiaarepartofapositiveglobaltrendtowardincreasedgenderequality.
Surveyresultssupportthishypothesisacrossseveralmeasures.Thereisevidence
supportingthedesireforgreatergenderequalityinSaudiArabia.
64% Agreed/stronglyagreedthattheysawchanginggenderrolesofmenand
womeninSaudiArabiaaspartofapositiveglobaltrend.
83% Agreed/stronglyagreedthatencouragingSaudiwomentoattendcollege
andjointheworkforceisgoodfortheSaudieconomy.
65% Agreed/stronglyagreedthatbothahusbandandwifeshouldcontribute
tothehouseholdincome.Only12%disagreed/stronglydisagreed.
35% Agreed/stronglyagreedthatallowingwomentoworkunderminedtheir
religioustraditionswhile14%disagreedand33%stronglydisagreedfor
atotal47%inoppositiontothestatement.
FindingsonSaudiStudents’ExperiencesattheirCurrentSchool
ThisresearchexaminedSaudistudents’experiencesontheircampusesfromtheir
perspective.AnalysisoftheinterviewswithadministratorsatHEIsidentifiedthe
effortsmadebyschoolsasthemostprominentnode,orareaofdiscussion.This
nodeincludedcommentarybyHEIsregardingtheireffortstofacilitateasenseof
199
welcome,assimilation,andacademicsuccessamongtheforeignstudentpopulation
attheirinstitution.ThesurveyconsideredthreemainareaswhereSaudistudents
expressedtheirviewsabouthowtheircurrentschoolwasmeetingtheirneedsin
theseareasandhowtheyevaluatedtheiroverallexperienceasstudentsintheU.S.
ItisclearthatSaudistudentswanthelpadjustingtotheacademicstandardsatthe
schooltheyattend.
• 38%wishedtheschoolwouldoffermoreacademicsupport.
• 32%respondedthattheywishedtheircurrentschoolwouldoffermore
trainingtopreventproblemswithplagiarism.Theseresponsescoincidewith
thefindingsthatstudentchoiceisheavilyinfluencedbyperceptionthatthey
canbeacademicallysuccessfulattheschooltheychooseandcorrespondsto
theirdesireforanincreaseinthesespecificservicesfromHEIs.
Saudistudents,byalargemajority,wantmorehelpmeetingAmericanstudentsand
findingtheservicestheyneedinthelocalarea.Inaddition,theirreligiousand
culturalneedscouldbebettermetbyHEIs.
62% Agreedthattheircurrentschooldidnotorganizeenougheventstohelp
SaudistudentsmeetAmericanstudents.
41% Wishedtheircurrentschoolwouldoffermorehelpfindinglocal
resourcessuchashousing,medicalcare,andtransportationinformation.
200
38% Hopedtheschoolwouldorganizemoreeventstoallowthemtoshowcase
Saudiculturetootherstudentsoncampus.
56% Wouldliketheircurrentschooltomakemoreefforttomeettheir
religiousneedssuchasprovidingprayerrooms,halalfood,and
accommodationsduringRamadanandEids.
Lastly,surveyfindingsshowthatSaudistudentsaresatisfiedwiththeirexperience
studyingintheU.S.Thehighlevelsofsatisfactionmayrelatetothegeneral
educationcoursesthatstudentswererequiredtotakewhichoftenledthemto
voluntarilypursueotherareasofstudy.
84% Wereverysatisfied/somewhatsatisfiedwiththeirexperienceintheU.S.
Only4%weresomewhatdissatisfied/dissatisfied.
71% Agreed/stronglyagreedthatthegeneraleducationcoursetheytook
exposedthemtoareastheyneverlearnedaboutbefore.
63% Agreed/stronglyagreedthatthegeneraleducationcoursestheytook
resultedintheirdecisiontotakemorecoursesinanareaofstudy.
DiscussiononFindingsaboutSaudiStudentsintheU.S.comparedwithSaudis
atHome
OnepurposeofthisresearchwastocompareattitudesofSaudistudentsstudyingin
theUnitedStateswithstudentswhoattendedschoolsathomeinSaudiArabiaand
thegeneralpopulationinSaudiArabia.Thesurveyrepeatedquestionsaskedinthe
201
BridgingtheGapSurvey(2010)andinsomecasesrepeatedquestionsusedinthe
2003WorldValuesSurveyforSaudiArabia.
Figure16:ConfidenceAboutFutureEmployment
SaudisinUSincluderespondentswhostronglyagreed/agreed.SaudisatHomeisbasedonBridgingtheGapSurvey(2010)respondentswhoagreed/moderatelyagreed.Saudistudentsaremotivatedtopursuehighereducationinordertoimprovetheir
employability.Figure16showsbothmenandwomenwhoattendHEIsintheU.S.
reportgreaterconfidencethattheywillgetajobwhentheycompletetheirstudies
thanstudentsinSaudiArabia.FormalesstudyingintheU.S.weremuchmore
confident(75%)thatmalesstudyinginSaudiArabia(57%.)Forwomenthe
confidencegapwassmaller;itwas56%intheU.S.comparedwith48%studyingin
SaudiArabia.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Males% Females% Males% Females%
SaudisinUS SaudisatHome
Percent
IamcongidentIwillgetajobaftergraduation
202
Figure17:ViewsonChangingGenderRoles
SaudisinUSrespondentswhostronglyagreed/agreed.SaudisatHomeisbasedon
BridgingtheGapSurvey(2010)respondentswhoagreed/moderatelyagreed.
Figure17showstherewasalargedifferenceamongmalesstudyingintheU.S.
comparedwithmalesstudyingatHEIsinSaudiArabiawhenaskedifchangingroles
arepartofapositiveglobaltrend.SaudimalesintheU.S.stronglyagreed/agreed
64%whileSaudimalesattendingHEIsinSaudiArabiaagreed/moderatelyagreed
only48%ofthetime.Responsesforwomenwerenearlyidenticalwith65%
studyingintheU.S.agreeingcomparedwith62%studyinginSaudiArabia.
203
Table16:MenandWomenShouldContributetotheHouseholdIncome
Men Women
SaudisinU.S. 64% 68%
SaudisatHome 60% 73%
WVS2003 68% 59%
SaudisinUSstronglyagreed/agreed.SaudisatHomebasedonBridgingtheGapSurvey(2010)agreed/moderatelyagreed.WorldValueSurveySaudiArabia2003stronglyagree/agree.Table16showsthesimilarityinresponsesbetweenstudentsintheU.S.,Saudi
studentsattendingschoolsinsidethecountry,andthegeneralSaudipopulation.
Whenaskedifinamodernfamilybothmenandwomenshouldbringhomean
incomeorbothhusbandandwifeshouldcontributetothehouseholdincomeno
obviousdifferenceoccurbetweenSaudisintheU.S.,Saudisstudyingathomeorthe
SaudipopulationingeneralasreportedintheWorldValuesSurveyforSaudiArabia
2003.
204
Figure18:ViewsonWomenWorkingandReligiousPractices
SaudisinUSstronglyagreed/agreed.SaudisatHomebasedonBridgingtheGapSurvey(2010)agreed/moderatelyagreed.Thequestionabouttheintersectionofwomen’semploymentandIslamshowsclear
divergencebetweenstudentsintheU.S.andthoseinSaudiArabia.Figure18
highlightsthedifferenceinopinionaboutwhetherallowingwomentoworkwill
underminereligioustraditionsislargebetweenbothSaudimenandwomen.Saudi
malesintheU.S.agreeonly37%ofthetimecomparedtoSaudimalesathomewho
agreed65%ofthetime.SaudiwomenintheU.S.agreedonly30%ofthetime
comparedtoSaudiwomenstudyingathomewhoagreed84%ofthetime.More
thanhalfofthewomenrespondentsintheU.S.eitherdisagreeorstronglydisagreed
withthestatement.ThequestionaboutallowingwomentoworkinSaudiArabiais
currentlyanongoingoneinsidethecountry.83%ofSaudistudentsintheU.S.
205
agreed/stronglyagreedthatencouragingSaudiwomentoattendcollegeandjoin
theworkforceisgoodfortheSaudieconomy.ItremainsunclearhowtheSaudi
peoplewillreconcilethisdichotomybetweenreligionandattitudesthatpoint
towardadesirefororacceptanceofsocialchangeinacountrywhere,accordingto
theWVS200374%ofthepeopleidentifyasMuslimaboveallandonly12%
describethemselvesasSaudiaboveall.
Figure19:ViewsonSaudiCulture Figure20:ViewsonCulturalSuperiority
Changing
SaudisinUSstronglyagreed/agreed.SaudisatHomebasedonBridgingtheGapSurvey(2010)agreed/moderatelyagreed.
SaudistudentsintheU.S.showmorewillingnesstoseeculturalchangesinside
SaudiArabiathanSaudistudentsathome.Figure19showsonly38%ofmenand
26%ofwomenstudyingintheU.S.feltthecultureofSaudiArabiashouldstaythe
samecomparedto44%ofthemenand33%ofthewomenstudyinginsideSaudi
Arabia.ResponsestotheWVSquestionthataskedaboutchangingsocietyshowed
thatonly30.7%feltthatsocietyasitcurrentlyexistedshouldbevaliantlydefended
206
indicatingthattheoverallpopulationmayalsobewillingtoseechangesinsociety.
Figure20showsthatSaudistudentsintheU.S.arelesslikelytoseeSaudicultureas
superiortoothercultures.
Inconclusion,SaudistudentswhostudyintheUnitedStatesshowseveralareas
wheretheydifferfromtheircounterpartswhoremainathome.Theyaremore
confidentthattheywillfindemploymentwhentheycompletetheirstudies.They
arealsoingreateragreementthatchanginggenderrolesarepartofapositiveglobal
trendandhavingwomenentertheworkforceisgoodfortheSaudieconomy.Saudi
studentsintheU.S.arefarlesslikelytoseewomenworkingasunderminingtheir
religiouspractices.ThismightbetheresultoflivingintheU.S.wheremany
personallyseethatwomen’sparticipationintheworkforcehasnotinterferedwith
theirabilitytoliveinaccordancewiththeirfaith.
SaudistudentsintheU.S.aremorewillingtoacceptculturalchangeinthecountry
andagreefarlessfrequentlythatSaudicultureissuperiortoothercultures.This
wouldaffirmthefindingsinH7thatSaudistudentsbecamemoretolerantofpeople
fromotherculturesandreligionsafterlivingintheUnitedStates.Intergroup
ContactTheoryisusedtoexplainhowpositiveinteractionamongpeoplefrom
differentculturescanbeaneffectivewaytoreduceracialprejudice(Allport,1954)
andstudieshaveshownhowcollegeincreasestoleranceandtheabilityofpeopleto
understandandcommunicatewithothers(Bowen,1997).
207
Thefindingsofthisresearchshowthat88%ofSaudistudentsreportthatmeeting
differentpeoplesuchasAsians,African-Americans,Christians,andJewshasmade
themmoretolerantandopentoothercultures.Itwouldbeunrealistictoexpect
SaudiArabiatobecomeanopencountryinthemodelofWesterndemocraticstates
buttheincreasedtoleranceandrespectforotherculturescanhavehelpmoderate
extremistviewsinsidethecountry.Inaddition,experiencingothermodelsof
interactionbetweencitizensandgovernment,fromthelocalparent-teacher
organizationtothenationaldiscussionaboutpersonalfreedomandprivacyrights
mayprovidereturningSaudissomeinsightintodevelopingformsofcivilsociety
alongculturallyacceptablelinesinsideSaudiArabia.
208
Chapter8:ConclusionThischapterbeginswithrecommendationsforHEIstoimplementtoimprovethe
livedexperienceforSaudistudentsalreadyattendingtheirschoolandtoenhance
recruitmentefforts,concludingwithasummationfocusingonthecurrentsituation
inSaudiArabiaandrecommendationsforfutureresearch.
RecommendationsforHEIsintheUnitedStates
U.S.schoolsneedtoworkhardertofullyintegrateSaudistudentsintocommunity
life(LeBaron2013).WhileEnglishlanguagetrainingisusuallythefirststageof
thesestudents’journey,socializationispartofcreatingameaningful,positive
experienceforSaudistudentswhowillcarryhomewiththemthelessonslearned
whilelivinginAmerica.Schoolsneedtorecognizetheimportanceofthisfortheir
long-termimpactonU.S.-Saudicultural,political,andeconomicrelations.Every
positiverelationshipismagnifiedwhenthesestudentsreturntotheirfamiliesin
SaudiArabia.Schoolsneedtoalsorecognizetheacademicissuesthatmanyofthese
studentsinitiallyfacebasedonthetypeoflearningsystemstheyweretaughtunder.
Thisisnotaboutlowerstandards.Itisaboutappropriateadjustmentsand
remediationnecessarytosucceedinanAmericanuniversity.
Themarketforinternationalstudentsisgrowingmorecompetitiveeveryyear
(Choudaha2014).WhiletheU.S.enjoysthelargestnumberofinternationalstudents
ithasseenitsoverallshareofthemarketdeclineasothercountriesstrivetoattract
209
them.Yet,theUnitedStatescontinuestoseegrowthfromSaudiArabia.Howcanan
HEItakeadvantageofthispipelineofstudentswhocomefullyfundedbytheir
governmentandrepresentanunusualcohortofstudentstoexposethedomestic
populationto?ThesurveyofSaudistudentsintheU.S.identifiedseveralsourcesof
informationandareasofconcernthatHEIsshouldconsiderwhendevelopinga
strategytoincreasetheenrolmentofSaudistudents.
1.GetontheSACMapprovedlistofinstitutionsthatstudentscanattend.SACM
approvalwasnumberonereasonstudentsappliedtoaparticularHEI.HEIsinthe
U.S.needtobetterunderstandtheprocessforbeingplacedonthelistof
recommendedorapprovedschoolsbytheKingAbdullaScholarshipProgram.
Professionalassociationsandrecognizedaccreditationarethefirstrequirements
butthetimingofwhenaschoolgetsevaluatedandtheformulausedtodetermine
thenumberofstudentsthegovernmentwillapproveforscholarshipstoanyone
institutionisnotmadepubliclyavailable.Whenaschoolreachesasaturationlevel
forSaudistudents,asdeterminedbytheSaudiMinistryforHigherEducation,itis
nolongerontheapprovedlist.Itisnotclearifthisbecomesahardlimitorthereis
roomforsomeadditionalstudentenrolmentorhowlongschoolsaretakenoffthe
approvallist.TheremaybeupcomingchangestotheKASPthatfurtherlimitwhich
schoolswillbeontheapprovedlist.HEIsneedtocarefullymonitorandmanage
theirrelationshipwithSACMinordertoensuretheflowofSaudistudentstotheir
institution.
210
2.Marshallexistingresourcestoimprovethestudents’experience.Thesecond
mostfrequentreasonstudentschoseaschoolwasbecausetheyfelttheycouldbe
academicallysuccessfulthere.Saudistudentsaremoreconcernedwithbeingableto
performacademicallythantheyareaboutattendingschoolswithstrong
internationalreputationsorrankings.HelpingSaudistudentsaccessexisting
academicsupportsandfindotherlocalresourcessuchashealthcareprovidersand
howtousepublictransportationcanaddressbasicconcernsthatimpacttheir
experienceoncampusandtheiroverallperformanceasstudents.Addressingthese
primaryconcernsofSaudistudentsshouldbeapriorityforHEIsandcanhavean
impactonstudents’experiencesandperceptions.
3.HelpSaudistudentsintegratesociallyoncampus.AccordingtoU.S.NewsBest
Colleges,apopularsourceforinformationcitedbystudents,“Schoolswithastrong
globalpresenceoftenhaveawealthofculturalgroupsandevents,allowing
internationalstudentsanopportunitytosharetheirfood,musicandtraditionswith
theirU.S.peers.”(U.S.NewsandWorldReports,2015).Schoolsadvertisetheir
percentageofforeignstudentsasabadgeofhonor,claimingtheyofferdiversityand
enrichtheexperienceofeveryoneoncampus.ThesurveyfindingsshowthatSaudi
studentswantmorehelpmeetingotherstudentsandwouldappreciatemore
opportunitiestoshowcaseSaudiculture.Ifcollegeswanttoliveuptothegoalof
campusintegrationtheyneedtoincreasecoordinationamongstakeholdersand
worktoencouragepositiveengagementforbothSaudistudentsandthegeneral
population(Pettigrew,Tropp,Wagner,&Christ,2011).
211
4.Becomemoreculturallysensitive.Setupinterfaithprayerrooms.Offer
alternativeschedulesduringtheMuslimreligiousholidaysofRamadanandEid.
ProvidehalalfoodsduringRamadan.OrganizemoreeventstoallowSaudistudents
toteachothersabouttheircultureandimprovethegeneralpopulation’sknowledge
abouttheMiddleEast.Over85%ofSaudistudentssurveyedagreedthatthe
studentsattheirschoolknewtoolittleaboutSaudiArabiaandtheMiddleEast.This
isimportantgiventheincreasinglyunfavorableviewsAmericanshaveofIslamin
lightofrecenteventsintheregionandtheattackinSanBernardino,California.
Shortlyaftertheeventsof9/11aBrookingsInstitutepollfoundthat39%of
AmericansexpressedanunfavorableviewofIslam.Thenumberofpeople
expressinganunfavorableviewofIslamroseto61%byDecember2015(Telhami,
2015).EducationistheantidotetoignoranceforAmericansaswellasSaudis.
RespectingcultureandsharingculturearefundamentaltenetsthatanyHEIshould
honoriftheyhopetosuccessfullyinternationalizethestudentbody.
5.Developamarketingplan.Successfulrecruitmenttodaymeansviewing
studentsasconsumersofhighereducationandcreatingaplantoreachthemas
individualtargetaudiences.ThesurveyfindingsshowthatfewSaudistudentsgot
informationaboutschoolsfromeducationaltravelagents,foreignstudentadvisors,
directmail,collegerecruiters,oralumnifromschools.Alloftheserepresent
underutilizedresourcesthatHEIsshouldincorporateintoanyeffortstoincreasethe
numberofSaudistudentsontheircampus.SaudistudentsreportthattheInternet
andsocialmediawheretheirfirstsourcesofinformation.AccordingtoTop
212
Universities.com“Two-thirdsof[survey]respondentssaidtheyconsideredofficial
universitywebsites“essential”whenresearchinghighereducationoptions,while
universityrankingswebsitesweremostlikelytobeclassifiedas“veryimportant”.”
(QSTopUniversities,2014).Studentsreporteddifficultyinfindinginformationin
manyareas.HEIsmustinvestincreatingwebsitesforinternationalstudentsthat
makeiteasyforthemtonavigateandaddressculturalspecificities.
IntermsoftheInternetandsocialmedia,theywerenotasimportantasuniversity
websitesbuttheydidplayasignificantroleinstudentchoice.Saudistudents
surveyedforthisprojectsaidtheywereinfluencedbywhattheyreadorheard
aboutschools:
36% SaidtheyheardorreadpositivethingsaboutthisschoolsoIdecidedto
attend.
53% Agreed/StronglyAgreedthattheydidnotconsidersomeschoolbecause
theyreadorheardbadthingsaboutthem.
Communicatingthepositiveaspectsofyourschoolandalltheenhancedefforts
beingmadeonbehalfoftheSaudistudentpopulationisnotenough.HEIsmust
closelymonitortheironlineprofileandaddressnegativeinformationimmediately.
Thenegativereviewscanhavelonglastingeffects(Ghosh,WhippieandBryan
2001).
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SummationandFutureResearch
Sendingnearlytwohundredthousandpeopletostudyabroadmayhaveserious
consequencesforSaudiArabia.ItisimportanttorememberthattheMiddleEastis
aregionwhereWesterninfluencehaslongbeenseenascorruptingandanti-Islamic.
AccordingtoPeterMansfield,thenotedMiddleEastscholar,the19thCentury
PersianShahNaseralDin(1831-1896)refusedtoallowwealthyPersianstosend
theirchildrenabroadtostudyforfeartheywouldbeexposedtowesternideas
(Mansfield,1991).Eventoday,manyreligiousconservativesinSaudiArabiadonot
approveoftheeducationalandsocialreformshappeninginthecountry.Thegrowth
ofseculareducationisasourceofconflictwiththeconservativeswhoseeIslamic
educationasvitaltomaintainingArabandMuslimsocialvaluesinthefaceof
growingwesternization(Rugh2002).
TheSaudigovernmentisactingverycarefullytomanagereforms.SaudiArabiais
firstandforemostanIslamiccountrywithastrongreligiousclass,onewhere
conservativevaluesarewidelyacceptedbythepopulation.KingAbdullah
recognizedtheneedtorestructuretheeconomyandcreateamoreopensocietyin
responsetothegrowingdemographicpressuresonthecountry.Thenewking,
Salman,haspledgedtocontinuethesereforms.Turmoilintheregionisanother
concern,providingincentiveforextremismamonganincreasinglyrestless,
discouragedpopulationofyoung,unemployedSaudis.KingAbdullahwasalways
seenasachampionofliberalreforms,atleastthosethatdonotthreatenthe
214
privilegedstatusofthemonarchy.Educationreformisonewaytotransformthe
rigidbureaucracyofthestateintoamoreresponsiveonethatfostersinnovation.
Yet,thequestionremainsabouthowtomodernizeeducationinacountrywherethe
religiousconservativeswanttokeepIslamtheprimaryfocus.“TherulingAlSaud
haveinitiatedcontroversialeducationalreformsbyusingperipheralinstitutionsin
ordertobypasstheclericalestablishment.Institutionssuchasacademiccities,
internationalpartnerships,andquasi-governmentalorganizationshaveoften
providedbackdoorforreform.”(Nolan,2012).
Sendingstudentsoutofthecountry,ratherthanimportingschoolslikeotherGulf
Statesmaybeafarmoresuccessfulpathtowardsocialandeconomicliberalization.
ThelanguagethattheSaudiMOHEusesinitsinformationbrochuresandstatus
reportsspeakstotheprideoftheSaudinationanditsachievements.TheForward
totheMOHEpublicationtitled“StudyAbroadScholarships”makesseveraldirect
claims,suchas“Thegovernmenthassoughttosupportstudyabroadscholarships
tomakeuseoftheskillsofthegraduatesinthecomprehensivedevelopmentwhich
thekingdomiswitnessing.Toachievethis,youngSaudimenandwomenarebeing
qualifiedinthefinestandmostexperienceduniversitiesaroundtheworld,inallthe
fieldsneededbythenationforitspresentandfuturedevelopment.”Furthermore,
“theKASPforStudyAbroadembodiestheaspirationsofournation’sleaderforthe
developmentandprosperityofourhomeland,toenableittoproceedonits
civilizationalcourseandrisetotheloftystatuswhichisitsdue.”Oneoftheactual
statedgoalsoftheprogramisto“stimulatecultural,socialandscientificinterchange
215
betweentheKingdomandforeigncountriesthroughthemediumoftheKingdom’s
culturalambassadors-thestudentsitsendsabroadtostudy.”Theappealto
nationalprideisunmistakable.Thesestudentsaregoingabroadtoexposetheworld
toSaudiculture,nottobecomeWesterners.
Whilethecountry’spopulationisconservativeandpreferstomaintainmuchof
Saudiculturaltraditions,itislargelyinagreementwiththegovernmentaboutthe
needsforeducationalreform.Yet,theneedtoreformeducationtomeetthe
demandsoftheglobaleconomyisatoddswiththereligiousconservatives.Unless
theMinistryofHigherEducation(MOHE)issuccessfulinupdatingthecurriculum
andteachingmethodsSaudistudentswillcontinuetoperformpoorlyonthe
internationalassessmentsthatmeasurebothbasicknowledgeandalsocritical
thinkingskills.Botharetheveryfoundationsofaknowledgeeconomy,onethatwill
carrythenationforwardinapost-petroleumera.
Thepreviousdiscussionintheliteraturereviewabouthumancapitaldevelopment
showsthateducationalonemaynotbesufficienttosolvetheunemployment
probleminthecountryiftheopportunitiestousetheskillsdon’texistand
innovativeideasaren’tallowedtoflourish.Itrequiresamindsetthatspeaksas
muchtowillingnesstoaddressculturalvaluesandattitudesasitdoestothebasic
abilitytolearn.Absentfromthediscussionabouteducationreformistheprivate
sectorinthecountry.Theprivatesectorisstilllargelybasedonasystemof
patrimony.Theexpansionoftheprivatesectorthroughentrepreneurshipand
216
innovationwillrequirecreativeandeducatedthinkersbutitalsoneedsaspark,an
organicawakeningthatneedshelptogrowandbeasustainableeconomicforce.It
requiresanatmosphereofopennessandsupportintheformofsubsidies,financial
incentives,andeasingofbureaucratichurdlesthatwillbetternurtureacommunity
ofrisktakersandencourageasenseofwhatispossibleinsidethecountry.
EducationandexposuretotheWestmaynotbeenoughtoenergizeapopulation
longusedtogenerousgovernmentsubsidiesandnotpreviouslyattunedtolifeas
self-employed,outsideoftheboxthinkersinaculturethatvaluesreligionand
conformityabovemuchelse.Today,lowoilpricesaremakingtheprospectsofan
easylifeevenlesslikelyandthreatentoupsettheunwrittensocialcontractbetween
theall-providingmonarchyandthepeople(Hubbard2016).Theneedforeconomic
reformsismoreurgentthanever.
SaudiwomenwhostudyintheU.S.representanacuteexampleofexpectancy
behaviorandrisktaking.Manyaregettingeducationsinadvanceofopportunities
tofindmeaningfulemploymentathome.IncontrasttoothercountriesintheMiddle
EastandNorthAfricaandeveninotherGulfStates,womeninSaudiArabiaface
extensivelegalandculturalbarrierstoemployment.Thisisasubtlereminderthat
theMiddleEastisasizeableregionwithnoonesetofrulesthatapplytowomenand
onewheretheforcesofglobalizationarepushingagainstdeeplyheldcultural
patternsandbeliefsystems.“Innoareahastheforceoftraditionbeenfeltmore
stronglyandtheeffectofglobalizationbeenmoreapparentthatthatofthestatus
androlesofwomen.ThepositionofwomenintheArabworld,inparticular,is
neitheruniformnorstatic.”(Kirdar2007,p.39).
217
TherestrictionsfacedbywomeninSaudiArabiacontinuetorepresentanextreme
examplecomparedeventowomeninneighboringcountrieslikeBahrainandthe
U.A.E.,wherequestionsaboutreconcilingIslamwithwomen’semployment,voting,
driving,andtherighttoownpropertyhavelongbeensettled.WomeninSaudi
Arabiaenjoyvirtuallynoneofthosebasicprivileges.Today,inSaudi,“the
guardianshipsystemgivesawomanalegalstatusresemblingthatofaminor.”
(Zoept,2016).Thousandshavegraduatedfromuniversitywithdegreesinlawbut
onlyasmallnumberhavebeengrantedalicensetopractice.Companiesstillneeda
speciallicensefromthelaborministrytoallowwomeneventoworkintheiroffices
(Zoept,2016).BillGates,thefounderofMicrosoft,toldreportersastoryatthe
WorldEconomicForuminDavos,Switzerlandin2007.Whengivingaspeechtoa
segregatedaudienceinSaudiArabia,hewasaskedifhebelievedthatthecountry
couldbecomeoneoftheworld’stoptencompetitivecountriesby2010.Gates’
response,thatiftheyweren’tfullyutilizinghalfofthetalentinthecountrythey
wouldnotget“close”tothetopten,wasreceivedfarmoreenthusiasticallyfromthe
womenintheaudiencethanthemen(WallStreetJournal2007).Yet,womencan
onlycontinuetoexpresstheirhopethattheiremploymentprospectswillimprove.
Despitebeinghopeful,thewomen’sunemploymentratewas33.8%bythesecond
quarter2015,nearlytripletherateformen(PeopleExcellence2016).
TheshiftwithinSaudiArabiatowardgreaterglobalintegrationisinchingforward
butitisbeingpropelledbythegovernment’sviewstowardeconomicdevelopment,
changingsocialattitudesamongthepeople,andpracticalnecessity.Most
218
westernersseeSaudiattitudestowardswomenasarchaicandbasedonpatriarchic
systemsthatholdnorelevanceinamodernworld.Thetreatmentofwomenisa
popularbarometerformeasuringchangeinSaudiArabiaandtheinternational
perceptionsremainnegative.Yet,thereisevidencethatattitudesinSaudiare
shiftingandtherearenewopportunitiesforwomentoexperiencepersonaland
professionalfulfillmentaccordingtomodernstandards.Today,womeninSaudi
Arabiaareabletoattendco-edclassesattheKingAbdullahUniversityforScience
andTechnologyoutsideofJeddah.NearlyonequarterofallKASPstudentsare
women,manytravelingontheirown,withoutamalefamilymemberasa
chaperone.Thehighcostofhousingmeansasecondincomeisanecessityanda
workingspouseacceptableinthecurrenteconomicclimate.And,whiletheelection
offivewomentolocalmunicipalcouncilseatsinDecember2015mayseemlikea
smallstep,itrepresentedthefirstopportunityforwomentovoteandparticipatein
civilsocietyandisunderstoodasamajorvictoryinthefaceofgovernment
obstructionandtheobjectionsofthemostseniorclericinthecountry(Reidel
2015).
Whatisnotyetknowniswhetherthesereturningstudentswillbelesswillingtolive
underthestricturesofasegregatedstatewhererolesformenandwomenremain
tightlyproscribedandnotionsofculturalfreedomandcivilrightsdiffersomuch
fromtheWest.AlreadyconcernhasbeenvoicedinSaudithatchangesare
happeningtoofast,thatfemalesaremoreoutspoken,theyarewearingbrighter
coloredheadscarvesandabayas,someareinmixedclasseswithmen,andeven
movingaboutmoreontheirown,unaccompaniedbyamalefamilymember.Some
219
Gulfstudentsreturnhomewithlessfavorableattitudestowardtheirhomeafter
spendingtimeintheWest(G-Mrabet2012).Itmaycometopassthattheeffortto
improveeducationasasteptowardmodernizationofsocietyandtheeconomywill
comeattheexpenseofsocialcohesionandcreatenew,deepertensionswithinthe
country.YoungSaudisathomeareincreasinglybeingexposedtotheWestthrough
socialmedia.EvenmoderntechnologieslikeUberarehelpingwomenbecomemore
independent(Zoept,2016)andhavealevelofcontrolovertheirownphysical
mobility.Also,itseemsunlikelythattherewillbeafullscaleArabSpringtype
uprisinginSaudiArabiabuttherearesignsthattheyoungergenerationswanttobe
heard(Glum,2016).Thecombinationofthatdesireandthereturningstudentswho
havelivedandexperiencedlifeinacountrywherefreespeechandpolitical
expressionareanintegralpartofdailylifemaybeanunstoppableforceforchange
inacountrybothunpreparedforitandunwillingtoacceptit.Yet,withthepriceof
oilat$40perbarrelandtheSaudigovernmentdealingwithseveralconsecutive
annualbudgetdeficitsinthe$100billionrange,thedaysofbusinessasusualmay
beover.
Thecomplexinterplaybetweeneducation,economicpolicyandoutcomes,and
social,political,andculturalchangepresentarangeoffutureresearchtopicsrelated
toSaudiArabia’seducationspendingandtheimpactofSaudistudentsstudying
abroad.Tobegin,whathappenstotheKASPgraduateswhentheygohome?It
wouldbeusefultostudytheiremploymenthistorytoseewhethertheyare
employedathigherratesthanstudentswhostudiedinsideSaudiArabiaandfurther
220
analyzetheirimpactontheeconomy.ItispossiblethatSACMmaintainsrecordsfor
studentsaftertheyreturnhomeandmaybeasourceofinformation.Also,U.S.
schoolsmighttrackSaudialumniandhavedataavailableforuse.
EconomicdiversificationisastatedgoaloftheMinistryofHigherEducation.
ResearchthatanalyzesstructuralchangesintheSaudieconomy,includinggrowth
intheservicesector,industrialoutput,productionofknowledgeoutputs,adoption
ofnewtechnologies,improvementsinproductivity,changesinprivatesector
employmentandtheunemploymentrateforbothSaudimenandwomencould
provideinsightintothesuccessoftheeducationaloverhaulandspendingon
scholarships.Also,furtherresearchcanbeconductedtotrackotherchangesin
educationaloutcomesthecountryisseeing.ImprovedTIMSSandPIRLStestscores,
higherscoresonKEIindices,morepatentsgrantedtoSaudiuniversitiesaswellas
paperspublishedbySaudiauthorsinpeerreviewedjournalscouldbetracedtothe
increasesineducationalspending.SaudistudentswhoreturnfromtheU.S.maybe
responsibleforsomeofthechangeandcanbeidentifiedbyreviewingbiographical
data.
Futureresearcheffortscouldbeaimedatassessingpoliticalandsocialchangesin
SaudiArabia.Thesemaybemostobviousinchangesrelatingtowomen’s
employmentandlegalstatus.Afterseveralyearsofexposuretocivicandpolitical
engagementintheU.S.,returningSaudistudentsmayincreasetheirownpolitical
participation,likelyonthelocallevel.Thesestudentsmaybethegenerationtoform
221
businessgroups,women’sprofessionalassociations,becomeadvocatesfor
improvementsintheirownchildren’seducationandanynumberofothercivic
organizationsthatportendthebeginningofcivilsociety.Theremaybecallsfor
greaterpersonalfreedomsandarelaxationoftheinstitutionalizedrestrictionson
themixingofgenders.Itispossibletoseeotherdemographicchangesintermsof
lowerbirthratesifwomenbecomemoredeeplyengagedintheeconomyandthe
systemofpatrimonyiseasedtoallowthemgreaterautonomy.
Afinalareaoffutureresearchconsiderstheimpactthatthelargeinfluxofstudents
fromSaudiArabiahashadonstudentsintheUnitedStates.TheSaudistudentshave
beencomingtotheU.S.inincreasingnumberssince2006andtheKASPwill
continuetoacceptnewstudentsuntil2020.ManySaudistudentsarehereforfive
yearsorlonger(seeFigure10.)Contacttheorywouldpredictareductionin
prejudiceexperiencedbothallparties,especiallyifitoccurredinapositive,non-
threateningenvironment.Increasedcontactsbetweenethnicgroupsarenegatively
correlatedwithprejudice(Crisp,etal.2008).Yet,thecurrentpoliticalrhetoricinthe
U.S.presentssometroublingattitudes.IslamophobiaisontheriseintheUnited
States(Hameed,2016).APewResearchpollconductedinJanuary2016found65%
ofRepublicanswantedtohearblunttalkaboutIslamandonly29%feltthat
politiciansshouldnotbecriticalofIslamasawhole.Republicansbelievethat
Islamicteachingpromoteviolence(32%)andbelievethatallMuslimsintheU.S.are
anti-American(16%)atmorethattwicetherateofDemocrats(Libresco2016).It
maybeagenerationaldivide,withyoungerpeoplenotparticipatinginthesepollsor
222
feweridentifyingasRepublicanbut,giventherecentcallfromoneofthe
presidentialcandidatesforafullbanonallowingMuslimstoentertheU.S.,thereis
littledoubtthatthereisneedforimprovementinAmerica’sowntolerancefor
Muslims.
SurveyingAmericanstudentsfromschoolswithlargeSaudistudentpopulationscan
providesomeindicationsabouttheirviewsonSaudiArabiaandIslam.Also,the
DepartmentofHomelandSecurity(DHS)hasupdatedtherulesandextendedthe
lengthofOPTvisasforforeignstudentswhowishtostayandworkto24months
aftergraduation.DHSencouragesbusinessestohireSTEMOPTstudentstotake
advantageofthecreativeknowledgespilloversfromrecentgraduatesandto
increasetheirownunderstandingofforeignmarketsandbuildrelationshipsthat
canenhancefuturetrade.Saudistudentsreporttheyareincreasinglyinterestedin
applyingforOPTvisas.MoreSaudisstayingandworkingintheU.S.aftergraduation,
alongwithconcertedeffortsbyHEIstointegrateSaudistudentsincampuslife,may
bettereducateAmericansaboutSaudiArabiaandIslamingeneral.
223
AppendixA
InterviewQuestionsforHEIs
1.DoyouactivelyrecruitSaudistudents?ExplainifyourelyontheInternetorhire
foreignschooladvisorstomarketyourschool.
2.Doyouhaveprogramsspecificallyaimedathelpingforeignstudentsintegrateon
campus?(Mixers,movienights,dinnerclubs,etc.)
3.Arethereconcernsaboutlanguageskills,academicpreparation,oracademic
performance?
4.Whataretheproblems?Socialtensions?Culturaltensions?Racialtensions?
5.DoyouknowofanySaudistudentorMuslimstudentorganizationsoncampus?
6.WouldyouliketohavemoreSaudistudentsattendingthisuniversity?Doyou
plantoimproveyourmarketingtoforeignstudents,includingSaudis?
7.Whatcontributiondoyouthinktheymaketotheuniversity?
8.Doesyourschooldoenoughtoenableallthestudentstobenefitfromthecontact
betweenthecultures?
9.HowhavedomesticstudentsreactedorchangedduetothepresenceofSaudi
studentsoncampus?
InterviewQuestionsforSaudiStudents
RegardingGovernmentInfluence
1.DidtheKASPinfluence
a)Yourdecisiontostudyabroador
b)Yourchoiceofprogramor
224
c)YourdecisiontocometotheU.S.asopposedtoanothercountry?Wouldyouhave
preferredtostudyintheUK?
2.Didthenowwell-definedprocessofobtainingastudentvisaintheUScontribute
toyourdecisiontostudyintheUS?Didyouperceiveittobeeasierthangoing
elsewhere?
Demographics
1.Whatisyourgender?
2.Whatisyourlevelofstudy?(Associate’s,Bachelor’s,Master’s,orPh.D.)
3.Whatisthehighestlevelofparentaleducation(yearsordegreeearned)?
QuestionsaboutHEIchoice:
1.Whatmarketingtechniqueswereinfluentialinyourdecisionmakingprocess?
2.Didyoumakeuseofforeignstudentadvisoryservicesorprivatecounselors?
3.HowdidyouusetheInternet?
4.Whatcharacteristicsincludinglocation,size,programs,religiousnature,academic
profile,orothermatteredtoyou?
5.Didyougotoyourfirstchoiceschool?Why?(Notaccepted,ornotontheKASP
listanymoreorever?)
HumanCapital:
1.Whatareyourexpectationsaboutfutureemployment?
225
2.WouldadegreefromaU.S.schoolprovidebetteremploymentopportunities?
3.WhytheUSandnotanothercountry?(YesorNo:Betterreputation,better
preparationofnecessaryskills,improvedcriticalthinkingskills)
SocialCapital:
1.Werefamilyandothersocialnetworkinfluentialinyourschoolchoice?
2.Areeitherofyourparentsprofessionals?
3.Wereyourparentssupportiveofyourchoicetostudyabroad?(Somewhat/
moderately/notsupportive)
4.DoyouhavefriendsorrelativescurrentlystudyingintheU.S.?Ifyes,wheretheya
sourceofinformationorsupportinyourchoicetostudyintheU.S.?Areyou
attendingthesameHEIastheyare?
Culturalcapital:
1.Doyouconsideryourselfaconfidentoradventurousperson?
2.HowdoyourateyourEnglishlanguageskills?(Strong/moderate/weak)
3.HaveyouevertravelledoutsideofSaudiArabiabeforecomingtotheU.S.?
4.DidyouhaveextensiveexposuretoWesternexpatriateswhileathomeeither
throughyourfamilyorothercontacts?
ImpactofStudyAbroadonattitudesandvalues:
1.Didyourunderstandingoftheideaofhumanrightschangesinceyoucametothe
U.S.?
226
2.Doyouhaveadifferent,morepositiveopinionaboutdemocracysinceyoucame
totheU.S.?
3.Havetheliberalartsrequirementsofyourprogramexposedyoutoareasofstudy
thatyouwouldneverhavepursuedonyourown?
4.IsyourunderstandingoftheUnitedStatesdifferentthanwhenyoufirstcameto
thecountry?
5.IsyouroverallopinionoftheU.S.morefavorableorlessfavorablethanwhenyou
came?
227
AppendixB
QualtrixOnlineSurvey
Q1.ThissurveyhasbeenapprovedbytheRutgersUniversityInstitutionalReview
Board.Thisisananonymoussurvey.Onlydatainaggregatedformwillbeusedin
thisresearch.NoindividualdatawillbeavailabletoanyonebutthePrimary
ResearcherandStudentFacultyAdvisor.
Doyouconsenttoparticipateinthisonlinesurvey?
Yes No
IfNoIsSelected,ThenSkipToEndofSurvey
Q2.AreyouaSaudicitizencurrentlylivingandstudyingintheUS?
Yes No
IfNoIsSelected,ThenSkipToEndofSurvey
Q3.TochoosethisschooloranyschoolIattendedintheU.S.Igotinformation
abouttheschoolfrom:Checkallthatapply.
FriendsandFamily
TheInternetandSocialMedia
AdvisorsatSACM
EducationalTravelAgents
Theschoolsentmemailorcontactedmepersonally.
RecruitersImetfromthisschool.
228
ThirdPartyForeignStudentAdvisors
AlumniImetorknowfromthisschool.
Q4.IwasattractedtotheschoolIcurrentlyattendbecause:Checkallthat
apply.
Ihavefriendsorfamilywhocurrentlyliveinthearea.
Iknewaboutthisschoolfromfriendsorfamilywhocamehere.
ItwaslessexpensivetoliveherethanotherplacesintheU.S.
ThisschoolhasamajorIcouldnotfindinSaudiArabia.
Thisschoolhasastronginternationalreputationorranking.
Adegreefromthisschoolwillhelpmegetabetterjobthangoingtoauniversityin
SaudiArabia.
IfeltIcouldbeacademicallysuccessfulhere.
ItisareligiousschoolandIfeltIwouldbemoreacceptedopenlypracticingmyfaith,
suchasprayingorwearingahijab.
ItwasontheSACMapprovedlist.
ThisschooliswellknowninSaudiArabia
AdegreefromaU.S.schoolwouldbebetterthanadegreefromaschoolinanother
country.
IheardorreadpositivethingsaboutthisschoolsoIdecidedtoapply.
Q5.Doesyourcurrentschoolofferenoughhelpwithadjustingtotheacademic
standardsattheschoolyouattend?
Ithinkitisenough.Iwishtheywouldoffermore.Ihavenoopinion.
229
Q6.Doesyourcurrentschoolofferenoughtrainingtopreventproblemswith
plagiarism?
Ithinkitisenough.Iwishtheywouldoffermore.Ihavenoopinion.
Q7.DoesyourcurrentschoolorganizeenougheventstohelpSaudistudents
meetAmericanstudents?
Ithinkitisenough.Iwishtheywouldoffermore.Ihavenoopinion.
Q8.Doesyourcurrentschoolofferenoughhelpfindingservicessuchas
doctors,housing,shopping,andtransportation?
Ithinkitisenough.Iwishtheywouldoffermore.Ihavenoopinion.
Q9.DoesyourcurrentschoolorganizeenougheventstoallowSaudistudents
toshowcaseSaudiculturetootherstudentsoncampus?
Ithinkitisenough.Iwishtheywouldoffermore.Ihavenoopinion.
Q10.Doesyourcurrentschoolmakeenoughefforttomeetreligiousneeds
suchasprovidingprayerrooms,halalfoods,oraccommodationsduring
RamadanandEids?
Ithinkitisenough.Iwishtheywouldoffermore.Ihavenoopinion.
230
Q11.Thesestatementsareaboutyourthoughtsandexperiencesasastudent
intheU.S.
GettingavisatostudyintheU.S.waseasy.
IdidnotconsidersomeschoolsbecauseIreadorheardbadthingsaboutthem.
Collegerankingsareimportant.
HighereducationintheU.S.isbetterthaninothercountries.
ThegeneraleducationcoursesItookexposedmetoareasIneverlearnedabout
before.
ThegeneraleducationcoursesItookresultedinmydecisiontotakemorecourses
inanareaofstudy.
MoststudentsatmyschoolknowtoolittleaboutSaudiArabiaortheMiddleEast.
StronglyAgree
Agree
NeitherAgreeorDisagree
Disagree
StronglyDisagree
Q12.Thefollowingstatementsareaboutyourfutureexpectations.
IamconfidentthatIwillgetajobaftercompletingmystudies.
EmployersinSaudiArabiacareaboutwhichschoolyouattended.
StrongEnglishlanguageskillswillbeanimportantbenefittomycareer.
IwanttostayintheU.S.toworkforsometimeafterIgraduate.
231
IwouldhavechosenadifferentcountryoradifferentschoolifitwereontheSACM
approvedlist.
StronglyAgree
Agree
NeitherAgreeorDisagree
Disagree
StronglyDisagree
Q13.HowwouldyourateyouroverallexperienceasastudentintheU.S.?
VerySatisfied
SomewhatSatisfied
Neutral
SomewhatDissatisfied
Dissatisfied
Q14.Pleaserespondtothefollowingstatements.
IoftenfeelthatpeopleareuncomfortableordonotlikemebecauseIamSaudiora
Muslim.
IwasuncomfortablewithhavingbothmenandwomeninclassbutIamnot
anymore.
Lawsthatforbiddiscriminationbasedonrace,gender,religion,orsexual
orientationareimportantforprotectinghumanrights.
232
MeetingdifferentpeoplesuchasAsians,African-Americans,Christians,andJews
hasmadememoretolerantandopentoothercultures.
IhaveamorefavorableopinionoftheU.S.nowthanwhenIlivedinSaudiArabia.
StronglyAgree
Agree
NeitherAgreeorDisagree
Disagree
StronglyDisagree
Q15.Saudicitizensandstudentswereaskedtheiropinionofthefollowing
statements.Theyarehereforcomparisonpurposes.
EncouragingSaudiwomentoattendcollegeandjointheworkforceisgoodforthe
Saudieconomy.
Bothhusbandandwifeshouldcontributetothehouseholdincome.
Whenjobsarescarcemenshouldhavemorerighttoajobthanawoman.
IseechanginggenderrolesofmenandwomeninSaudiArabiaaspartofapositive
globaltrend.
Allowingwomentoworkunderminesourreligioustraditions.
Thecultureofmycountryshouldstaythewayitisrightnow.
IthinkSaudicultureissuperiortoothercultures.
StronglyAgree
233
Agree
NeitherAgreeorDisagree
Disagree
StronglyDisagree
Q16.Whatisyourgender?
Male Female
Q17.Whatisyourage?
17-1920-2223-25 26-2930andolder
Q18.Whatdegreeareyoucurrentlyseeking?
Englishlanguagetraining
Associate'sDegree
Bachelor'sDegree
Master'sDegree
Ph.D.
I'mhereonanOPTvisa.
PostDoctoral
Other
234
Q19.AreyoucurrentlystudyingintheU.S.aspartoftheKingAbdullah
ScholarshipProgram?
YesNo,butIwasinthepast.No,IwasneverpartoftheKASP
Q20.WouldyouhavestudiedoutsideofSaudiArabiawithouttheKASP?
YesNoN/A,IdidnotparticipateintheKASP
Q21.WhatisthetotalnumberofyearsyoulivedintheU.S.?
Oneyearorless
1-2years
2-3years
3-4years
4-5years
Longerthan5years
Q22.HowmanytimesdidyoutraveltotheU.S.beforecominghereforhigher
education?
Never Onceortwice Threetimesormore
Q23.Whatisyourmother'shighestlevelofeducation?
MiddleSchoolorlessHighSchoolSomeCollegeorJobTraining
Bachelor'sDegreeMaster'sDegreePh.D.I'mnotsure
235
Q24.Whatisyourfather'shighestlevelofeducation?
MiddleSchoolorlessHighSchoolSomeCollegeorJobTraining
Bachelor'sDegreeMaster'sDegreePh.D.I'mnotsure
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