intrinsic motivation in not-for-profit …...the literature review, research methodology, findings,...
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ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
ISSN 2394-9392 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJSS/issn.2394-9392/2014; Volume 2 Issue 3 (2016)
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INTRINSIC MOTIVATION IN NOT-FOR-PROFIT ORGANIZATIONS (NPOS): AN
EXPLORATORY STUDY
Nathalie Mosca
Senior HR
Associate at UNHCR Geneva.
Mehraz Boolaky
Honorary lecturer and Dissertation Adviser
with the University of Liverpool/Laureate.
ABSTRACT In a constantly changing environment, intrinsic motivation (IM) in NPOs (not-for-profit organizations) has drawn major
attention over the past few decades. This paper aims to investigate the extent to which intrinsic motivation (motivation
that comes from inside an individual rather than from any external or outside rewards) contributes to performance
measurement and pay for performance. In particular, this study seeks to identify the necessary prerequisites in NPOs
that enable intrinsic motivation to sustain and ensure acceptance from employees of practices that meet today’s business
requirements without diminishing their commitment. This study strives to find solutions that lie beyond extrinsic rewards
and seeks to identify responses within the thematic areas of autonomy, competence, self-leadership, and organizational
settings. The triangulation method was used to collect quantitative and qualitative data from a questionnaire survey
involving fifty participants selected on basis of convenience sampling. The findings revealed the need for NPOs to devise
management practices founded on a strong set of values that specifically suit the nonprofit context while taking account
of the surrounding environment. To achieve this goal, NPOs should distinguish their mission from the novelty of
management practices to continuously face new challenges without putting at stake their own values.
Keywords: Intrinsic Motivation (IM), extrinsic rewards, not-for-profit organization (NPO), self-determination theory
(SDT), cognitive evaluation theory (CET)
1. INTRODUCTION:
Intrinsic motivation (IM) has drawn major
attention in organizations and continues to arouse
great interest among scholars and practitioners
owing to a fast-moving environment. Ryan and
Deci (2000) define both types of motivation by
explaining that while intrinsic motivation
refers to the inherent feeling of enjoyment and
fulfillment that performing an activity
provides without resorting to any external
rewards, extrinsic motivation conversely
needs to resort to external rewards for
enjoyment and fulfillment to occur. Ensuing
from these two types of motivation, Frey
(2012) explains the crowding-out effects of
extrinsic motivation on intrinsic motivation
whereby the former may highly undermine the
latter due to the increasing use of performance
measurement and pay for performance in
today’s business environment.
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1.1 Research Problem
Over the past four decades, organizations, and
NPOs (not-for-profit organizations) are not an
exception, experience major changes that are
caused by globalization and internationalization
of competition. In order to adapt to a constantly
changing environment, for-profits and NPOs are
having to rethink their structure and
management. NPOs often encounter difficulty
in introducing performance related pay or
performance measurement systems or
processes because of the nature of their work
whereby intrinsic motivation plays a great role
especially in humanitarian work. Although
there has been an increasing interest in using
performance measurement and extrinsic
rewards in NPOs, enabling the latter to also
adapt to a turbulent climate, to date there has
been little agreement on the positive effects of
these practices in NPOs (Deckop and Cirka,
2000; Theuvsen, 2004; Kluvers and Tippet,
2009; Mulvaney, McKinney and Grodsky,
2012). As such, debate continues about the
best strategies that facilitate intrinsic
motivation without undermining it. In effect,
central to the doubtful outcome of novel
practices in NPOs are the adverse effects of
extrinsic rewards translated into making
employees work according to the
measurement imposed on them and according
to extrinsic rewards rather than encouraging
their engagement in the activities with
selflessness and pride. For example, Kluvers
and Tippet (2009) argue that although
performance measurement associated with
financial incentives might play the role of
motivational driver in for-profit organizations,
any attempt to measure performance in NPOs
might not yield identical results and in fact
could prove ineffective, particularly in public
services. In light of the above, it is important
for NPOs to take account of the inadequacy of
extrinsic rewards and as such strive to develop
strategies that foster intrinsic motivation
without undermining it. For example, Grant
(2008, p. 49) stresses the need to go beyond
this combination of performance
measurement and pay for performance by
looking at the pro-social form of motivation.
Based on the self-determination theory (SDT),
this special form of motivation aims at
‘expending effort to the benefit of other
people’ resulting in having employees
engaged and committed, and thereby
intrinsically motivated (Grant, 2008, p. 49).
Given that a pro-social behavior correlates
with the mission, purpose, and values of
NPOs, especially in the humanitarian sector,
NPOs ought to recognize the need to surpass
the aforesaid combination of performance
measurement and pay for performance
(Luthans and Stajkovic 1999). In so doing,
ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
ISSN 2394-9392 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJSS/issn.2394-9392/2014; Volume 2 Issue 3 (2016) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
NPOs create an environment that fosters
coordination and collaboration by
strengthening the features of autonomy,
competence, self-leadership, and organizational
settings (Ryan and Deci, 2000). Gagné (2003
cited in Tremblay et al., 2009, p. and Battistelli
et al. (2013) emphasize the positive correlation
between self-determined and pro-social
behaviors leading to intrinsic motivation, job
satisfaction, and well-being. Throughout this
paper, the acronym of IM stands for Intrinsic
Motivation and NPO stands for not-for-profit
organizations.
1.2 Research Questions
This paper seeks to address the following
questions: How can intrinsic motivation
contribute to the need today for performance
measurement and pay for performance? What
are the necessary prerequisites in NPOs in
light of today’s business environment to
enable intrinsic motivation to sustain? How
can NPOs ensure acceptance from employees
of performance measurement and pay for
performance without undermining intrinsic
motivation? The rest of this paper comprises
the literature review, research methodology,
findings, and discussions section.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
NPOs do face the challenge of continuously
adapting to a fast-moving environment. A key
aspect of this challenge lies in the extent to
which IM correlates with NPOs versus for-profit
organizations whereby the difference between
both types of organizations emanates in their
approach toward extrinsic rewards and the level
of wages. For example, Becchetti, Castriota and
Tortia (2013) found that wages are generally
lower in NPOs than in for-profit organizations,
though valid reasons explain this discrepancy
such as the dependency of NPOs upon
contributions from governments. By
depending on these contributions, NPOs do
not enjoy the use of their funds as freely as for-
profit organizations. While the past two
decades have seen a rapid growth of NPOs in
an increasingly globalized world, research to
date has tended to consider NPOs like for-
profit organizations (Becker, Antuar and
Everett, 2011; Chen, Ren and Knoke, 2014).
As such, studies on this subject have striven to
focus on compensating the loss of IM with
external rewards rather than looking beyond to
seek out solutions that specifically suit the
nonprofit world (Becchetti, Castriota and
Tortia, 2013). Without inducing that extrinsic
rewards are unnecessary, these external
motivators eventually jeopardize the very
fundamental nature and values that constitute
NPOs. According to Frey (2012), the need for
external motivators is likely to produce
crowding-out effects on IM.
By looking at the issue of IM in public services,
Ankli and Palliam (2012) caution the potential
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lack of engagement from employees in
attempting to accomplish tasks in a meaningful
manner caused by employees’ avoidance of
risks allowed by a higher job security in such
services. A serious weakness with this
argument, however, is that despite the
recentness of Ankli and Palliam’s (2012) article,
and though the aim is not to treat both public and
private sector symmetrically, each of them
detaining its own prerogatives, Ankli and
Palliam's argument fails to take account of the
decreasing level of job security in public
services. The decrease in job security is due to a
turbulent climate that does not exclude public
services and even less NPOs, which for the
majority of them depend on contributions of
governments, the latter exerting an increasing
pressure on these organizations. However,
research to date has tended to focus on job
security and higher wages as outlined by Benz
(2005) rather than on the growing trend of job
insecurity in the sector. In this regard, little
discussion about the effects of downsizing over
the last decade in the sector of NPOs has
emerged. As rightly outlined by Reychav and
Sharkie (2010), it is of crucial importance to
understand that under such work environment
marked by successive financial crises, job
insecurity affects all types of organizations.
Nevertheless, Ankli and Palliam (2012) and Van
den Broeck et al. (2014) contend that HR
(Human Resource) professionals should
recognize the potential of the self-determination
theory (SDT) and, through this theory,
recognize the higher performance achieved by
employees when the latter are motivated.
Theoretical Framework
Although a plethora of studies has striven to
shed light on the subject grounded on different
theories, there is still insufficient data for the
achievement and sustainability of IM in NPOs
based on the self-determination theory (SDT)
and the cognitive evaluation theory (CET).
While SDT refers to the satisfaction of the
psychological needs for autonomy,
competence, and relatedness in addition to the
physiological needs, CET looks at the factors
of the social environment that either foster or
undermine IM (Gagné and Deci, 2005).
Through the lenses of SDT and CET, the
theoretical framework puts emphasis on the
individual, on the society, and on the
individual within the society in a constantly
changing environment. Deci and Ryan (2008,
p. 18) demonstrate the positive relationship
and its resultant importance between IM and
the individual’s ‘psychological needs for
autonomy, competence, and relatedness’,
thereby suggesting a negative relationship
between these needs and extrinsic rewards.
One of the most salient issues arising from the
relationship between IM and above-
mentioned psychological needs lies in the
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unlikely coexistence of autonomy and control.
While the devolution of autonomy helps
individuals gain confidence and IM, exerting
control in turn diminishes IM. Figure 1 is the
theoretical framework for IM in NPOs.
Grounded on SDT and CET, Figure 1 shows
the hypothesized positive relationship
between IM in NPOs and the four predictor
variables benefitting employees, teams/units,
and the organization as a whole. (Refer Figure
1 Here)
3. METHODOLOGY:
This study involved the collection and
analysis of quantitative and qualitative data
translating into a triangulation method.
Yeasmin and Rahman (2012) contend that this
combination of research methods of
qualitative and quantitative data collection
should be envisaged as complementary rather
than supplementary methods that aim to bring
trustworthiness to the study especially in the
area of social science that is not predictable.
Through the designing of an appropriate
survey incorporating a self-completion
questionnaire that was appropriately pilot
tested, data collection prompted the
respondents (fifty chosen on basis of
purposive and convenience sampling) to think
of their experience and provide credible
answers. Given the small sample size of this
study, Teddlie and Yu (2007) suggest the use
of purposive sampling that aims to select
respondents on the basis of certain criteria that
specifically serve the purpose of the paper. As
such, 50 employees were selected out of a
population whose main common element was
an employment in an NPO.
4. DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS:
Demographic Profiles of Respondents
Table 4.1 provides the demographic profile of
the 50 respondents from a total of 18 NPOs.
(Refer Table 4.1 Here)
Almost as many men (52%) as women (48%)
participated in the survey. Although the majority
of respondents belonged to the age groups
between 41-50 years and 51-60 years, the other
three age groups from 21 years and over 60
years were also represented. Likewise, the
majority of respondents hold higher
qualifications with a predominance of Master’s
degrees (44%). Employment status shows that
as many international as local staff were
represented, hence resulting in an average
finding giving rise to significance for the
purpose of the discussion. And finally, it is
worth noting that among the 50 respondents, 16
nationalities were represented.
Dependent Variable: Intrinsic Motivation
at Work Intrinsic Motivation at Work (the dependent
variable) consisted of five items in order to
probe the extent to which the respondents felt
intrinsically motivated in their job. Some of
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these items were: “I am motivated by the
mission of my organization.”, “I think that the
organization’s values fit my own values.”, and
“Intrinsic motivation is very important for
me.”
Predictor Variables: Autonomy,
Competence, Self-Leadership, and
Organizational Settings
Four predictor variables were identified and
explained in this section. Autonomy was
measured through five items to probe the
respondents’ opinions and feelings regarding
autonomy in their own professional area. Some
of the items were: “I am very satisfied with the
level of autonomy that is given to me.”, “The
degree of autonomy is in line with the level of
my responsibilities.” Competence sought to
draw information in relation to the perception
and feeling of competence. Some of the items in
relation to competence were: “I believe I have
an accurate perception of my skills, abilities, and
knowledge.”, “I feel I am confident when I
undertake new and unstructured tasks.” With
regard to Self-Leadership, given that the
respondents might not have been conversant
with this concept, the questionnaire provided
a brief definition that was ‘one’s capacity to
act with the environment the same as with
oneself’. The questionnaire provided six items
among which a few were: “I feel I am aware
enough of my strengths and my weaknesses to
lead myself effectively.”, “I regularly set my
own goals.” Organizational Settings was
also measured by a set of five items: “I feel I
work in a trustful environment.”, “I feel that
the surrounding environment is conducive to
an overall social well-being.”, and “I feel I am
supported by managers, co-workers, and
subordinates.” (Refer Figure 4.1 Here)
(Refer Figure 4.2 Here) located on the scatter
diagram represent a straight line as opposed to
a “cloud” of dots. The more the dots form a
straight line on the diagram, the stronger the
correlation is. In so far as the linearity of the
dots is greater than 0, the correlation is
positive whereas the latter becomes negative
when the linearity of the dots is lower than 0.
In other words, the more the correlation
coefficients of two variables get closer to 1 or
-1 in a linear form, the more the relationship is
strongly positive or strongly negative
(Wilcox, 2012). The computed correlation
coefficients showed a positive correlation
between the variables as suggested by the
hypotheses, but also a positive correlation
between the predictor variables themselves.
Although each of the predictor variables
indicated a positive correlation with IM, the
strength in their relationship was not
significant as illustrated in Figures 4.3 to 4.6
by the weakness of the linearity.
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Correlation matrix- (Refer Figure 4.3
Here)
A Pearson's correlation matrix based on
(Refer Figure 4.4 Here) collected data is
shown in Figure 4.1 and 4.2. (Refer Figure
4.5 Here) Scatter diagrams, shown in Figures
4.3, 4.4, (Refer Figure 4.6 Here) 4.5, and 4.6
were used to determine the relationship
between the dependent and predictor
variables. A correlation between variables
qualifies as positive when the dots
HYPOTHESES RESULTS
Table 4.2 presents the results of IM in relation
to the five parameters identified for this study
– Motivation at work, Autonomy,
Competence, Self-leadership and
Organizational Settings. (Refer Table 4.2
IM/Parameters 1 Here)
Hypothesis 1: Autonomy is positively related
to Intrinsic Motivation in NPOs. From Table
4.2 and with respect to the influence of
Autonomy on IM, the results show that
Autonomy appears to be essential to most
respondents, thereby supporting the
hypothesis. In this regard, the respondents
predominantly felt that trust and the creation
of a trustful work environment was vital for
IM. The high rate of similar views reflected in
the low variability and a strong correlation (r0,
959). Over half of those surveyed reported that
access to management and management
support were crucial for IM.
Hypothesis 2: Competence is positively
related to Intrinsic Motivation in NPOs. The
results of Competence with regard to IM
reveal that most of the respondents strongly
Agreed (14%) and Agreed (57%) with the five
items, thereby supporting the hypothesis.
Nonetheless, it is worth noting that 25% of the
responses, which represents a significant
number of responses (64) among the five
items, show that the respondents neither
agreed nor disagreed.
Hypothesis 3: Self-leadership is positively
related to Intrinsic Motivation in NPOs. The
results of Self-leadership in relation to IM
and reveal that most of the respondents
strongly Agreed (26%) and Agreed (58%)
with the six items, thereby supporting the
hypothesis. While the relationship between
IM and both autonomy and competence
aroused numerous reactions and comments,
the findings with regard to IM and self-
leadership conversely generated fewer
comments.
Hypothesis 4: Organizational settings are
positively related to Intrinsic Motivation in
NPOs. The results of Organizational settings
in relation to IM suggest that a majority of the
respondents strongly agreed (22%) and agreed
(49%) with the five items, thereby supporting
the hypothesis. It is noteworthy that the rate of
non-responses (22%) should be accounted for
and, as observed from the results, it is
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reasonable to replace these non-responses by
those revealing the trend toward more action
from management and management support.
4. DISCUSSIONS-
Toward a Greater Trustful Work
Environment
In several ways, the findings suggested the
necessity to address organizational inertia of
large-scale NPOs. The imperative for the
organization to instill a “deep culture of trust” to
address the problem of hierarchy and
bureaucracy arose as a major finding of the
study in order for employees to gain autonomy
to the detriment of control. Consistent with
Gagné and Deci’s (2005) research, the findings
revealed the need for trust and for a trustful work
environment, greater management support, and
more accessible management so that employees
felt more confident about their work and
consequently about gaining more autonomy. It
was found that, regardless of the scale size of the
organization, respondents predominantly were
in favor of introducing management practices
that better enshrined in today’s work
environment. In this regard, Soonhee (2002)
contends that management should improve
communication skills and move away from the
hierarchical structure while adopting an
approach that is prone to organizational change.
In this respect, Cramm, Strating and Nieboer
(2013) contend that the hierarchical structure
associated with high authority and with a low
level of devolvement of autonomy is unlikely
to arouse solidarity among employees.
Toward Greater Communication and
Collaboration Contrary to the literature review and to
expectations as shown by a weaker correlation
(r = 0,749), the findings did not identify free
will, feedback, and praise as major elements
influencing IM with regard to autonomy.
Nonetheless, Richardson (2010) emphasizes
the need for NPOs to clearly identify the
parameters that surround the choice of the 360
degree feedback that can be detrimental if not
thoughtfully implemented. Considering the
ensuing level of perceived self-efficacy
resulting from the correlation between
feedback and competence, the results
suggested the need to ensure that both
managers and employees were aware of the
difficulty to either transmit or receive
feedback. Murdoch-Eaton (2012) explains the
complexity of perception of feedback that
stems from a combination of various personal
factors in addition to the work environment to
ensure avoidance of wrong transmission,
interpretation, and assimilation of feedback.
However, it was found that the level of self-
efficacy perceived was contingent on the
comparison and competition processes that
could hinder collaboration. In order to address
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such occurrence, Fatimah et al.’s (2011) study
stresses the need to create a learning
environment that enables individuals to
objectively take account of their own
competences while addressing the gaps and to
demonstrate engagement without falling into
an attitude of risk avoidance. From another
perspective, Nicolini et al. (2011) suggest that
it is crucial that feedback be given in an
attempt to learn and develop from one
another’s experience and knowledge resulting
in a positive acceptance on the part of
feedback receivers.
Toward Greater Management Support
and Empowerment The findings revealed the importance of the
interconnectedness and interdependence
between autonomy, competence, and self-
leadership as shown by a strong correlation
(r0, 926). Individuals ought to be given a certain
degree of autonomy in order to be able to assess
their own strengths and weaknesses, and as a
result, to set their own goals. In this regard,
Wilson (2011) opines that the more employees
are nurtured with psychological empowerment,
the more they are willing to engage in self-
leadership strategies such as natural reward
strategies that go beyond the purpose of work
performance and productivity. Not only do
these strategies strive to lead to higher
performance, but according to Neck, Ashcraft
and VanSandt (1998), they also commonly
encompass enhanced behavioral, thinking,
and cognitive abilities in NPOs.
5. RECOMMENDATIONS AND
CONCLUSION:
Organizational Integration
The findings in relation to research questions
generally reveal the need to recognize the
idiosyncrasy of NPOs operating in a fast-
moving work environment and rethink their
organizational structure that dovetails with the
nonprofit world. While the human nature of
NPOs suggests an inclination toward practices
developed in a hierarchical structure as
suggested by McNamara, Brown and Pitt-
Catsouphes (2012), there is a need to
reconsider this issue and envisage different
thinking, acting, and doing leading to the
emergence of novel practices. Another way is
to enable a greater involvement of middle
management in the decision-making process.
In line with this approach, Kuyvenhoven and
Buss (2011, p. 10) emphasize the evolution of
the role of middle managers and the need to
entrust these managers with new roles of
‘networker, implementer, and sense-maker’ in
addition to aligning the strategy with
operations.
Organizational Culture
As a continuum to the above, the imperative
to heighten awareness of values such as ethics,
trust, respect, and transparency arose as a
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major finding to infuse new meaning and
significance into the organizational culture
and enable NPOs to adopt novel practices.
According to Simha and Cullen (2012), not
only is it vital to encourage an ethical behavior
but it is equally important to give clear
directions as to how to reach this outcome.
The more managers develop clear guidance
and advice that are conducive to a healthy
work environment, the more employees
integrate these notions as part of their work
and private life.
One way to build trust is for NPOs to ensure
the reliance on the governance structure as
described by Müller et al. (2013). Another
way would be for NPOs to engage in various
forms in feedback that would encourage
employees across levels to openly share their
views and speak up more. Schneider, Ehrhart and Macey (2013)
emphasize that the more units and leaders
deploy efforts to communicate and interact
through a clear vision, the stronger the
organizational climate ensues.
Transformational Leadership
In order to buttress empowerment, NPOs should
help employees cultivate self-leadership
through adequate feedback resulting in greater
self-efficacy. Attempting to provide this support
would enable individuals to reconsider their
contribution to the organization and also help
both management and employees evolve toward
common goals through affective commitment
and IM. In this regard, Moscoso Riveros and
Ted Shir-Tau (2011) found a positive reciprocal
relationship between organizational
commitment and career commitment. One way
to achieve the above is to develop
transformational leadership as raised in the
discussion. It is equally important for
management to confer to employees a sense of
care and belonging. According to Northouse
(2013, p. 193), this goal can be reached by
developing a new type of relationship between
managers and employees based on their
respective needs through ‘inspirational
motivation, intellectual stimulation, and
individualized consideration’. Wright and
Pandey (2009) suggest that managers should
enlighten employees on the implications of
work outcomes so that individuals at their own
instigation raise their interest in the
organization’s mission to the detriment of their
own interest. Pereira and Gomes (2012) point
out that while managers set expectations with
employees through professional communication
and clarity of roles, employees in turn adopt a
creative approach toward problem solving,
thereby improving their self-efficacy. It is
essential that this ongoing process that takes the
form of ‘mentoring, job shadowing, and
secondments’ (Muijs, 2011, p. 54) provides
employees with sense making in their attempt to
identify with their organization and increase IM.
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Learning Orientation
The above recommendations reveal the need for
NPOs to institute and develop a continuous
learning process. Importantly, NPOs ought to
create a learning environment that allows all
organizational levels to participate in needed
trainings. While the relevancy of the training
according to these levels should matter for
coherence purposes, this pertinence should not
be a barrier to expanding one’s skills. Such
aspect is of particular importance as it allows
employees, regardless of their function, along
their career path to access other roles with other
responsibilities that are of greatest interest to
them. Moreover, expanding one’s skills rejoins
the need for self-leadership and its potential to
better accept organizational changes.
One way to address the above is to determine the
training needs that correlate with the mission of
the organization without neglecting the
essentials that surround management issues. For
example, Plakhotnik and Rocco (2011) stress
the need to think of succession plans to ensure
that first-time managers are well-prepared to
efficiently undertake their new role. The initial
learning period is critical in assessing managers’
learning of processes, procedures, and policies
but more importantly in evaluating the core
values and principles that these managers will be
demonstrating. While organizations strive to
create a learning environment endowed with
innovative practices such as 360 degree
feedback, mentoring, coaching, and job
shadowing, Pinnington (2011) points out the
lack of time and the superficiality in
implementing these practices, thus hampering
the level of the intellectual capital.
Although the above concerns first-time
managers, other managers and employees
should not be precluded from this learning
process. NPOs should give all members at the
unit, group, and individual levels in an
organization the necessary learning tools and
time to acquire the skills, abilities, and
knowledge to grow and meet their aspirations.
While meeting their own needs, the above
type of learning process would help
individuals identify with the organization’s
values and embrace a collective approach to
attain organizational goals, thus increasing
IM. Such attempt would not only facilitate
greater integration and coordination but would
also raise the level of preparedness and
readiness for any eventualities arising in a
constantly changing environment.
Future Research
In an attempt to broaden the knowledge thus far
acquired on IM in NPOs, a larger randomized
sample is recommended to compare the results
emanating from different types of NPOs and
provide more definitive evidence. Future
research could also concentrate not only in terms
of scale size but also in terms of management
style that notably differs from one type of NPO
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to another. For example, more empirical results
would help determine the factors that create
members’ need to engage in the organisational
processes that result in a decrease in IM. Finally,
while the study took root from the internal
context through four themes, a further study
with more research on the external context
constituted of the imperative to comply with
donors’ demands to fulfill the mission without
lessening IM could be undertaken. One way to
achieve this goal could be to develop a
balanced scorecard (BSC) as defined by
Kaplan and Norton (2007) or a strategic
management framework in case the BSC
would be confronted to limitations as
cautioned by Kong (2010).
CONCLUSION
The issue of IM in NPOs has grown in
magnitude over the past few decades. The
study has gone some way toward enhancing
avenues that help management better take
account of prerequisites, within an evolving
nonprofit environment that enable employees
to engage more. The findings of this study
suggest the need for management of such
organisations to deploy more efforts to
strengthen values and innovative practices
that lie beyond extrinsic rewards and consider
IM as an alternative to develop competitive
advantage. Whilst it is important to recognize
that the issue of IM remains encapsulated in a
set of intangible values and organizational
settings that need time to mature, emerge, and
be part of the organizational culture; time is
thus a prerequisite to enable acceptance and
implementation of IM.
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LIST OF FIGURES:
Figure 1: Theoretical Framework for IM in NPOs
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Figure 4.2 – Responses for the various parameters
Your motivation at work
and Autonomy
Yo
ur
Mo
tiva
tio
n a
t w
ork
140
131 120 100
80 77
60
40 39 20
0 0 3
0 50 100 150
Autonomy
Figure 4.3 – Scatter diagram indicating linearity and direction of the correlation between your
motivation at work and Autonomy
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Your motivation at work
and Competence
Yo
ur
Mo
tiva
tio
n a
t w
ork
200
150 143
100
50 62
34
0 0 11
0 50 100 150
Competence
Figure 4.4 – Scatter diagram indicating linearity and direction of the correlation between your
motivation at work and Competence
Your motivation at work
and Self-Leadership
Yo
ur
Mo
tiva
tio
n a
t w
ork
200
173 150 100
78
50 40
0 0 9
0 50 100 150
Self-Leadership
Figure 4.5 – Scatter diagram indicating linearity and direction of the correlation between your
motivation at work and Self-Leadership
Your motivation at work
and Organizational Settings
Yo
ur
Mo
tiva
tio
n a
t w
ork
150
122 100
50 54 55
0 3 16
0 50 100 150
Organizational Settings
Figure 4.6 – Scatter diagram indicating linearity and direction of the correlation between your
motivation at work and Organizational Settings
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LIST OF TABLES:
Table 4.1: Demographic Characteristics
Variables
Percentage
Age Group
21 to 30 2.0%
31 to 40 8.0%
41 to 50 44.0%
51 to 60 42.0 %
Over 60 4.0%
Gender
Male 48 %
Female 52 %
Education Level
Secondary 22%
Graduate 28%
Post Graduate 44%
Doctorate 4%
Vocational 2%
Qualification
Years of Experience in
NPOs
1 - 5 years 10 %
6 – 10 years 10 %
11 – 15 years 22 %
16 – 20years 14 %
21 – 25 years 22 %
Above 25 years 22 %
Employment Status
International 44 %
Local 52 %
Retired 4 %
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Table 4.2 IM/Parameters 2
Number of Strongly
Strongly
Items respondents
Disagree Not sure Agree TOTAL
disagree
Agree
(N = 50)
Your motivation at work
I am motivated by the mission of my organization. 50 0 7 4 21 18
I think that the organization’s values fit my own 50 2
3 8 25 12
values.
Intrinsic motivation is very important for me. 50 0 3 5 18 24
My job provides me with enjoyment and fulfillment 50 2
2 6 28 12
regardless of salary and benefits.
Interacting with people at work and maintaining 50 0
3 4 17 26
interpersonal relations are very important for me.
TOTAL 4 18 27 109 92 250
Autonomy as opposed to control
I am very satisfied with the degree of autonomy that 50 0
0 9 27 14
is given to me.
The degree of autonomy given to me is in line with 50 0
3 6 30 11
the level of my responsibilities.
I feel confident to assume the autonomy and 50 0
0 4 24 22
responsibilities I’ve been entrusted with.
I feel I have the necessary skills and knowledge to 50 0
0 10 25 15
assume the autonomy given to me.
I feel I am trusted by others to make decisions. 50 0 0 10 25 15
TOTAL 0 3 39 131 77 250
Competence
I believe I have an accurate perception of my skills, 50 0
0 3 38 9
abilities, and knowledge.
I feel I am confident when I undertake new and 50 0
3 14 27 6
unstructured tasks.
I never postpone doing my tasks. 50 0 5 15 23 7
I regularly set my own learning goals. 50 0 1 16 24 9
I often try to transform a difficult task into an 50 0
2 14 31 3
interesting task.
TOTAL 0 11 62 143 34 250
Self-Leadership (one’s capacity to act with the environment the same way as
I feel I am aware enough of my strengths and
with oneself) 50 0 0 6 34 10
weaknesses to lead myself effectively.
I regularly set my own goals. 50 0 3 9 30 8
I often take initiatives in my job. 50 0 0 7 24 19
I feel I have control over my work. 50 0 3 2 32 13
I set my own goals in terms of career management. 50 0 3 10 28 9
I think that leading myself positively influences 50 0
0 6 25 19
others.
TOTAL 0 9 40 173 78 300
Organizational settings
I feel I work in a trustful environment. 50 2 6 15 20 7
I feel that the surrounding environment is conducive 50 1
6 16 16 11
to an overall social well-being.
I feel I am supported by managers, co-workers, and 50 0
4 11 28 7
subordinates.
I feel that my skills, abilities, and knowledge meet 50 0
0 2 34 14
the requirements of my job.
I feel that my tasks are interesting and challenging. 50 0 0 10 24 16
TOTAL 3 16 54 122 55 250