IntroductionIntroductionPsychological Research – Module 2 Psychological Research – Module 2

General Psychology 2General Psychology 2

January 27/29, 2004January 27/29, 2004Class #1 and #2Class #1 and #2

Dr. Stephen WeissDr. Stephen Weiss

What is Psychology?What is Psychology?

PsychologyPsychology – The science (or study) of behavior and mental The science (or study) of behavior and mental

processesprocesses– How we try to How we try to explainexplain behavior behavior

A systematic studyA systematic study–Having a method or a planHaving a method or a plan

Is it the Person or is it the Situation?Is it the Person or is it the Situation?

Internal and External influences:Internal and External influences: InternalInternal

– Inner personalityInner personality

External External – Specific situational factorsSpecific situational factors

What's more influential insofar as prediction What's more influential insofar as prediction of a person’s behavior is concerned?of a person’s behavior is concerned?

The Power of the Situation…The Power of the Situation…

Darley and Batson (1973)Darley and Batson (1973)– 40 students from Princeton Theological 40 students from Princeton Theological

Seminary Seminary Researchers asked half of the subjects to Researchers asked half of the subjects to

prepare themselves for a brief talk on the prepare themselves for a brief talk on the parable of the Good Samaritan and half were parable of the Good Samaritan and half were told that they would be asked questions told that they would be asked questions concerning employment prospects for concerning employment prospects for seminary studentsseminary students

Situational ManipulationSituational Manipulation

– Some subjects were put in the “late” Some subjects were put in the “late” conditioncondition ““They were expecting you a few minutes ago, They were expecting you a few minutes ago,

better hurry…”better hurry…”

– Some subjects were put in the “early Some subjects were put in the “early condition”condition” ““It will be a few minutes before they are ready for It will be a few minutes before they are ready for

you but why don’t you head over there you but why don’t you head over there anyway…”anyway…”

Or is it the Power of one’s Personality?Or is it the Power of one’s Personality?

Before all this was done, subjects were Before all this was done, subjects were given a questionnaire intended to measure given a questionnaire intended to measure their basis for interest in religion… their basis for interest in religion…

They were asked: Did their religious interest They were asked: Did their religious interest primarily have to do with:primarily have to do with:– assuring their personal salvationassuring their personal salvation

oror

– their concern for helping otherstheir concern for helping others

Is there time enough to be a Good Samaritan?Is there time enough to be a Good Samaritan?

On their way to the next building they On their way to the next building they passed a poorly dressed man slumped in passed a poorly dressed man slumped in a doorway, head down, eyes closed, not a doorway, head down, eyes closed, not moving…moving…

As the subject moved past him, the man As the subject moved past him, the man coughed twice and began groaningcoughed twice and began groaning

Pitting Dispositions Against SituationsPitting Dispositions Against Situations

Darley and Batson (1973) compared the Darley and Batson (1973) compared the strength of a seemingly important strength of a seemingly important dispositional factor (primarily altruistic or dispositional factor (primarily altruistic or not) with a relatively small situational not) with a relatively small situational variable (early or late)…variable (early or late)…

What do you think happened?What do you think happened?

Perspectives of PsychologyPerspectives of Psychology

Biological (Neuroscience)Biological (Neuroscience)– Genes, hormones, drugs, etc.Genes, hormones, drugs, etc.

Psychoanalytic Psychoanalytic – Unconscious drives (Freud)Unconscious drives (Freud)

Behavioral Behavioral – We are shaped by the external We are shaped by the external

environment (Watson)environment (Watson) Humanistic Humanistic

– Free will to make decisions (Rogers)Free will to make decisions (Rogers)

Perspectives of PsychologyPerspectives of Psychology

Cognitive Cognitive – How we process information to help us How we process information to help us

perceive situationsperceive situations EvolutionaryEvolutionary

– SurvivalSurvival Social-Cultural Social-Cultural

– How behavior varies across cultural How behavior varies across cultural contests contests

Research Issues and TechniquesResearch Issues and Techniques

We have limits to our intuition and We have limits to our intuition and common sense…common sense…– Hindsight biasHindsight bias– Overconfidence Overconfidence

Hindsight BiasHindsight Bias Fischhoff (1982)Fischhoff (1982)

– After the outcome of an event is known, people not only After the outcome of an event is known, people not only tend to view what has happened as having been tend to view what has happened as having been inevitable, but also tend to view it as having been inevitable, but also tend to view it as having been relatively inevitable before it happenedrelatively inevitable before it happened

– As a result, they believe that they, and others, should As a result, they believe that they, and others, should have been able to anticipate the event and they even have been able to anticipate the event and they even misremember their own predictions so as to exaggerate misremember their own predictions so as to exaggerate in hindsight what they knew in foresight in hindsight what they knew in foresight

– This hindsight bias has been observed across a wide This hindsight bias has been observed across a wide range of content domains, from political events to range of content domains, from political events to medical diagnosesmedical diagnoses

Hindsight BiasHindsight Bias

Although a nice hindsight bias may give us Although a nice hindsight bias may give us the comforting feeling that we understand the comforting feeling that we understand what the past was all about, it may also what the past was all about, it may also prevent us from learning anything from that prevent us from learning anything from that past past

Psychologists also call this 20/20 hindsight Psychologists also call this 20/20 hindsight vision the “I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon” vision the “I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon”

OverconfidenceOverconfidence

Judgmental overconfidenceJudgmental overconfidence– The tendency to be more confident then correct – to The tendency to be more confident then correct – to

overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs and overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgmentsjudgments

– Vallone (1990)Vallone (1990) In this experiment, students predicted, at the beginning of the In this experiment, students predicted, at the beginning of the

school year, whether or not they would drop a course, vote in school year, whether or not they would drop a course, vote in an upcoming election, call their parents more than twice a an upcoming election, call their parents more than twice a month, and so forthmonth, and so forth

Although the students felt 84% confident in their answers, they Although the students felt 84% confident in their answers, they were only correct 71% of the timewere only correct 71% of the time

OverconfidenceOverconfidence

When we try to predict events that are chance When we try to predict events that are chance events we tend to be unrealistically confident in events we tend to be unrealistically confident in the accuracy of our predictionsthe accuracy of our predictions– Especially about our own accomplishmentsEspecially about our own accomplishments

Examples:Examples:–At the beginning of the semester: “I’ll ace At the beginning of the semester: “I’ll ace

that Psych class”that Psych class”–At the beginning of a sports season: “I’m At the beginning of a sports season: “I’m

sure we’ll have a winning season”sure we’ll have a winning season”

So, instead of relying only on common sense…So, instead of relying only on common sense…

We can use it in the scientific methodWe can use it in the scientific method– See next slideSee next slide

Experimentation: Experimentation: The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method

Observations Observations – ““You can observe a lot by watching”You can observe a lot by watching”

TheoriesTheories– Explains, organizes, and predicts observable behaviorExplains, organizes, and predicts observable behavior– This is where our common sense can help This is where our common sense can help

Hypotheses Hypotheses – Best guesses Best guesses – Testable predictionsTestable predictions

It’s a Continuous CycleIt’s a Continuous Cycle

theories

observations

hypotheses

Variables:Variables:Dependent and IndependentDependent and Independent

DV = Variable (behavior) you are measuring DV = Variable (behavior) you are measuring In my study: gambling tendenciesIn my study: gambling tendencies

IV = variable or variables being manipulated IV = variable or variables being manipulated In my study: IVIn my study: IV = athletic status = athletic status

Operational DefinitionsOperational Definitions

Clearly defining our variables…Clearly defining our variables…– What is gambling behavior?What is gambling behavior?– What is handicapped?What is handicapped?– What is fast?What is fast?

Allows others to be able to successfully Allows others to be able to successfully replicate our experimentreplicate our experiment

The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method

Experimental ConditionExperimental Condition– The condition of an experiment that exposes The condition of an experiment that exposes

participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variablethe independent variable

Control ConditionControl Condition– The condition of an experiment that contrasts with the The condition of an experiment that contrasts with the

experimental treatment experimental treatment – Serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the Serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the

treatmenttreatment

ExperimentsExperiments

FeaturesFeatures– Manipulation of an Manipulation of an independent variableindependent variable and and

measurement of its effects on a measurement of its effects on a dependent variabledependent variable

StrengthsStrengths– Can establish a cause-effect relationship between Can establish a cause-effect relationship between

independent and dependent variablesindependent and dependent variables

WeaknessesWeaknesses– Confounding variables may prevent valid conclusionsConfounding variables may prevent valid conclusions

When looking at your results…When looking at your results…

Research generates more questions than Research generates more questions than answers…answers…

Humility vs. arrogance (use humility please)Humility vs. arrogance (use humility please) Don’t use the word “prove” here!Don’t use the word “prove” here!

Research ParticipantsResearch Participants

90% of researchers work at college 90% of researchers work at college universities universities

Most participants (subjects) in research Most participants (subjects) in research studies are college students mostly from studies are college students mostly from Intro to psych courses.Intro to psych courses.

Often a requirement in most universities.Often a requirement in most universities.

Sears (1986)Sears (1986)

Looked at the major journals in social psych Looked at the major journals in social psych from 1980-1985 and found this:from 1980-1985 and found this:

74% are college undergrads74% are college undergrads 51% from psych classes51% from psych classes 8% are other students (probably grad 8% are other students (probably grad

students)…so that means more than 8 out students)…so that means more than 8 out of every 10 subjects are studentsof every 10 subjects are students

Problems with this???Problems with this???

So, we have the majority being 17-19 year-So, we have the majority being 17-19 year-olds and overloaded with white, middle-olds and overloaded with white, middle-class as well.class as well.

Orne (1962)Orne (1962)

Orne (1962) looked at this issue and raised Orne (1962) looked at this issue and raised some serious questions about psychological some serious questions about psychological studies in general…studies in general…

(1) Do people behave differently just (1) Do people behave differently just because it’s a psychological study?because it’s a psychological study?

(2) Must be careful of “experimenter bias” (2) Must be careful of “experimenter bias” which can occur when the experimenter which can occur when the experimenter knows the conditions participants are inknows the conditions participants are in

Rosenthal and Jacobson(1966)Rosenthal and Jacobson(1966)

Used laboratory rats as their participantsUsed laboratory rats as their participants Told some of their students that rats were Told some of their students that rats were

bred to be smart or “maze-bright”bred to be smart or “maze-bright” Told other students that the rats were not Told other students that the rats were not

very smart of “maze-dull”very smart of “maze-dull” Even though all rats were randomly drawn Even though all rats were randomly drawn

guess what happened…guess what happened…

Rosenthal and Jacobson (1966)Rosenthal and Jacobson (1966)

Suggested an experimental bias occurred – Suggested an experimental bias occurred – seems the students changed their handling seems the students changed their handling techniques depending on if the rats were techniques depending on if the rats were supposedly fast or slow, thus supposedly fast or slow, thus makingmaking some some faster than othersfaster than others

Are teachers and children susceptible Are teachers and children susceptible to experimental bias?to experimental bias?

Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968)--“The Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968)--“The Harvard Test of Inflected Acquisition" Harvard Test of Inflected Acquisition"

““Placebo effect”Placebo effect”

Created by subject’s expectationsCreated by subject’s expectations– For example, participants might improve when For example, participants might improve when

taking a “sugar pill”, might act drunk when taking a “sugar pill”, might act drunk when drinking something they think contains alcohol, drinking something they think contains alcohol, etc.etc.

How do we solve these problems?How do we solve these problems?

Single-blind designSingle-blind design Double-blind designDouble-blind design

Other potential problems…Other potential problems…

Confounding variablesConfounding variables Random variables Random variables

SamplingSampling

Convenience sampleConvenience sample Representative sampleRepresentative sample Random sampleRandom sample Cross-cultural sampleCross-cultural sample

Naturalistic ObservationsNaturalistic Observations

FeaturesFeatures– Observations of humans or animal behavior in the Observations of humans or animal behavior in the

environment in which it typically occursenvironment in which it typically occurs

StrengthsStrengths– Provides descriptive data about behavior presumably Provides descriptive data about behavior presumably

uncontaminated by outside influencesuncontaminated by outside influences

WeaknessesWeaknesses– Observer bias and participant self-consciousness can Observer bias and participant self-consciousness can

distort resultsdistort results

Case StudiesCase Studies

FeaturesFeatures– Intensive examination of the behavior and mental Intensive examination of the behavior and mental

processes associated with a specific person or situationprocesses associated with a specific person or situation

StrengthsStrengths– Provide detailed descriptive analysis of new, complex, Provide detailed descriptive analysis of new, complex,

or rare phenomenonor rare phenomenon

WeaknessesWeaknesses– May not provide representative picture of phenomenaMay not provide representative picture of phenomena

SurveysSurveys

FeaturesFeatures– Standard set of questions asked of a large number of Standard set of questions asked of a large number of

participantsparticipants

StrengthsStrengths– Gather large amounts of descriptive data relatively Gather large amounts of descriptive data relatively

quickly and inexpensivelyquickly and inexpensively

WeaknessesWeaknesses– Sampling errors, poorly phrased questions, and Sampling errors, poorly phrased questions, and

response biases can distort resultsresponse biases can distort results

CorrelationsCorrelations

FeaturesFeatures– Statistically speaking, it refers to how strongly one Statistically speaking, it refers to how strongly one

variable is related to anothervariable is related to another

StrengthsStrengths– Allows researcher to better formulate their hypothesis – Allows researcher to better formulate their hypothesis –

gives ideas that we can explore furthergives ideas that we can explore further

Weaknesses Weaknesses – Data can sometimes fool us (we’ll get to this in a Data can sometimes fool us (we’ll get to this in a

second)second)

CorrelationsCorrelations

Statistically speaking, it refers to how Statistically speaking, it refers to how strongly one variable is related to another…strongly one variable is related to another…

Positive CorrelationPositive Correlation– Two variables either increase or decrease Two variables either increase or decrease

togethertogether Hypothetical Example: During 1988, the number of Hypothetical Example: During 1988, the number of

pregnancies increased at the same rate as did the pregnancies increased at the same rate as did the number of rainy days number of rainy days

CorrelationsCorrelations

Negative CorrelationNegative Correlation– The variables move in opposite directions The variables move in opposite directions

Hypothetical Example: During 1988, the number of Hypothetical Example: During 1988, the number of pregnancies increased at the same rate as the pregnancies increased at the same rate as the number of rainy days decreasednumber of rainy days decreased

Correlations do not mean cause and Correlations do not mean cause and effecteffect

Correlation and CausationCorrelation and CausationCorrelation and CausationCorrelation and Causation

Illusory CorrelationIllusory Correlation

A perceived correlation that does not really A perceived correlation that does not really existexist

For example: Infertile couples who adopt For example: Infertile couples who adopt become more likely to conceive become more likely to conceive

StatisticsStatistics

Helps us to make sense of our dataHelps us to make sense of our data

StatisticsStatistics

Measures of Central TendencyMeasures of Central Tendency– ModeMode– Mean Mean – MedianMedian

Measures of VariationMeasures of Variation– RangeRange– Standard DeviationStandard Deviation

Standard DeviationStandard Deviation One standard deviation One standard deviation

away from the mean in away from the mean in either direction on the either direction on the horizontal axis (the red horizontal axis (the red area on the graph) area on the graph) accounts for somewhere accounts for somewhere around 68 percent of the around 68 percent of the people in this group. Two people in this group. Two standard deviations away standard deviations away from the mean (the red and from the mean (the red and green areas) account for green areas) account for roughly 95 percent of the roughly 95 percent of the people. And three standard people. And three standard deviations (the red, green deviations (the red, green and blue areas) account for and blue areas) account for about 99 percent of the about 99 percent of the people people

Statistical SignificanceStatistical Significance

When the difference observed between two When the difference observed between two groups is groups is probablyprobably not due to chance factors not due to chance factors

Common alpha levels (levels of significance) Common alpha levels (levels of significance) are set at .05 or .01are set at .05 or .01

Medical experiments often set theirs at .001Medical experiments often set theirs at .001