Introduction to Cognitive Introduction to Cognitive NeuroscienceNeuroscience

Psychology 830: 411          Professor HansonPsychology 830: 411          Professor Hanson

syllabus:  syllabus:  www.nwkpsych.rutgers.edu/~jose/courseswww.nwkpsych.rutgers.edu/~jose/courses

THE COURSE:

Email; jose@rubic.rutgers.edu

Download the Syllabus.http://nwkpsych.rutgers.edu/~jose/courses

Here's the Book:

Cognition, Brain and Consciousness: An Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience Bernard J. Baars and Nicole M. Gage 2010, 2nd Edition Academic Press

What I expect … two tests, be prepared for the lecture20% of grade depends on class participation.

Lectures will be posted at the end of each week.

Office hours Wed right after class.

Cognitive NeuroscienceCognitive Neuroscience

• DefinitionDefinition “…“….mind and brain research aimed at investigating the psychological, .mind and brain research aimed at investigating the psychological,

computational, and neuroscientific bases of cognition. The term cognitive computational, and neuroscientific bases of cognition. The term cognitive neuroscience has been with us for three decades, and identifies an neuroscience has been with us for three decades, and identifies an interdisciplinary approach to understanding the nature of thought.”interdisciplinary approach to understanding the nature of thought.”

• ScopeScope Sensory processes, attention and perception, thinking, learning and Sensory processes, attention and perception, thinking, learning and

memory, emotion and feeling, executive function, language and social memory, emotion and feeling, executive function, language and social cognition, awareness and the puzzle of consciousness. cognition, awareness and the puzzle of consciousness.

• PeoplePeople Neurologists, psychiatrists, radiologists and other cliniciansNeurologists, psychiatrists, radiologists and other clinicians Experimental psychologists and clinical psychologists.Experimental psychologists and clinical psychologists. Behavioural neuroscientists, Cognitive NeuroscienceBehavioural neuroscientists, Cognitive Neuroscience Computational neuroscientistsComputational neuroscientists

The Three tensions:

Structure vs Function

Modularity vs Distributed Computation

Nativism vs EmpiricismT

3.0 Some starting points

Major planes of sections (slices) of the brain

Top panel shows a vertical section of the brain, called sagittal. When brain images are collected in this plane, they go from one side of the brain, across the midline between the two hemispheres, and to far side of the brain. When the slice is exactly through the midline between the two hemispheres it is called mid-sagittal.

Center panel shows a horizontal or axial slice through the brain. These slices go from the top of the brain to the bottom.

The lower panel shoes a coronal slice (named for its crown shape) that goes from the front of the brain to the back, from the forehead to the nape of the neck. Like horizontal slices, coronal slices include both hemispheres.

3.0 Some starting points

Major landmarks of the brain, with a medial (midline) view showing the center portions of the brain between the two cerebral hemispheres, and a lateral (side) view showing the outer aspects of the cerebral cortex.

3.0 Some starting points

Distance: seven orders of magnitude from 1 meter to 10-7 meter

a

dc

b

e

(a)A brain image of a subject looking at a rotating black and white stimulus

(b)A midline view of the cortex, with area V1 marked -- the first place where the visual pathway reaches cortex

(c)The head of a fruit fly: the fruit fly brain has about 1,000,000 neurons

(d)A single neuron: we have tens of billions in our brain

(e)A dopamine molecule: dopamine plays an essential role in working memory, the experience of pleasure, and the control of muscles

Items a-e represent 7 spatial orders of magnitude

Core conceptsCore concepts• Mission is to identify functional components of the brain Mission is to identify functional components of the brain

and work out how they carry out their functions with a and work out how they carry out their functions with a

view to building a “neurobiological theory of brain view to building a “neurobiological theory of brain

function”.function”.

• This is attempted by:This is attempted by: Observing and studying perturbations from normality after brain damage,Observing and studying perturbations from normality after brain damage, Looking at patterns of neural activation (blood flow, cell firing, etc.) that Looking at patterns of neural activation (blood flow, cell firing, etc.) that

are associated with specific patterns of behaviour or cognition.are associated with specific patterns of behaviour or cognition. Building theoretical and computational models on the basis of these data Building theoretical and computational models on the basis of these data

and using these to guide the search for more data, in a reiterative way.and using these to guide the search for more data, in a reiterative way.

• Where did this come from?Where did this come from?

4.0 Some History, and ongoing debates

The mind and the brain -- Rene Descartes

Descartes is often considered to be the originator of the mind/body philosophy. The basic question seems simple: is the world basically mental or physical?

Over time Darwin and other earlyPhysiologists—pushed the Mind intothe body

RationalismRationalism• Descartes, 17Descartes, 17thth Century, “I doubt therefore I exist”. Century, “I doubt therefore I exist”.

• Kant, Plato. Kant, Plato. Socrates argues that all knowledge worthy of the name Socrates argues that all knowledge worthy of the name

is innate, and that the psyche is immortal. famous paradox: "And how is innate, and that the psyche is immortal. famous paradox: "And how

will you enquire, Socrates, into that which you do not know?" (80d). the will you enquire, Socrates, into that which you do not know?" (80d). the

example in which a young boy is shown to innately understand the example in which a young boy is shown to innately understand the

Pythagorean Theorem, Socrates concludes "And if the truth of all things Pythagorean Theorem, Socrates concludes "And if the truth of all things

always existed in the soul, then the soul is immortal" always existed in the soul, then the soul is immortal"

• Claims:Claims:

• Ideas are Innate:Ideas are Innate: Knowledge about oneselfKnowledge about oneself Knowledge about Perfection (“God”)Knowledge about Perfection (“God”) Knowledge about causalityKnowledge about causality

EmpiricismEmpiricism• British Empiricists (18British Empiricists (18thth Century) Century)

• In response to rationalism which had dominated In response to rationalism which had dominated

philosophical thought for decades; focused on how “ideas” philosophical thought for decades; focused on how “ideas”

came about.came about.

• John Locke “the blank slate”, Berkeley, “mind determines John Locke “the blank slate”, Berkeley, “mind determines

matter”, Hume “Causality looks like continguity”matter”, Hume “Causality looks like continguity”

• Three major tenets:Three major tenets:

• Associationism Associationism

• ReductionismReductionism

• MechanisticMechanistic

4.0 Some History, and ongoing debates

Ramon y Cajal’s neuron doctrine: the working assumption of brain science

Santiago Ramon y Cajal was a founder of brain science. An open and important question of his time was regarding the nature of the nervous system -- whether it consisted of billions of separate cells or whether it was essentially one great continuous network.

Face Recognition: Brain Reading!Face Recognition: Brain Reading!

Fusiform Face Area(FFA) ...bilateral.. butRH FFA seems more “active”.

Face Recognition: AIFace Recognition: AIA little “face” experimentA little “face” experiment

androids

androids

Face recognition is critical to our biologicalIdentities.

Are Faces a window into the identity? The human condition?

Object Recognition Areas throughout the Brain?Object Recognition Areas throughout the Brain?

Core conceptsCore concepts

• Modularity assumptionModularity assumption

• Localisation of functionLocalisation of function Transparency assumption about interpreting brain lesions.Transparency assumption about interpreting brain lesions. Double-dissociationDouble-dissociation Lashley (1950) - misleading concepts of ‘mass-action’ and ‘equipotentiality’.Lashley (1950) - misleading concepts of ‘mass-action’ and ‘equipotentiality’.

• RepresentationRepresentation How do neurons of a particular bit of the brain ‘represent’ something?How do neurons of a particular bit of the brain ‘represent’ something? object recognition--categorizationobject recognition--categorization

• Single-cells and neural networksSingle-cells and neural networks ‘‘Grandmother cells’Grandmother cells’ Emergent properties of networks (e.g. distributed associative memories).Emergent properties of networks (e.g. distributed associative memories).

• PlasticityPlasticity Brain circuits show varying degrees of hard-wiring and susceptibility to changeBrain circuits show varying degrees of hard-wiring and susceptibility to change..

Neurological Case StudiesNeurological Case Studies• Interpreting function from dysfunctionInterpreting function from dysfunction

• Single cases vs. group studies.Single cases vs. group studies.

• Classic CasesClassic Cases Broca’s “Tan”.Broca’s “Tan”. Phineas GagePhineas Gage Commissurotomy (“split-brain”) PatientsCommissurotomy (“split-brain”) Patients H.M. and E.P. and other global amnesic patientsH.M. and E.P. and other global amnesic patients Etc.Etc.

• Specificity of the impairment - neurological syndromesSpecificity of the impairment - neurological syndromes Dissociation, not association. Dissociation, not association.

Neurological Case StudiesNeurological Case Studies

• Four phases of single-case studiesFour phases of single-case studies

Patient selectionPatient selection

Standard, psychometric tests to get a “broad” picture, e.g. I.Q. testing, Standard, psychometric tests to get a “broad” picture, e.g. I.Q. testing,

MMSE, Hamilton etc.MMSE, Hamilton etc.

Detailed quantitative study of specific deficits of particular interest. Detailed quantitative study of specific deficits of particular interest.

Description, educated guesses, predictions, provisional understanding, Description, educated guesses, predictions, provisional understanding,

further predictions, testing. Development of a hypothesis.further predictions, testing. Development of a hypothesis.

Very often, this phase involves devising novel tests.Very often, this phase involves devising novel tests.

Statistical analysisStatistical analysis

Localisation of function - the broad pictureLocalisation of function - the broad picture

Executive function,Executive function,Attention switching,Attention switching,planningplanning

Sensorimotor functionSensorimotor function

VisionVision

Motor timing Motor timing and learningand learning

Perception and memoryPerception and memory

Limbic System: Medial temporal Lobe, Hippocampus

The best known and most thoroughly studied case of humanamnesia is patient H. M. (Scoville and Milner, 1957), who in 1953sustained a bilateral resection of the medial temporal lobe in aneffort to relieve severe epilepsy

E.P. became profoundly amnesic in 1992 after viral encephalitis,which damaged his medial temporal lobe bilaterally

Patient E.P.Patient E.P.

Aged > 70 when tested.Aged > 70 when tested.

Grew up in the Castro Grew up in the Castro Valley area around Valley area around San Francisco and then  San Francisco and then  moved away.moved away.

Despite his amnesia, he Despite his amnesia, he was able to answer was able to answer questions about the questions about the spatial layout of the spatial layout of the area.area.

Pierre-Paul Broca and the localization of speech production: “Tan's Brain”

He concluded that this part of the frontal lobe was indispensable for speech production.

This concept was hotly debated among scientists: were there localized functional areas in the brain or was the brain equipotential, with all regions able to support cognition? This debate continues today.

The ‘speaking’ region of the left hemisphere is now called Broca’s area, although it precise function in language production is still being elucidated.

Non-Invasive Studies; NEUROIMAGING

ERP: electrical activity from the brain

PET: Static structural images, biochemistry

MRI: Static structural images

fMRI: Functional (“dynamic”) images

MRI Scanner MRI Scanner

Functional Functional imaging of imaging of the Human the Human BrainBrain

Maguire et al, Topographical Memory in Taxi Drivers, Maguire et al, Topographical Memory in Taxi Drivers, Journal of Journal of NeuroscienceNeuroscience, 1997, 1997

Jonides et al’s (1993) classic study of visuo-spatial Jonides et al’s (1993) classic study of visuo-spatial working memoryworking memory

The functional imaging of working-memoryThe functional imaging of working-memoryNumerous brain areas are differentially activated in various Numerous brain areas are differentially activated in various

working memory tasks. The “central executive” (CE) is bilateral, working memory tasks. The “central executive” (CE) is bilateral,

while the “phonological store” (PS) and the “articulatory rehearsal while the “phonological store” (PS) and the “articulatory rehearsal

loop” (AR) are in the left-hemisphere. Baddeley (1974) loop” (AR) are in the left-hemisphere. Baddeley (1974)

After Henson (2001)After Henson (2001)

Experimental lesion studies with animalsExperimental lesion studies with animals• Wide range of species used, but the largest number of studies have Wide range of species used, but the largest number of studies have

been done with non-human primates (particularly rhesus macaques) been done with non-human primates (particularly rhesus macaques)

and rodents (rats and mice). Many important studies have also been and rodents (rats and mice). Many important studies have also been

done with avian species.done with avian species.

• Lesions can be very circumscribed and then later checked Lesions can be very circumscribed and then later checked

histologically.histologically.

• Differs from human work as research can be prospective. That is, in Differs from human work as research can be prospective. That is, in

a planned study, animals can be trained as normal animals and then, a planned study, animals can be trained as normal animals and then,

at a suitable point in training, be given the lesion.at a suitable point in training, be given the lesion.

Single-unit (neuron) recording in the freely moving animalSingle-unit (neuron) recording in the freely moving animal

X,Y co-X,Y co-ordinatesordinates

Amplifier/filterAmplifier/filter

Video CameraVideo CameraVideo image of animal head-lightVideo image of animal head-light

Neural activityNeural activity

OscilloscopeOscilloscopeVideoVideotrackertracker

ComputerComputer

CurtainCurtain

Cylindrical apparatusCylindrical apparatus

ideo image of animal head-lightideo image of animal head-light

Hippocampal Hippocampal Place CellsPlace Cells

After J O’Keefe, courtesy L de HozAfter J O’Keefe, courtesy L de Hoz

Engineering special animals (gene-targeting)Engineering special animals (gene-targeting)

polio, aids, cancer,... memory & Learning?

Certain GENE suspect to produce a phenotype—“knock it out” and see what happens

Computational ModelingComputational Modeling

• Idea is to go beyond merely knowing about localization Idea is to go beyond merely knowing about localization

of function to ideas about how a specific brain area does of function to ideas about how a specific brain area does

a specific task. “Learning”, “memory”, a specific task. “Learning”, “memory”,

• Cognitive modeling - idealized neuron-like ‘units’ and Cognitive modeling - idealized neuron-like ‘units’ and

‘connections’ between them, but no demand that the ‘connections’ between them, but no demand that the

model include realistic neurons. PDP, Neural Networksmodel include realistic neurons. PDP, Neural Networks

• Neuron simulations - incorporating formal physiological Neuron simulations - incorporating formal physiological

ideas such as cable theory, ionic currents etc.ideas such as cable theory, ionic currents etc.

Neurons are Information Processing StructuresNeurons are Information Processing Structures

Biological ComplexityBiological ComplexityThreshold Logic Threshold Logic

Actual Neural NetworksActual Neural Networks

Networks: AssociationismNetworks: AssociationismJames, 1890James, 1890

PDP MODELS: Neural Network Models of Perception, Action, and Language, Rumelhart and McClelland, 1985

Cognitive NeuroscienceCognitive Neuroscience• Mission is to identify functional components of the brain Mission is to identify functional components of the brain

and work out how they carry out their functions with a and work out how they carry out their functions with a

view to building a “neurobiological theory of brain view to building a “neurobiological theory of brain

function”.function”.

• This is attempted by:This is attempted by: Observing and studying perturbations from normality after brain damage,Observing and studying perturbations from normality after brain damage, Looking at patterns of neural activation (blood flow, cell firing, etc.) that Looking at patterns of neural activation (blood flow, cell firing, etc.) that

are associated with specific patterns of behaviour or cognition.are associated with specific patterns of behaviour or cognition. Building theoretical and computational models on the basis of these data Building theoretical and computational models on the basis of these data

and using these to guide the search for more dataand using these to guide the search for more data