introduction to life cycle assessment: an instrument for ... · iso 14044:2006 , environmental...

Introduction to Life Cycle Assessment: Introduction to Life Cycle Assessment:

an instrument for Sustainable an instrument for Sustainable

developmentdevelopment

Maria Laura Maria Laura GiagnorioGiagnorio

Faculty of Economics Faculty of Economics -- University of University of [email protected]@unipv.it

Erasmus Intensive Programme, EPROBIOErasmus Intensive Programme, EPROBIO

Foggia, June 2010Foggia, June 2010

ContentsContents

�� What is lifeWhat is life--cycle assessment, LCA?cycle assessment, LCA?

�� Why do lifeWhy do life--cycle assessment?cycle assessment?

�� LCA as standard procedureLCA as standard procedure

�� Phases of an LCA Phases of an LCA

�� Applications of LCAApplications of LCA

�� LCA tools and support structuresLCA tools and support structures

�� LCA DiffusionLCA Diffusion

�� Software systems for LCA studiesSoftware systems for LCA studies

�� LCA DatabasesLCA Databases

The origin and development of LCA

The idea of a comprehensive The idea of a comprehensive Life Cycle AssessmentLife Cycle Assessment

(LCA), was conceived in the U.S.A. in the late 1960s (LCA), was conceived in the U.S.A. in the late 1960s

and early 1970s (REPA), while nearly identical ideas and early 1970s (REPA), while nearly identical ideas

were being developed in Europe at approximately the were being developed in Europe at approximately the

same time (Energy analysis).same time (Energy analysis).

In 1969, the Coca Cola company visualised a study In 1969, the Coca Cola company visualised a study

that would attempt to that would attempt to quantify the energy, material quantify the energy, material

and environmental consequencesand environmental consequences of the entire life of the entire life

cycle of a package, from the extraction of raw cycle of a package, from the extraction of raw

materials to its final disposal.materials to its final disposal.


TheThe studystudy attemptedattempted to to answeranswer thethe followingfollowing

issues: issues:

�� HowHow to to considerconsider energyenergy resourcesresources interinter--relatedrelated

withwith materialmaterial useuse

�� thethe implications implications ofof usingusing variousvarious packagingpackaging

options options andand

�� thethe possibilitypossibility ofof usingusing plastic plastic bottlesbottles, , whichwhich waswas

a a revolutionaryrevolutionary ideaidea atat thethe timetime. .

To determine whether beverage glass To determine whether beverage glass packaging is packaging is more or less burdensomemore or less burdensome than than plastic bottles, all life cycle phases need to be plastic bottles, all life cycle phases need to be investigatedinvestigated

�� For For glass bottlesglass bottles those phases are the mining of those phases are the mining of glass minerals from the biosphere, bottle glass minerals from the biosphere, bottle production, bottling of contents, all transports, production, bottling of contents, all transports, and final disposal. and final disposal.

�� For For plastic bottlesplastic bottles they are raw oil production, oil they are raw oil production, oil refining, polymer production, bottle production, refining, polymer production, bottle production, bottling of contents, all transports, and final bottling of contents, all transports, and final disposal + catalystsdisposal + catalysts


The origin anddevelopment of LCA

Resource and Environmental Resource and Environmental

Profile Analysis (REPA)Profile Analysis (REPA)

[USA, late 1960s][USA, late 1960s]

Energy Analysis (EA)[Europe, 1970s]

OR

IGIN

SO

RIG

INS

Environmental

organisations (1980)

Oil crisis (1970)

Interest about emissions

LCA concept

Sustainable development

Original LCA phases

Inve

nto

ry

Interpretation

Impro

vemen

t

ISO 14040

SETAC 1990

LCA definition and properties

�� Life cycle assessment is a relatively Life cycle assessment is a relatively newnewtechnique. technique.

�� Today it is a developed, Today it is a developed, standardisedstandardised tool for tool for environmental assessments. environmental assessments.

�� LCA evaluates from the environmental point of LCA evaluates from the environmental point of view all the resources and view all the resources and inputsinputs needed for the needed for the system studied and all the system studied and all the outputs outputs from the from the system, which are emissions to air, water and system, which are emissions to air, water and soil. soil.

�� LCA does not address the LCA does not address the economic or socialeconomic or socialaspects of a product.aspects of a product.


�� LCA provides a new point of view towards a LCA provides a new point of view towards a product systemproduct system and it can totally change the and it can totally change the market profile of the product. market profile of the product.

�� In the future environmental costs will be more In the future environmental costs will be more and more transferred to the and more transferred to the product priceproduct price. So it . So it will be beneficial to produce and buy products will be beneficial to produce and buy products with lower environmental costs. with lower environmental costs.

�� The goal of LCA is to The goal of LCA is to comparecompare the the environmental performance of products and environmental performance of products and services, to be able to choose the least services, to be able to choose the least burdensome one. burdensome one.


�� The term The term ‘‘life cyclelife cycle’’ refers to the notion that a refers to the notion that a

fair, holistic assessment requires the fair, holistic assessment requires the

assessment of raw material production, assessment of raw material production,

manufacture, distribution, use and disposal manufacture, distribution, use and disposal

including all intervening transportation steps. including all intervening transportation steps.

�� The concept also can be used to optimize the The concept also can be used to optimize the

environmental performance of a environmental performance of a single productsingle product

((ecodesignecodesign) or to optimize the environmental ) or to optimize the environmental

performance of a performance of a companycompany. .


�� The The pollution pollution caused at different life cycle stages caused at different life cycle stages is part of the analysis: is part of the analysis:

�� 1) For a hydro electric power plant, 1) For a hydro electric power plant, constructionconstructionpollution is considered + the pollution is considered + the decay in biomassdecay in biomass on on land flooded to create the dam land flooded to create the dam

�� 2) For the case of 2) For the case of paper productspaper products, raw material , raw material acquisition would include timber harvesting.acquisition would include timber harvesting.

�� 3) For 3) For plastic productsplastic products, it would include crude oil , it would include crude oil extraction.extraction.

�� RecyclingRecycling can occur in several ways. A product can occur in several ways. A product might be either reused or recycled to materials might be either reused or recycled to materials manufacture, where it is fed as a raw material for a manufacture, where it is fed as a raw material for a processprocess

The The major stagesmajor stages of of

a product Lifea product Life--cycle cycle

include rawinclude raw--

material acquisition, material acquisition,

production, use, production, use,

and disposal. and disposal.

All these stages, All these stages,

along with the along with the

transporttransport required required

to move products to move products

and materials, can and materials, can

require raw require raw

materials and materials and

energy and produce energy and produce

wastes and wastes and

emissionsemissions

Stages of a product life cycle

WhyWhy LCA?LCA?

ProductProduct PropertyProperty Incandescent Incandescent lamplamp Fluorescent Fluorescent lamplamp

Power consumptionPower consumption 60 W60 W 18 W18 W

Life spanLife span 1000 hr1000 hr 5000 hr5000 hr

MassMass 30 g30 g 540 g540 g

Mercury contentMercury content 0 mg0 mg 2 mg2 mg

etc. etc. …… ……

Raw product data can be difficult to understand

LCA definitions (1)

�� Life cycle assessment (LCA) is also known as: Life cycle assessment (LCA) is also known as: life life cycle analysis, cycle analysis, ecobalanceecobalance or cradleor cradle--toto--gravegrave--analysisanalysis: : investigation and valuation of the environmental investigation and valuation of the environmental impacts of a given product or service caused by its impacts of a given product or service caused by its existence. existence.

�� Life Cycle Assessment is an Life Cycle Assessment is an objectiveobjective process to process to evaluate the environmental burdens associated with a evaluate the environmental burdens associated with a product, process, or activity by identifying energy and product, process, or activity by identifying energy and materials used and wastes released to the materials used and wastes released to the environment, and to evaluate and implement environment, and to evaluate and implement opportunities to affect environmental improvements. opportunities to affect environmental improvements. (SETAC (SETAC **, 1990) , 1990)

The Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry The Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry

LCA definitions (2)

�� Life Cycle AssessmentLife Cycle Assessment::A systematic set of procedures for compiling and A systematic set of procedures for compiling and examining the inputs and outputs of materials examining the inputs and outputs of materials and energy and the associated environmental and energy and the associated environmental impacts directly attributable to the functioning of impacts directly attributable to the functioning of a product or service system throughout its life a product or service system throughout its life cycle. cycle.

�� Life CycleLife Cycle::Consecutive and interlinked stages of a product Consecutive and interlinked stages of a product or service system, from the extraction of natural or service system, from the extraction of natural resources to the final disposal. resources to the final disposal.

-- ISO 14040.2 Draft: Life Cycle Assessment ISO 14040.2 Draft: Life Cycle Assessment -- Principles and GuidelinesPrinciples and Guidelines

LCA definitions (3)

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA): Life Cycle Assessment (LCA): technique for technique for assessing the assessing the potential environmentalpotential environmental aspects aspects associated with a product (or service), by: associated with a product (or service), by:

�� compiling an compiling an inventoryinventory of relevant inputs and of relevant inputs and outputs, outputs,

�� evaluatingevaluating the potential environmental the potential environmental impacts impacts associated with those inputs and outputs, associated with those inputs and outputs,

�� interpretinginterpreting the results of the inventory and the results of the inventory and impact phases in relation to the objectives of the impact phases in relation to the objectives of the study.study.

-- ISO 14040.2 Draft: Life Cycle Assessment ISO 14040.2 Draft: Life Cycle Assessment -- Principles and GuidelinesPrinciples and Guidelines

LCA definitions (4)

�� Life Cycle Assessment is a process to evaluate the Life Cycle Assessment is a process to evaluate the environmental burdensenvironmental burdens associated with a product, process, associated with a product, process, or activity by identifying and or activity by identifying and quantifyingquantifying energy and materials energy and materials used and wastes released to the environment; to assess the used and wastes released to the environment; to assess the impact impact of those energy and materials used and releases to of those energy and materials used and releases to the environment; and to identify and evaluate opportunities to the environment; and to identify and evaluate opportunities to affect environmental affect environmental improvementsimprovements. .

�� The assessment includes the The assessment includes the entire life cycleentire life cycle of the product, of the product, process or activity, encompassing, extracting and processing process or activity, encompassing, extracting and processing raw materials; manufacturing, transportation and distribution; raw materials; manufacturing, transportation and distribution; use, reuse, re--use, maintenance; recycling, and final disposal. use, maintenance; recycling, and final disposal.

�� -- Guidelines for LifeGuidelines for Life--Cycle Assessment: A 'Code of Practice', SETAC, Brussels, Cycle Assessment: A 'Code of Practice', SETAC, Brussels, 20002000

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is used as a tool to assess the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is used as a tool to assess the

environmental impactsenvironmental impacts of a product, process or activity of a product, process or activity

throughout its life cycle; from the extraction of raw materials throughout its life cycle; from the extraction of raw materials

through to processing, transport, use and disposal. through to processing, transport, use and disposal.

In its early days it was primarily used for In its early days it was primarily used for product comparisonsproduct comparisons, ,

for example to compare the environmental impacts of for example to compare the environmental impacts of

disposable and reusable products. disposable and reusable products.

Today its Today its applicationsapplications include government policy, strategic include government policy, strategic

planning, marketing, consumer education, process planning, marketing, consumer education, process

improvement and product design. It is also used as the basis improvement and product design. It is also used as the basis

of ecoof eco--labellinglabelling and consumer education programs throughout and consumer education programs throughout

the world.the world.

-- Life Cycle Assessment: How Relevant is it to Australia? M. Life Cycle Assessment: How Relevant is it to Australia? M. DemmersDemmers and H. and H.

LewisLewis

LCA definitions (5)

LCA LCA definitionsdefinitions (6)(6)

�� Life Cycle Assessment or LCA can be defined as a Life Cycle Assessment or LCA can be defined as a

systematic systematic inventory and analysisinventory and analysis of the environmental of the environmental

effect caused by a product or process starting from the effect caused by a product or process starting from the

extraction of raw materials, production, use, etc. up to extraction of raw materials, production, use, etc. up to

the waste treatment. the waste treatment.

�� For each of these steps there will be made an inventory For each of these steps there will be made an inventory

of the of the useuse of material and energy and the of material and energy and the emissionsemissions to to

the environment. the environment.

�� With this inventory an With this inventory an environmental profileenvironmental profile will be set will be set

up, which makes it possible to identify the weak points in up, which makes it possible to identify the weak points in

the lifecycle of the system studied. These weak points the lifecycle of the system studied. These weak points

are the focal points for are the focal points for improving improving the system from an the system from an

environmental point of view. environmental point of view.

�� -- VITO (Flemish Institute for Technological Research)VITO (Flemish Institute for Technological Research)

Generalised Overview of Life Cycle Analysis process, courtesy Michael Fatenbacker, PE Europe

Variants of Life Cycle Assessment

�� CradleCradle--toto--gravegrave isis thethe full full LifeLife Cycle Cycle AssessmentAssessment fromfrommanufacture (manufacture (‘‘cradlecradle’’) ) throughthrough thethe use phase use phase andand to to thethedisposaldisposal phase (phase (‘‘gravegrave’’). ).

�� CradleCradle--toto--gategate isis an an assessmentassessment ofof a partial a partial productproduct lifelifecycle cycle fromfrom manufacture (manufacture (‘‘cradlecradle’’) to ) to thethe factoryfactory gategate, , i.e.beforei.e.before itit isis transportedtransported to to thethe consumer. consumer. TheThe use use phase phase andand disposaldisposal phase phase ofof thethe productproduct are are usuallyusuallyomittedomitted..

�� CradleCradle--toto--cradlecradle isis a a specificspecific kindkind ofof cradlecradle--toto--gravegraveassessmentassessment, , wherewhere thethe endend--ofof--lifelife disposaldisposal stepstep for for thetheproductproduct isis a a recyclingrecycling processprocess. . TheThe recyclingrecycling processprocessoriginatesoriginates new, new, identicalidentical productsproducts or or differentdifferent productsproducts..

The Concept of The Concept of ““Life Cycle ThinkingLife Cycle Thinking””

�� Creates possibilities for Creates possibilities for major improvementsmajor improvements in in environmental performance encouraging companies to environmental performance encouraging companies to consider the broader picture of the environmental impact consider the broader picture of the environmental impact of their products or services. of their products or services.

�� Life cycle thinking also helps to avoid the Life cycle thinking also helps to avoid the ““shifting of shifting of burdensburdens”” among life cycle stages, countries, and the among life cycle stages, countries, and the various environmental and human health impacts, as various environmental and human health impacts, as well as global material and energy resource depletion.well as global material and energy resource depletion.

�� The life cycle of a product is often The life cycle of a product is often longlong and complicated:and complicated:

�� covers all the areas from the extraction of natural covers all the areas from the extraction of natural resources to their eventual disposal as wasteresources to their eventual disposal as waste

�� involves involves many different actorsmany different actors such as designers, such as designers, industry, marketing people, retailers and consumers.industry, marketing people, retailers and consumers.

The ISO The ISO organisationorganisation (International Organization for (International Organization for

StandardisationStandardisation) has published ) has published updatedupdated editionseditions of its life of its life

cycle assessment standards, 14040:2006, designed to cycle assessment standards, 14040:2006, designed to

highlight environmental problems and areas for improvement highlight environmental problems and areas for improvement

in the production and use of products.in the production and use of products.

The new standards will facilitate the process of evaluating the The new standards will facilitate the process of evaluating the

impacts that a product has on the environment over its entire impacts that a product has on the environment over its entire

life, thereby encouraging the life, thereby encouraging the efficient use of resourcesefficient use of resources and and

decreasing liabilities. Important step to consolidate decreasing liabilities. Important step to consolidate

procedures and methods of LCA: their contribution is crucial procedures and methods of LCA: their contribution is crucial

for the for the general acceptance of LCAgeneral acceptance of LCA by all stakeholders and by by all stakeholders and by

the international communitythe international community

ISO standards for life cycle assessmentISO standards for life cycle assessment

ISO 14040:2006ISO 14040:2006, Environmental management , Environmental management –– Life cycle Life cycle

assessment assessment –– Principles and frameworkPrinciples and framework, provides a clear , provides a clear

overview of the practice, applications and limitations of LCA tooverview of the practice, applications and limitations of LCA to

a broad range of potential users and stakeholders, including a broad range of potential users and stakeholders, including

those with a limited knowledge of life cycle assessment.those with a limited knowledge of life cycle assessment.

ISO 14044:2006ISO 14044:2006, Environmental management , Environmental management –– Life cycle Life cycle

assessment assessment –– Requirements and guidelinesRequirements and guidelines, is designed for , is designed for

the preparation, implementation, and critical review of life cycthe preparation, implementation, and critical review of life cycle le

inventory analysis. It also provides guidance on the impact inventory analysis. It also provides guidance on the impact

assessment phase of LCA and on the interpretation of LCA assessment phase of LCA and on the interpretation of LCA

results, as well as the nature and quality of the data collectedresults, as well as the nature and quality of the data collected. .

They They replace replace the previous standards (ISO 14040:1997, ISO the previous standards (ISO 14040:1997, ISO

14041:1999, ISO 14042:2000 and ISO 14043:2000).14041:1999, ISO 14042:2000 and ISO 14043:2000).

ISO standards for life cycle assessmentISO standards for life cycle assessment

The multidisciplinary nature of LCAThe multidisciplinary nature of LCA

�� One of the complexities of LCA lies in its very One of the complexities of LCA lies in its very

multidisciplinary charactermultidisciplinary character. We can distinguish three . We can distinguish three

spheres, each with very different characteristics:spheres, each with very different characteristics:

�� TechnosphereTechnosphere: The : The modellingmodelling of technical systems, such of technical systems, such

as production processes, transport processes etc.as production processes, transport processes etc.

�� EcosphereEcosphere: The : The modellingmodelling of environmental mechanisms of environmental mechanisms

("what happens with an emission?"). Uncertainties are ("what happens with an emission?"). Uncertainties are

often one to three orders of magnitude, and often often one to three orders of magnitude, and often

verification is difficult or impossible.verification is difficult or impossible.

�� ValuesphereValuesphere: Dealing with subjective choices. This : Dealing with subjective choices. This

includes weighting of impact categories, but also plays an includes weighting of impact categories, but also plays an

essential role when selecting an allocation procedure or a essential role when selecting an allocation procedure or a

time horizon. In time horizon. In valuespherevaluesphere there is no "single" truththere is no "single" truth

LCA phasesLCA phases


�� Goal and scope definitionGoal and scope definition. This includes the purpose of . This includes the purpose of the study, the system boundaries, and the functional unit the study, the system boundaries, and the functional unit of comparison. A material and energy flow chart is also of comparison. A material and energy flow chart is also mapped.mapped.

�� LifeLife--cycle inventory (LCI)cycle inventory (LCI). In this phase, all information . In this phase, all information on emissions and the resource consumption of the on emissions and the resource consumption of the activities in the system under study are catalogued.activities in the system under study are catalogued.

�� LifeLife--cycle impact assessment (LCIA)cycle impact assessment (LCIA). In this phase, . In this phase, the environmental consequences of the inventory are the environmental consequences of the inventory are assessed and sensitivity analyses of the results are assessed and sensitivity analyses of the results are developed. developed.

�� InterpretationInterpretation. This fourth step involves the . This fourth step involves the interpretation of the results, which may include interpretation of the results, which may include normalization, weighting and/or additional aggregation.normalization, weighting and/or additional aggregation.


�� The The methodologymethodology for the two first steps is relatively well for the two first steps is relatively well established while the third step of impact assessment is established while the third step of impact assessment is more difficult and controversial. more difficult and controversial.

�� Goal and scope definition and inventory analysis are Goal and scope definition and inventory analysis are usually referred to as the usually referred to as the Life Cycle InventoryLife Cycle Inventory or LCI. or LCI. This part of study can be done separately without impact This part of study can be done separately without impact assessment. assessment.

�� If the inventory part of the study is not driven to the final If the inventory part of the study is not driven to the final disposal, but to a certain stage of the product life cycle, disposal, but to a certain stage of the product life cycle, for example polymer pellets at the factory gate, the study for example polymer pellets at the factory gate, the study is called as a partial life cycle inventory or is called as a partial life cycle inventory or ecoeco--profileprofile. .

�� TheThe user user of the product may further build on the ecoof the product may further build on the eco--profile and calculate his own ecoprofile and calculate his own eco--profile depending on profile depending on his specific application.his specific application.

GSD: Goal and scope definitionGSD: Goal and scope definition

�� The The goalgoal of the study should include a statement of the of the study should include a statement of the reason for carrying out the study as well as the intended reason for carrying out the study as well as the intended application of the results and the audience. The application of the results and the audience. The scopescopeshould consider and describe the following items: should consider and describe the following items:

�� The functional The functional unitunit. .

�� The system The system boundariesboundaries. .

�� AllocationAllocation procedures. procedures.

�� Type of Type of impact assessmentimpact assessment methodology and methodology and interpretation interpretation

�� Assumptions and Assumptions and limitationslimitations..

�� DataData requirements and their quality. requirements and their quality.

�� Type of Type of critical reviewcritical review

�� Type and format of theType and format of the report report required for the study. required for the study.


According to ISO 14040, the goals could be:According to ISO 14040, the goals could be:

�� weak point analysis in the weak point analysis in the production or production or

optimisationoptimisation of processes;of processes;

�� accompanying assessment in the accompanying assessment in the development development of of new materials;new materials;

�� optimisationoptimisation of of materials materials by by analysinganalysing the system the system performance within an application;performance within an application;

�� decisiondecision--making assistance in making assistance in marketingmarketing;;

�� optimisationoptimisation of the of the production of a componentproduction of a component or or the comparison of components;the comparison of components;

�� optimisationoptimisation of a of a productproduct in its life cycle .in its life cycle .


Further goals of a study could be:Further goals of a study could be:

�� assistance in assistance in strategicstrategic decisions, decisions,

�� the recognition of possible the recognition of possible influencesinfluences of the of the social and political context and social and political context and

�� the identification of consequences resulting from the identification of consequences resulting from political political measuresmeasures (e.g. in energy politics)(e.g. in energy politics)

�� The The system descriptionsystem description covers an analysis of the covers an analysis of the product system with a description and a clear product system with a description and a clear presentation (e.g. flow charts). presentation (e.g. flow charts).

�� The The spatial and temporalspatial and temporal system boundaries are system boundaries are then defined accordingly. then defined accordingly.

GSD: Functional unitGSD: Functional unit

�� The The functional unitfunctional unit is a key element of LCA is a key element of LCA which has to be clearly defined. The functional which has to be clearly defined. The functional unit is a measure of the function of the studied unit is a measure of the function of the studied system and its efficiency.system and its efficiency.

�� Provides a Provides a reference reference to which the flows (inputs to which the flows (inputs and output) can be related and consequently the and output) can be related and consequently the potential potential impactsimpacts on the environment, human on the environment, human beings, and resources. beings, and resources.

�� This enables This enables comparisoncomparison of two essential of two essential different systems. For example, the functional different systems. For example, the functional unit for a paint system may be defined as the unit for a paint system may be defined as the unit surface protected for 10 years. unit surface protected for 10 years.


The functional unit of soft drink delivery systems could be The functional unit of soft drink delivery systems could be either either a single servinga single serving of soft drink consisting of a given of soft drink consisting of a given amount of fluid, (e.g. 12 oz.) or a givenamount of fluid, (e.g. 12 oz.) or a given containercontainer. .

�� Twelve ounce cans and 16Twelve ounce cans and 16--oz bottles are generally oz bottles are generally consumed as a single serving and comparing them on the consumed as a single serving and comparing them on the basis of container count makes sense (but not a 2basis of container count makes sense (but not a 2--liter liter bottle rarely consumed as a single serving). bottle rarely consumed as a single serving).

�� If "one container" is chosen as the functional unit, values If "one container" is chosen as the functional unit, values obtained for the lifeobtained for the life--cycle inventory of 2cycle inventory of 2--liter bottles will be liter bottles will be over five times more per functional unit than values over five times more per functional unit than values obtained if a 12obtained if a 12--oz serving is chosen as the functional unit. oz serving is chosen as the functional unit.

�� The The results results of LCA studies are of LCA studies are heavily dependentheavily dependent on the on the decisions made during the planning phase. decisions made during the planning phase.


�� In many cases, one In many cases, one cannot simply comparecannot simply compare two products two products that may have different performance characteristics. that may have different performance characteristics.

�� To compare To compare milkmilk--packaging systemspackaging systems, one cannot , one cannot compare one milk carton with one bottle since a milk compare one milk carton with one bottle since a milk carton can be used only once, while a returnable milk carton can be used only once, while a returnable milk bottle can be used ten or more times. bottle can be used ten or more times.

�� A much better approach is to compare A much better approach is to compare two waystwo ways of of packaging and delivering 1000 packaging and delivering 1000 litreslitres of milk. In that case of milk. In that case one would compare 1000 milk cartons with about 100 one would compare 1000 milk cartons with about 100 bottles and 900 washingsbottles and 900 washings

�� Defining a functional unit can be quite difficult, as the Defining a functional unit can be quite difficult, as the performance of productsperformance of products is not always easy to describe. is not always easy to describe. For example, what is the exact function of an ice cream, For example, what is the exact function of an ice cream, a car sharing system, or a holiday?a car sharing system, or a holiday?

GSD: System boundariesGSD: System boundaries

�� The system boundaries determine The system boundaries determine which unit processeswhich unit processes to to be included in the LCA study. Defining system boundaries be included in the LCA study. Defining system boundaries is partly based on a subjective choice, made during the is partly based on a subjective choice, made during the scope phase when the boundaries are initially set. scope phase when the boundaries are initially set.

�� Boundaries between the Boundaries between the technological system and naturetechnological system and nature. . A life cycle usually begins at the extraction point of raw A life cycle usually begins at the extraction point of raw materials and energy carriers from nature. Final stages materials and energy carriers from nature. Final stages normally include waste generation and/or heat production. normally include waste generation and/or heat production.

�� Geographical areaGeographical area. Geography plays a crucial role in most . Geography plays a crucial role in most LCA studies, e.g. infrastructures, such as electricity LCA studies, e.g. infrastructures, such as electricity production, waste management and transport systems, production, waste management and transport systems, vary from one region to another. Moreover, ecosystems vary from one region to another. Moreover, ecosystems sensitivity to environmental impacts differs regionally too. sensitivity to environmental impacts differs regionally too.


�� Time horizonTime horizon. Boundaries must be set not only in space, . Boundaries must be set not only in space, but also in time. Basically but also in time. Basically LCAsLCAs are carried out to are carried out to evaluate present impacts and predict future scenarios. evaluate present impacts and predict future scenarios. Limitations to time boundaries are given by technologies Limitations to time boundaries are given by technologies involved, pollutants lifespan, etc. involved, pollutants lifespan, etc.

�� Boundaries between the current life cycle and related life Boundaries between the current life cycle and related life cycles of cycles of other technical systemsother technical systems. .

�� Product systems tend to be Product systems tend to be interrelated interrelated in a very in a very complex way. For example, in an LCA on milk cartons: complex way. For example, in an LCA on milk cartons:

�� trucks are used. trucks are used.

�� to produce a truck steel is needed, to produce a truck steel is needed,

�� to produce steel, coal is needed, to produce steel, coal is needed,

�� to produce coal, trucks are needed etc. to produce coal, trucks are needed etc.

Interaction between the industrial system and the environment


What is the What is the boundary with natureboundary with nature? ?

�� For example, in an LCA on For example, in an LCA on paper paper it is important to decide if it is important to decide if the growing of a tree is included. If it is, one can include thethe growing of a tree is included. If it is, one can include theCOCO2 2 uptake and the land use effect. uptake and the land use effect.

�� In agricultural systems, it is important to decide if In agricultural systems, it is important to decide if agricultural areasagricultural areas are seen as a part of nature or as a are seen as a part of nature or as a production system (production system (technospheretechnosphere). ).

�� If they are seen as If they are seen as naturenature, all pesticides applied are , all pesticides applied are considered as an emission. considered as an emission.

�� If agricultural areas are seen as an If agricultural areas are seen as an economic systemeconomic system, one , one can exclude the pesticides that remain in the area, and only can exclude the pesticides that remain in the area, and only include the pesticides that leach out, evaporate or that are include the pesticides that leach out, evaporate or that are accidentally sprayed outside the field.accidentally sprayed outside the field.

GSD: Fundamental proceduresGSD: Fundamental procedures

�� Defining and documentingDefining and documenting the fundamental procedures is the fundamental procedures is important when conducting an LCA. That includes basic important when conducting an LCA. That includes basic rules as well as specific issues.rules as well as specific issues.

�� These could be, for example, the desired These could be, for example, the desired level of detaillevel of detailand and depthdepth or the choice of or the choice of impact categoriesimpact categories within the within the study. study.

�� The application of The application of cutcut--off criteriaoff criteria (for Input and Output), (for Input and Output), which allow for the exclusion of insignificant contributions, which allow for the exclusion of insignificant contributions, is described. is described.

�� If a system produces several products, the input and If a system produces several products, the input and output flows have to be output flows have to be allocated toallocated to each product. These each product. These allocation procedures must also be defined in the scope.allocation procedures must also be defined in the scope.

GSD: Assessment criteriaGSD: Assessment criteria

�� The assessment criteria applied in the impact assessment The assessment criteria applied in the impact assessment phase of the LCA must be phase of the LCA must be specified before the inventoryspecified before the inventoryanalysis starts the collection of the relevant data. analysis starts the collection of the relevant data.

�� The following list of The following list of environmental impact categoriesenvironmental impact categories on the on the midmid--point level may be included as assessment point level may be included as assessment parameters: Climate change, Ozone depletion, parameters: Climate change, Ozone depletion, Acidification, Acidification, EutrophicationEutrophication, Photochemical oxidant , Photochemical oxidant formation, Radiation, Human toxicity, formation, Radiation, Human toxicity, EcotoxicityEcotoxicity, Depletion , Depletion of of abioticabiotic resources, Use of biotic resources, Land useresources, Use of biotic resources, Land use

�� There have been attempts to include There have been attempts to include sociosocio--economiceconomicaspects as assessment criteria.aspects as assessment criteria.

�� For For noise noise a methodological approach has recently been a methodological approach has recently been developed, but the availability of data in LCI databases is developed, but the availability of data in LCI databases is very limited yet.very limited yet.

GSD: Data requirementsGSD: Data requirements

�� Data qualityData quality has a significant influence on the LCA has a significant influence on the LCA results. Depending on the goal, requirements need to be results. Depending on the goal, requirements need to be formulated on the quality of data (e.g. on its precision, formulated on the quality of data (e.g. on its precision, completeness), on its completeness), on its sourcessources and on any and on any assumptionsassumptions

�� ReliabilityReliability of the results from LCA studies strongly of the results from LCA studies strongly depends on the extent to which data quality depends on the extent to which data quality requirements are met. The following requirements are met. The following parametersparameters should should be taken into account: be taken into account: �� TimeTime--related coverage.related coverage.

�� Geographical coverage.Geographical coverage.

�� Technology coverage.Technology coverage.

�� Precision, completeness and Precision, completeness and representativenessrepresentativeness of the data.of the data.

�� Consistency and reproducibility of the methods used throughout Consistency and reproducibility of the methods used throughout the data collection.the data collection.

�� Uncertainty of the information and data gaps.Uncertainty of the information and data gaps.

LCILCI: : InventoryInventory analysisanalysis

�� This phase involves This phase involves data collection and modelingdata collection and modelingof the product system, description and verification of the product system, description and verification of data.of data.

�� A A model model is made of the complex technical system is made of the complex technical system to produce, transport use and dispose of a to produce, transport use and dispose of a product. product.

�� This results in a This results in a flow sheetflow sheet or process tree with or process tree with all the relevant processes.all the relevant processes.

�� For each process, all the relevantFor each process, all the relevant inflowsinflows and the and the outflowsoutflows are collected. The result is usually a are collected. The result is usually a very long list of inflows and outflows that is often very long list of inflows and outflows that is often difficult to interpret.difficult to interpret.


�� This encompasses all data related to This encompasses all data related to environmentalenvironmental and and technicaltechnical quantities for quantities for all relevant unit processes within the study all relevant unit processes within the study boundaries that compose the product boundaries that compose the product system. system.

�� Usually Life Cycle Assessments inventories Usually Life Cycle Assessments inventories and modeling are carried out using and modeling are carried out using dedicated softwarededicated software packages. Data can be packages. Data can be presented in tables and some presented in tables and some interpretations can be made already at this interpretations can be made already at this stage. stage.

LCILCI: : InventoryInventory analysisanalysis (LCI)(LCI)

InventoryInventory componentscomponents::

�� TheThe unit unit processprocess isis thethe smallestsmallest portion portion ofof a a productproductsystemsystem for for whichwhich data data isis collectedcollected ((individualindividual production production processesprocesses, production , production lineslines, , cradlecradle--toto--gategate systemssystems for for components, transports components, transports etcetc).).

�� A A productproduct systemsystem isis a collection a collection ofof unit unit processesprocesses thatthat are are connectedconnected by by intermediateintermediate flowsflows. A . A productproduct systemsystem cancanperformperform oneone or more or more functionsfunctions..

�� TheThe data data categoriescategories are inputs are inputs andand outputs outputs ofof a unit a unit processprocess or or productproduct systemsystem thatthat facilitatefacilitate thethe management management ofof thethe collectedcollected data. data. ExamplesExamples are are resourcesresources, , productsproducts, , energyenergy, , rawraw materialsmaterials, , emissionsemissions, , wastewaste etc. etc.


Data categories

Unit processUnit process

LCILCI: Data collection : Data collection -- documentationdocumentation

UsuallyUsually thethe mostmost resourceresource consumingconsuming part part ofof thethe LCA: LCA: willwill

assure assure thethe qualityquality ofof thethe resultsresults andand alsoalso givegive reusabilityreusability to to

thethe collectedcollected data.data.

Goal and scope definition

Preparing for data collection

Data collection

Validation of data

Relating data to unit process

Data aggregation

Refining the system boundaries

Relating data to functional unitAdditionalAdditional data or unit

processes required

Allocation and

recyclingrecycling

RevisedRevised data data

collection collection sheetsheet

LCI: Data collection LCI: Data collection -- documentationdocumentation

Data sourceData source: :

�� RealReal processesprocesses

((companiescompanies, production , production

sites, sites, etcetc))

�� New New modellingmodelling or or

estimations estimations

�� ExternalExternal databasesdatabases andand

literatureliterature

�� InIn--househouse databasesdatabases andand

reportsreports

Important issuesImportant issues::

��Questionnaires, Questionnaires, reportingreportingmanualsmanuals, dialogues , dialogues andandbusiness business agreementsagreements

��ProcessProcess modellingmodelling, , extrapolations, extrapolations, modellingmodellingfromfrom similaritysimilarity, , substitutessubstitutesfor for realreal data, data, etcetc

��TransparencyTransparency, , pricingpricing, , copyright, copyright, applicabilityapplicability

��SecrecySecrecy, , applicabilityapplicability, , transparencytransparency, , remodellingremodelling

LCI: LCI: CalculationCalculation

�� TheThe validation validation ofof data data isis mademade continuouslycontinuously to to seesee thatthatthethe data data collectedcollected isis representativerepresentative andand validvalid for for thetheprocessprocess systemsystem itit isis supposedsupposed to to describedescribe. .

�� TheThe methodsmethods: to use : to use massmass//energyenergy balances, compare balances, compare withwith similarsimilar data data andand findfind a a wayway to to handlehandle missingmissing data data andand data gaps.data gaps.

�� TheThe data data shouldshould bebe relatedrelated to a to a unit unit processprocess andand to to thethefunctionalfunctional unitunit, , thisthis isis donedone by by determiningdetermining a a referencereferenceflowflow for for eacheach unit unit processprocess andand normalisingnormalising thethe data to data to thisthisflowflow andand to to thethe functionalfunctional unit.unit.

�� AggregationAggregation isis mademade to to obtainobtain thethe resultsresults fromfrom thetheinventoryinventory. . FlowsFlows thatthat are are ofof thethe samesame data data categorycategory ((e.g.e.g.air air emissionsemissions) ) andand samesame substance (substance (e.g.e.g. CHCH44) ) ofof differentdifferentunit unit processesprocesses are are aggregatedaggregated to to produceproduce a total value for a total value for thethe wholewhole systemsystem. .

LCILCI: Example of an inventory table

ElementaryElementary flowflow Incandescent Incandescent FluorescentFluorescent

lamplamp lamplamp

�� COCO2 2 to air to air 800000 kg 800000 kg 50000 50000 kgkg

�� SOSO2 2 to air to air 1000 kg 1000 kg 80 80 kgkg

�� CuCu to to waterwater 3 g 3 g 20 g20 g

�� CrudeCrude oiloil

fromfrom earthearth 37000 kg 37000 kg 22000 22000 kgkg

Etc. Etc. …… ……

An allocation is the assignment or division of a common flow to An allocation is the assignment or division of a common flow to different different

part processes. Few industrial processes yield only a single outpart processes. Few industrial processes yield only a single output and put and

therefore the study shall identify the processes shared with oththerefore the study shall identify the processes shared with other er

product systems. The materials and energy flows as well as assocproduct systems. The materials and energy flows as well as associated iated

environmental releases shall be allocated to the different produenvironmental releases shall be allocated to the different product ct

outputs.outputs.

coal

generator

electricity

heat

fly ash

LCILCI: MultifunctionalityMultifunctionality andand allocationallocation

LCILCI: Multifunctionality and allocation

Typology I:Typology I:

�� coco--productionproduction

�� combined waste treatmentcombined waste treatment

�� recyclingrecycling

Typology II:Typology II:

�� joint productionjoint production

�� combined productioncombined production

What to do with the extra What to do with the extra heat?heat?

�� accept it as an extra accept it as an extra reference flowreference flow

�� eliminate it by an extra eliminate it by an extra modeling stepmodeling step

equipment steel

generator

gypsum

heat

fly ash

coal

electricity

product system

system boundary

reference flow

LCI: allocationLCI: allocation

ManyMany processesprocesses usuallyusually performperform more more thanthan oneone functionfunctionor output. or output. TheThe environmentalenvironmental loadload ofof thatthat processprocess needsneedsto to bebe allocatedallocated overover thethe differentdifferent functionsfunctions andand outputs.outputs.

Allocation Allocation accordingaccording to ISO 14040to ISO 14040::

WhereverWherever possible, allocation possible, allocation shouldshould bebe avoidedavoided by:by:

�� 1) 1) dividingdividing thethe unit unit processprocess to to bebe allocatedallocated intointo twotwo or or

more more subprocessessubprocesses

�� 2) 2) andand collectingcollecting thethe input input andand output data output data relatedrelated to to

thesethese subsub--processesprocesses;;

�� 3) 3) expandingexpanding thethe productproduct systemsystem to to includeinclude thethe

additionaladditional functionsfunctions relatedrelated to to thethe coco--productsproducts

LCILCI:: allocationallocation

�� Suggestions 2) Suggestions 2) andand 3) 3) implyimply splittingsplitting thethe processprocess

in in suchsuch a a wayway thatthat itit cancan bebe describeddescribed as as twotwo (or (or

more) more) separateseparate processesprocesses, , eacheach withwith a single a single

output. output.

�� OftenOften thisthis isis notnot possiblepossible, for , for exampleexample woodenwooden

planksplanks andand sawsaw dustdust are are bothboth economiceconomic outputs outputs

ofof a a sawsaw millmill, but , but oneone cannotcannot splitsplit thethe sawingsawing

processprocess intointo a part a part thatthat isis responsibleresponsible for for thethe

sawsaw dustdust andand oneone thatthat isis responsibleresponsible for for thethe

planksplanks..

LCILCI: allocationallocation

If allocation If allocation isis notnot posibleposible ISO 14040ISO 14040 suggestssuggests::

�� 1) Partition inputs 1) Partition inputs andand outputs outputs ofof thethe systemsystembetweenbetween itsits differentdifferent productsproducts or or functionsfunctions in a in a wayway whichwhich reflectsreflects thethe underlyingunderlying physicalphysicalrelationshipsrelationships betweenbetween themthem suchsuch as as massmass or or energyenergy content content ofof thethe outputs. outputs.

�� For For exampleexample if if sawdustsawdust representsrepresents 40% 40% ofof thethemassmass, , oneone cancan allocateallocate 40% 40% ofof thethe environmentalenvironmentalloadload to to sawdustsawdust. In . In thethe case case ofof allocatingallocating steamsteam, , wewe believebelieve thethe massmass ofof thethe steamsteam isis notnot a a veryveryrelevant basis.relevant basis.

LCILCI:: allocationallocation

�� 2) Partition input 2) Partition input andand output data output data betweenbetween coco--productsproducts in proportion to in proportion to thethe economiceconomic valuevalue ofofthethe productsproducts: if : if thethe sawsaw dustdust representsrepresents 20% 20% ofofthethe value value generatedgenerated by by thethe sawsaw millmill oneone cancanallocateallocate 20% 20% ofof thethe environmentalenvironmental loadload to to thisthisoutput.output.

�� AlthoughAlthough ISO mentions ISO mentions thethe sociosocio--economiceconomicbasis as a basis as a lastlast resortresort, , itit isis usedused veryvery oftenoften. . TheTheadvantageadvantage isis thatthat economiceconomic value value isis a a goodgood waywayto to distinguishdistinguish wastewaste fromfrom an output, an output, andand ititexpresses expresses thethe relative importance relative importance ofof an output.an output.

LCILCI:: recyclingrecycling

�� FurtherFurther issues arise if issues arise if reusereuse or or recyclingrecycling ofof thethe productproductoccursoccurs. . TheThe inputs inputs andand outputs outputs willwill have to have to bebe sharedshared by by otherother productproduct systemssystems andand care must care must bebe takentaken to if to if thethephysicalphysical propertiesproperties ofof recycledrecycled materialsmaterials are are changedchanged. .

�� ClosedClosed looploop: : systemssystems wherewhere thethe recoveredrecovered materialsmaterials are are usedused in in thethe samesame application as application as theythey werewere usedusedoriginallyoriginally. An . An exampleexample isis thethe aluminium aluminium cancan recyclingrecyclingsystemsystem. .

�� Open Open looploop: : WhenWhen thethe recoveredrecovered materialsmaterials are are usedused for for otherother applications applications thanthan thethe original, as in original, as in e.g.e.g. paperpaper or or plastics plastics recyclingrecycling systemssystems. .

LCIA: LCIA: Life Cycle Impact AssessmentLife Cycle Impact Assessment

�� LCIA is the third phase of an LCA: aims to evaluate the LCIA is the third phase of an LCA: aims to evaluate the

significance of potential environmental impactssignificance of potential environmental impacts based on based on

the results of the LCI phase. the results of the LCI phase.

�� ISO 14040 standard LCA divides into the following steps: ISO 14040 standard LCA divides into the following steps:

Mandatory elementsMandatory elements

�� 1)1) SelectionSelection of impact categories, category indicators of impact categories, category indicators

and characterization models.and characterization models.

�� 2)2) ClassificationClassification, i.e. assignment of individual inventory , i.e. assignment of individual inventory

results to impact categories, e.g. COresults to impact categories, e.g. CO22 is assigned to is assigned to

Global Warming. Global Warming.

�� In practice 1) In practice 1) andand 2) are 2) are shapedshaped by by thethe choicechoice ofof impact impact

assessmentassessment methodmethod

LCIA: LCIA: Life Cycle Impact AssessmentLife Cycle Impact Assessment

�� 3) 3) CharacterisationCharacterisation, i.e. conversion of LCI results to , i.e. conversion of LCI results to

common units within each impact category, so that results common units within each impact category, so that results

can be aggregated into category indicator results.can be aggregated into category indicator results.

�� In practice this calculation is performed by multiplying the In practice this calculation is performed by multiplying the

LCILCI--results with results with characterisationcharacterisation factors, factors, provided by the provided by the

impact assessment method: equivalence factors based on impact assessment method: equivalence factors based on

scientific conclusions of how large the impact on the scientific conclusions of how large the impact on the

category indicator is from a certain substance. category indicator is from a certain substance.

�� The result when these three steps have been performed is The result when these three steps have been performed is

a Life Cycle Impact assessment (LCIA) a Life Cycle Impact assessment (LCIA) profileprofile, i.e. , i.e.

measures of how largemeasures of how large the environmental impact from the the environmental impact from the

process system is on each impact category or category process system is on each impact category or category

indicator results.indicator results.

Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)

Optional elementsOptional elements:

�� NormalisationNormalisation. The magnitude of the category indicator . The magnitude of the category indicator results is calculated relatively to reference information. results is calculated relatively to reference information. Provides a basis for comparing different types of Provides a basis for comparing different types of environmental impact categoriesenvironmental impact categories

�� WeightingWeighting. Indicator results coming from the different . Indicator results coming from the different impact categories are converted to a common unit by impact categories are converted to a common unit by using factors based on subjective valueusing factors based on subjective value--choices. choices. Weighting implies assigning a weighting factor to each Weighting implies assigning a weighting factor to each impact category depending on the relative importance. impact category depending on the relative importance.

�� GroupingGrouping. The impact categories are assigned into one . The impact categories are assigned into one or more groups sorted after geographic relevance, or more groups sorted after geographic relevance, company priorities etc.company priorities etc.

�� Data quality analysisData quality analysis, i.e. identify significant contributors , i.e. identify significant contributors and major uncertainty and sensitivity.and major uncertainty and sensitivity.

LCIA: classificationLCIA: classification

Impact Impact categorycategory Incandescent Incandescent lamplamp Fluorescent Fluorescent lamplamp

ClimateClimate changechange

COCO2 2 to air to air 800000 kg 800000 kg 50000 50000 kgkg

CHCH4 4 to air to air 230 kg 230 kg 24 24 kgkg

EcotoxicityEcotoxicity

CuCu to to waterwater 3 g 3 g 20 g20 g

SomeSome substances substances willwill contributecontribute to to oneone exclusiveexclusive impact impact

categorycategory whilewhile othersothers mightmight contributecontribute to to twotwo or moreor more

LCIA: LCIA: characterisationcharacterisation

CharacterisationCharacterisation isis thethe calculationcalculation ofof categorycategory indicatorindicator resultsresults

�� Impact category: Impact category: COCO2 2 and CHand CH4 4 both contribute to climate both contribute to climate changechange

�� Characterisation Characterisation factor: factor: Global Warming PotentialGlobal Warming Potential (GWP) is a (GWP) is a measure for climate change in terms of irradiative forcing of a measure for climate change in terms of irradiative forcing of a massmass--unit of greenhouse gas.unit of greenhouse gas.

�� Example calculation: Example calculation:

�� –– 5 kg CO5 kg CO22 GWP = 1GWP = 1 category indicatorcategory indicator

�� –– 3 kg CH3 kg CH44 GWP = 21GWP = 21

�� –– 1 x 5 + 21 x 3 = 681 x 5 + 21 x 3 = 68

�� –– 68 kg CO68 kg CO22--eqeq category indicator resultcategory indicator result

LCIA: LCIA: characterisationcharacterisation

�� TwoTwo main groups main groups ofof choicechoice for for indicatorsindicators

�� MidMid--pointpoint--orientedoriented place place indicatorsindicators relativelyrelatively close to close to thetheinterventions: CMLinterventions: CML--IA, EDIP, TRACI, IA, EDIP, TRACI, ……

Have Have thethe advantageadvantage ofof relyingrelying primarilyprimarily on on scientificscientific information information andandwellwell--provenproven factsfacts: acidification, : acidification, eutrophicationeutrophication, global , global warmingwarming, , ozone ozone depletiondepletion etcetc

TheThe amountamount ofof subjectivitysubjectivity andand uncertaintyuncertainty involvedinvolved isis limitedlimited..

EndEnd--pointpoint--orientedoriented place place indicatorsindicators relativelyrelatively close to close to thethe endpointsendpoints: : EcoEco--indicatorindicator 99, 99, EcoEco--scarcityscarcity, EPS, , EPS, ……

Have Have thethe advantageadvantage ofof presentingpresenting information in an information in an appealingappealing andandunderstandableunderstandable wayway: : humanhuman healthhealth isis easiereasier to to interpretinterpret andandcommunicatecommunicate thanthan ozone layer ozone layer depletiondepletion

�� Efforts to combine/Efforts to combine/harmonizeharmonize midpointmidpoint andand endpointendpoint: : examplesexamples: : Impact 2002+, Impact 2002+, RecipeRecipe, ..., ...

LCIALCIA: EcoindicatorEcoindicator 9999

Developed in 1999 by the Developed in 1999 by the

PRPRééconsultancyconsultancy firm and firm and

commissioned by the Dutch commissioned by the Dutch

Environment Ministry), is Environment Ministry), is

one of the most one of the most popularpopular in in

EuropeEurope. http://simapro.rmit.edu.au/LIT/L

CA/EI99_METHODOLOGY_V2

.PDF

This is an endpoint This is an endpoint

method that aggregates method that aggregates

into a into a single score (Pt) single score (Pt) the the

results of three categories results of three categories

of damage, which are in of damage, which are in

turn divided into 11 impact turn divided into 11 impact

categories.categories.

LCIALCIA: TheThe principleprinciple ofof characterisationcharacterisation

Structure Structure ofof endpointendpoint--orientedoriented modelmodel

((EcoEco--indicatorindicator 99)99)

ModellingModelling ofof

cause cause andand

effecteffect chainchain,,

usingusing naturalnatural

sciencessciences

DamageDamage to:to:

resourcesresources

EcosystemEcosystem qualityquality

HumanHuman healthhealth

EvaluationEvaluation ofof

severityseverity ofof

damagesdamages

IndicatorIndicator

InventoryInventory tabletable

--ResourceResource

useuse

--Land useLand use

--EmissionsEmissions

LCIA: impact LCIA: impact categoriescategories andand indicatorsindicators

Impact Impact categorycategory

�� ISO 14040 ISO 14040 definitiondefinition: class : class representingrepresentingenvironmentalenvironmental issues issues ofof concernconcern to to whichwhich LCI LCI resultsresults maymay bebe assignedassigned:: climateclimate change, change, acidificationacidification

CategoryCategory indicatorindicator::

�� ISO 14040 ISO 14040 definitiondefinition: quantifiable : quantifiable representationrepresentationofof an impact an impact categorycategory: : infraredinfrared radiative forcing, radiative forcing, proton releaseproton release

LCIA: LCIA: characterisationcharacterisation modelsmodels

CharacterisationCharacterisation factorfactor::

--ISO 14040 ISO 14040 definitiondefinition: a : a factorfactor derivedderived fromfrom a a characterisationcharacterisation

modelmodel whichwhich isis appliedapplied to to convertconvert thethe assignedassigned LCI LCI resultsresults to to

thethe commoncommon unit unit ofof thethe categorycategory indicatorindicator..

--ExamplesExamples: Global : Global warmingwarming potentialpotential (GWP), Acidification (GWP), Acidification

potentialpotential (AP)(AP)

ProvidesProvides thethe basis for a basis for a characterisationcharacterisation factorfactor

CharacterisationCharacterisation modelmodel::

--nonnon--ISOISO definitiondefinition: : mathematicalmathematical modelmodel ofof thethe impact impact ofof

elementaryelementary flowsflows withwith respect to a respect to a particularparticular categorycategory indicatorindicator

--ExamplesExamples: IPCC : IPCC modelmodel for for climateclimate change, RAINS change, RAINS modelmodel for for

acidifyingacidifying substancessubstances

ExampleExample Impact Impact categoriescategories, , characterisationcharacterisation modelsmodels, , factorsfactors & & unitsunits

ImpactImpact

categorycategory

IndicatorIndicator CharacterisationCharacterisation

modelmodel

CharacterisationCharacterisation

factorfactor

EquivalencyEquivalency unitunit

AbioticAbiotic

depletiondepletion

UltimateUltimate

reservereserve//

annualannual useuse

GuineeGuinee & & HeijungsHeijungs

9595AbioticAbiotic

depletiondepletion

potentialpotential

kg kg SbSb eqeq..

ClimateClimate

ChangeChange

InfraredInfrared

RadiativeRadiative

forcingforcing

IPCCIPCC GlobalGlobal

warmingwarming

potentialpotential

kg COkg CO2 2 eqeq..

StratosphericStratospheric

ozone ozone depletiondepletion


ozone ozone breakdownbreakdown

WorldWorld

MeteorologicalMeteorological

OrganisationOrganisation

modelmodel


ozone layerozone layer

depletiondepletion potentialpotential

kg CFCkg CFC--11eq11eq

HumanHuman toxicitytoxicity PredictedPredicted dailydaily intakeintake,,

AcceptedAccepted dailydaily intakeintake

EUSES, EUSES, CaliforniaCalifornia

ToxicologyToxicology ModelModel

HumanHuman toxicitytoxicity

potentialpotential

kg 1,4kg 1,4--DCB DCB eqeq

EcologicalEcological

toxicitytoxicity

PEC, PNECPEC, PNEC EUSES, EUSES, CaliforniaCalifornia

ToxicologyToxicology ModelModel

AETP, TETP, AETP, TETP, etcetc .kg 1,4.kg 1,4--DCB DCB eqeq..

PhotoPhoto--oxidantoxidant

smog formationsmog formation

TroposphericTropospheric

ozone productionozone production

UNUN--ECEECE

trajectorytrajectory modelmodel

PhotoPhoto--oxidantoxidant

chemicalchemical potentialpotential

kg Ckg C22HH6 6 eqeq..

AcidificationAcidification DepositionDeposition//

criticalcritical loadload

RegionalRegional

AcidificationAcidification

Information & Information &

SimulationSimulation

AcidificationAcidification

potentialpotential

kg SOkg SO2 2 eqeq..

LCIA: LCIA: weightingweighting

ISO 14040 ISO 14040 definitiondefinition: : isis thethe conversion conversion ofof thethe resultsresults ofof eacheach impact impact categorycategory to a comparable unit to a comparable unit withwith valuevalue--basedbased numericalnumerical factorsfactors or, or, simplysimply, , ““weightingweighting factorsfactors””..

�� A subjective A subjective andand quantitative quantitative prioritypriority isis givengiven ofof thethe relative relative severityseverityofof differentdifferent impact impact categoriescategories, , e.g.e.g. if if resourceresource depletiondepletion isis worseworsethanthan extinctextinct speciesspecies..

Basis for Basis for weightingweighting factorsfactors::

�� –– monetarymonetary valuesvalues

�� willingnesswillingness--toto--paypay

�� damage damage costscosts

�� reductionreduction costscosts

�� –– distancedistance--toto--targettarget methodsmethods

�� –– panel panel methodsmethods

�� expert panelsexpert panels

�� nonnon--expertexpert panelspanels


SomeSome methodsmethods thatthat includeinclude weightingweighting

�� –– ecopointsecopoints / / ecoscarcityecoscarcity

�� –– EcoEco--indicatorindicator 9999

�� –– EPSEPS

Unit Unit ofof weightedweighted index:index:

–– yearyear ((whenwhen basedbased on on normalizednormalized resultsresults))

–– euro, dollar, etc. (euro, dollar, etc. (whenwhen basedbased on on monetarymonetary valuationvaluation))

–– but but oftenoften renamedrenamed: : ecopointsecopoints, , millipointsmillipoints, ELU, etc., ELU, etc.

Formula:Formula:

WeightedIndexWeightedIndex = = ΣΣ WeightingFactWeightingFactcatcat x x IndicatorResultIndicatorResultcatcat

catcat

oror

WeightedIndexWeightedIndex = = ΣΣ WeightingFactWeightingFactcatcatxNormalizedIndicatorResultxNormalizedIndicatorResultcatcat

catcat


TheThe weightingweighting factorsfactors ofof EcoIndicatorEcoIndicator ’’9999 are are basedbased on on decisionsdecisions fromfrom an expert panel. an expert panel. InsteadInstead ofof displayingdisplaying thetheresultsresults as:as:

�� 3.5 MJ 3.5 MJ depleteddepleted resourcesresources

�� 20 PDF*m2*20 PDF*m2*yryr potentiallypotentially disappeareddisappeared fraction fraction ofof speciesspecies

�� 15 15 personperson**yearsyears ofof disabilitydisability for for humanhuman beingsbeings

TheseThese impact impact categoriescategories are are weightedweighted comparedcompared to to eacheachotherother. . TheThe Eco Eco IndicatorIndicator ’’99 99 hashas thethe followingfollowing prioritypriority::

Impact Impact CategoryCategory WeightingWeighting factorfactor UnitUnit

�� HumanHuman HealthHealth 400 400 ECO 99 unit/DALYECO 99 unit/DALY

�� EcosystemEcosystem QualityQuality 400 400 ECO 99 unit/PDF m2 ECO 99 unit/PDF m2 yryr

�� ResourcesResources 200 200 ECO 99 unit/MJECO 99 unit/MJ


UsingUsing thesethese weightingweighting factorsfactors::

�� ResourceResource depletiondepletion stands for 3.5 x 200 = 700 ECO 99 stands for 3.5 x 200 = 700 ECO 99 unitsunits

�� ExtinctExtinct speciesspecies 20 x 400 = 8 000 ECO 99 20 x 400 = 8 000 ECO 99 unitsunits

�� DisabilityDisability adjustedadjusted lifelife yearsyears 15 x 400 = 6 000 ECO 99 15 x 400 = 6 000 ECO 99 unitsunits

This This meansmeans in in thisthis case case thatthat resourceresource depletiondepletion isisviewedviewed as a as a minorminor problemproblem, , contributingcontributing withwith lessless thanthan5% 5% ofof thethe total total environmentalenvironmental impact.impact.

�� ItIt isis important to important to rememberremember thatthat thethe tradetrade--offsoffs betweenbetweenenvironmentalenvironmental impacts are impacts are alwaysalways subjectivesubjective. . AllAllweightingweighting methodsmethods andand operationsoperations usedused shallshall bebedocumenteddocumented to to provideprovide transparencytransparency..

LCIA: normalisationLCIA: normalisation

NormalisationNormalisation is needed becauseis needed because ooften impact category ften impact category results are still results are still difficult to understanddifficult to understand::

�� difference in units and in in scaledifference in units and in in scale

�� relates the results to a reference value, for example, total relates the results to a reference value, for example, total world impacts in 2009world impacts in 2009

�� result is often referred to as the result is often referred to as the normalisednormalisedenvironmental profileenvironmental profile

Formula:Formula:

NormalisedIndicatorResultNormalisedIndicatorResultcatcat == IndicatorResultIndicatorResultcatcat/ / ReferenceValueReferenceValuecatcat

Unit Unit ofof normalisation normalisation resultresult: : yearyear

LCIA: normalisationLCIA: normalisation

ISO 14040 ISO 14040 definitiondefinition: : calculationcalculation ofof thethe magnitude magnitude ofofcategorycategory indicatorindicator resultsresults in relation to in relation to referencereferenceinformationinformation

ReferenceReference informationinformation ((overover a a givengiven periodperiod ofof timetime):):

�� area (area (e.g.e.g., global, , global, regionalregional, national, local), national, local)

�� personperson ((e.g.e.g., a , a citizencitizen ofof a a particularparticular country)country)

�� productproduct ((e.g.e.g., , thethe mostmost frequentlyfrequently usedused productproduct))

AimAim: to : to betterbetter understandunderstand thethe relative magnitude for relative magnitude for eacheach indicatorindicator resultsresults ofof thethe productproduct systemsystem underunder studystudy

�� checkingchecking for for inconsistenciesinconsistencies

�� providingproviding andand communicatingcommunicating information on information on thethe relative relative significancesignificance ofof thethe indicatorindicator resultsresults


Even after Even after normalisationnormalisation, there is , there is no clear answerno clear answer for the for the

entity of impactsentity of impacts

–– aggregationaggregation of (normalized) impact category results into a of (normalized) impact category results into a

single indexsingle index

–– subjective weighting factorssubjective weighting factors increase the priority given to increase the priority given to

impact categories we think are important, and decrease the impact categories we think are important, and decrease the

priority given to those we think are unimportantpriority given to those we think are unimportant

LCIA: LCIA: groupinggrouping

ISO 14040 ISO 14040 definitiondefinition: : assigningassigning impact impact

categoriescategories intointo oneone or more setsor more sets

�� GroupingGrouping isis thethe assignmentassignment ofof impact impact categoriescategories

intointo differentdifferent groups on a nominal basis, groups on a nominal basis, e.g.e.g. use use

ofof resourcesresources andand emissionsemissions or global or global regionalregional

andand local spatial local spatial scalesscales..

�� This This elementelement containscontains alsoalso thethe rankingranking ofof impact impact

categoriescategories in a in a givengiven hierarchyhierarchy, , e.g.e.g. highhigh, ,

medium medium andand lowlow prioritypriority, , basedbased on value on value choiceschoices

Example of an environmental profileExample of an environmental profile

This is a simple example of the results of a comparison of two pThis is a simple example of the results of a comparison of two products roducts

showing that the final result is very often not straightforward:showing that the final result is very often not straightforward: for some for some

impact indicators product A is better (land impact indicators product A is better (land ecotoxicityecotoxicity, acidification, , acidification,

nitrification, photochemical oxidant formation) while for the onitrification, photochemical oxidant formation) while for the others the better thers the better

results are obtained by product Bresults are obtained by product B

LCIA: limitationsLCIA: limitations

�� There are no There are no generally accepted methodologiesgenerally accepted methodologies for for

consistently and accurately associating inventory data consistently and accurately associating inventory data

with specific potential environmental impacts. Models for with specific potential environmental impacts. Models for

impact categories are in different stages of development impact categories are in different stages of development

�� Issues such as Issues such as valuevalue--choices choices for modeling and for modeling and

evaluation of impact categories, evaluation of impact categories, normalisationnormalisation, grouping , grouping

and weighting can introduce subjectivity in the LCIA.and weighting can introduce subjectivity in the LCIA.

�� Therefore, Therefore, transparencytransparency is critical to impact assessment is critical to impact assessment

to ensure that assumptions are clearly described and to ensure that assumptions are clearly described and

reported.reported.

�� LCIA LCIA combinescombines emissions or activities over space and/or emissions or activities over space and/or

time and this may diminish the environmental relevance time and this may diminish the environmental relevance

of the indicator resultof the indicator result

LCIA: limitationsLCIA: limitations

�� The The relevance relevance of the impact assessment is also limited of the impact assessment is also limited

by lack of scientific knowledge and data gapsby lack of scientific knowledge and data gaps

�� Since the model used in the LCIA phase, implies an Since the model used in the LCIA phase, implies an

environmental mechanism there can be environmental mechanism there can be more than one more than one

impactimpact for a single emission. For example, an emission for a single emission. For example, an emission

of SOof SO22 could result in an increased acidity. Increased could result in an increased acidity. Increased

acidity can cause changes in the soil that result in dying acidity can cause changes in the soil that result in dying

trees, etc. trees, etc.

�� The impact assessment may include the iterative The impact assessment may include the iterative

process of process of reviewing the goal and scopereviewing the goal and scope of the LCA of the LCA

study to determine if the objectives of the study have study to determine if the objectives of the study have

been metbeen met

LifeLife cyclecycle InterpretationInterpretation

TheThe ffourthourth phase of an LCA, phase of an LCA, isis a a systematicsystematic procedureprocedure to to identifyidentify, , qualifyqualify, , checkcheck andand evaluateevaluate thethe resultsresults fromfrom thethethreethree previousprevious phases phases in order to draw up transparent in order to draw up transparent and documented and documented analyses, analyses, conclusions and conclusions and recommendationsrecommendations

�� Key Key elementselements in in thethe interpretationinterpretation::

�� 1) 1) identificationidentification ofof thethe significantsignificant issues issues basedbased on on thetheresultsresults ofof thethe LCI LCI andand LCIA phases. This LCIA phases. This isis performedperformed by by identifyingidentifying andand structuringstructuring information information andand determiningdeterminingthethe significantsignificant issues.issues.

�� 2) 2) evaluationevaluation wherewhere differentdifferent checkschecks are are performedperformed withwithregard to regard to completenesscompleteness, , sensitivitysensitivity, , consistencyconsistency, , andandotherother issues.issues.

�� 3) 3) conclusionsconclusions, , recommendationsrecommendations andand reportingreporting

LifeLife cyclecycle InterpretationInterpretation

�� The interpretation phase should deliver results that are The interpretation phase should deliver results that are consistent with the defined goal and scope, reach consistent with the defined goal and scope, reach conclusionsconclusions, explain , explain limitations limitations and provide and provide recommendationsrecommendations

�� Interpretation should be based on an Interpretation should be based on an evaluation of dataevaluation of dataquality and sensitivity analysis.quality and sensitivity analysis.

�� The interpretation should reflect the fact that the LCIA The interpretation should reflect the fact that the LCIA results are based on a results are based on a relative approachrelative approach, which indicates , which indicates potential environmental effects and that potential environmental effects and that does not predictdoes not predictactual impacts on category endpoints, the surplus of actual impacts on category endpoints, the surplus of thresholds or safety margins or risks.thresholds or safety margins or risks.

�� The findings of this interpretation may take the form of The findings of this interpretation may take the form of conclusions and recommendations to conclusions and recommendations to decision makersdecision makers..

�� A critical review by A critical review by independent expertsindependent experts is important.is important.

LifeLife cycle cycle InterpretationInterpretation

�� ObjectiveObjective: to : to establishestablish en en enhanceenhance thethe confidence in confidence in andandthethe reliabilityreliability ofof thethe resultsresults::

�� –– completenesscompleteness checkcheck

�� to to ensureensure thatthat allall relevant information relevant information andand data are data are availableavailable andand completecomplete

�� –– sensitivitysensitivity checkcheck

�� to to assessassess thethe reliabilityreliability ofof thethe final final resultsresults andandconclusionsconclusions

�� –– consistencyconsistency checkcheck

�� to to determinedetermine whetherwhether thethe assumptionsassumptions, , methodsmethods andanddata are consistent data are consistent withwith thethe goal goal andand scopescope


�� TheThe significantsignificant issuesissues shouldshould bebe determineddetermined in in accordance accordance withwith thethe goal goal andand scope scope definitiondefinition andandinteractivelyinteractively withwith thethe evaluationevaluation. .

�� TheThe interaction interaction willwill assure assure awarenessawareness ofof assumptionsassumptions, , allocations, allocations, cutcut--offsoffs, , selectionsselections andand otherother decisionsdecisions takentakenin in thethe studystudy..

�� AllAll resultsresults fromfrom thethe previousprevious stages stages shallshall bebe gatheredgathered andandconsolidatedconsolidated. . TheyThey maymay bebe on on thethe formform ofof data data listslists, , tables, bar tables, bar diagramsdiagrams or or otherother appropriateappropriate formsforms. .

�� TheThe identifiedidentified significantsignificant issues issues cancan bebe::

InventoryInventory datadata

EnergyEnergy consumptionconsumption

EmissionsEmissions to air to air

EmissionsEmissions to to waterwater

Impact Impact categoriescategories typestypes

ResourceResource use use

Global Global warmingwarming potentialpotential

EutrophicationEutrophication

LifeLife cycle stagescycle stages

RawRaw materialmaterial extractionextraction

ProductionProduction

TransportationTransportation


�� Important Important elementselements::

–– transparent transparent reportingreporting

�� allall ISO aspects (phases, ISO aspects (phases, stepssteps, data, , data, assumptionassumption, ,

choiceschoices) ) cancan bebe easilyeasily foundfound

�� howhow to report to report resultsresults

–– criticalcritical reviewreview

�� rolerole andand exact exact formform dependentdependent on goal on goal ofof thethe studystudy

�� SeveralSeveral classifications classifications ofof uncertaintyuncertainty::

–– uncertaintyuncertainty andand variabilityvariability

–– reliabilityreliability andand validityvalidity

–– modelmodel andand parameterparameter uncertaintyuncertainty

Life cycle assessment process:

LCA ApplicationsLCA Applications

�� For product For product comparisonscomparisons and product selections.and product selections.

�� To To identify identify processes, materials, and systems that are processes, materials, and systems that are major contributors to environmental impactsmajor contributors to environmental impacts

�� Support Support sustainability decisionsustainability decision--makingmaking both at macro and both at macro and micro economy levelmicro economy level

�� To develop and To develop and utiliseutilise green green products/services and products/services and cleaner technologies cleaner technologies

�� LCA can be integrated in the LCA can be integrated in the environmental managementenvironmental managementsystems as a basis to establish targets and priorities and systems as a basis to establish targets and priorities and to facilitate conformity with future legislationto facilitate conformity with future legislation


�� Informing Informing decisiondecision--makersmakers in industry, governmental or in industry, governmental or

nonnon--governmental governmental organisationsorganisations (e.g. strategic planning, (e.g. strategic planning,

priority setting, product/process design or redesign)priority setting, product/process design or redesign)

�� Identification of opportunities for Identification of opportunities for improvementimprovement of the of the

environmental performanceenvironmental performance of a product or service and of a product or service and

the weak points (bottlenecks) in the production chain. the weak points (bottlenecks) in the production chain.

�� Compare Compare different options within a particular process different options within a particular process

with the objective of minimizing environmental impactswith the objective of minimizing environmental impacts

�� Selection of Selection of relevant indicatorsrelevant indicators of environmental of environmental

performance and adequate measurement performance and adequate measurement


�� LCA can be used to LCA can be used to evaluate waste managementevaluate waste management options options and strategies. The LCA analysis covers the and strategies. The LCA analysis covers the environmental and resource impacts of alternative environmental and resource impacts of alternative disposal processes, as well as other processes affected disposal processes, as well as other processes affected by disposal strategies such as different types of collection by disposal strategies such as different types of collection schemes for recyclables, changed transport patterns schemes for recyclables, changed transport patterns

�� The The waste hierarchywaste hierarchy of solid waste i.e. the preference of of solid waste i.e. the preference of recycling over incineration over recycling over incineration over landfillinglandfilling is often taken as is often taken as a rule of thumb (difference between incineration, a rule of thumb (difference between incineration, composting and anaerobic digestion is usually small). composting and anaerobic digestion is usually small).

�� However, by using life cycle assessment the However, by using life cycle assessment the validityvalidity of the of the waste hierarchy has been tested and proven to be waste hierarchy has been tested and proven to be dependent on assumptions and value choices dependent on assumptions and value choices

LifeLife cycle cycle ofof

Municipal Municipal

SolidSolid

WasteWaste (MSW)(MSW)

LCA & MSWLCA & MSW

�� Recycling Recycling raises a certain degree of difficulty into the raises a certain degree of difficulty into the calculations. calculations.

�� In the case of materials like In the case of materials like steel and aluminiumsteel and aluminium which which can technically be recycled an can technically be recycled an indefinite indefinite number of times number of times there is no longer a 'grave'. there is no longer a 'grave'.

�� And in the case of And in the case of paperpaper, which can theoretically be , which can theoretically be reprocessed four or five times before fibres are too short reprocessed four or five times before fibres are too short to have viable strength, should calculations assume that to have viable strength, should calculations assume that it will be it will be recycled four timesrecycled four times, or not? What return rates, , or not? What return rates, for example, should be assumed for factoryfor example, should be assumed for factory--refillable refillable containers?containers?

LCA & MSWLCA & MSW

For both refillable containers and materials sent for For both refillable containers and materials sent for

recycling, the recycling, the transport distance transport distance in each specific case is a in each specific case is a

major influence in the environmental impacts associated major influence in the environmental impacts associated

with the process.with the process.

An LCA which concludes that recycling of lowAn LCA which concludes that recycling of low--value value

renewable materials renewable materials in one city is environmentally in one city is environmentally

preferable may not hold good for a different, more remote preferable may not hold good for a different, more remote

city where reprocessing facilities incur large transport city where reprocessing facilities incur large transport

impacts.impacts.

LCA & LCA & IntegratedIntegrated ProductProduct PolicyPolicy

LifeLife--cycle thinking (LCTcycle thinking (LCT) constitutes the core of the EU ) constitutes the core of the EU

Integrated Product PolicyIntegrated Product Policy (IPP)(IPP): in fact, considering the : in fact, considering the

whole lifewhole life--cycle of a product should help to reduce the cycle of a product should help to reduce the

overall environmental impacts and avoid shifting them overall environmental impacts and avoid shifting them

from one part of the lifefrom one part of the life--cycle to another. cycle to another.

Tools of IPPTools of IPP

LCA provides guidance for LCA provides guidance for EcodesignEcodesign and for longand for long--term term

strategic planning concerning trends in product design strategic planning concerning trends in product design

and materials. and materials.

EcolabelsEcolabels (EU(EU--ecolabelecolabel, Environmental Product , Environmental Product

Declaration) Declaration) assignedassigned to ecoto eco--friendly products, allow friendly products, allow

companies to use LCA to increase their competitive companies to use LCA to increase their competitive

advantage and consumers to choose green products.advantage and consumers to choose green products.

LCA & LCA & IntegratedIntegrated ProductProduct PolicyPolicy

The public and the private sector use LCA as a tool for The public and the private sector use LCA as a tool for

greengreen procurement procurement (green purchasing) (green purchasing) decisions to decisions to

identify ecoidentify eco--friendly products and thus developing friendly products and thus developing

specifications and regulations.specifications and regulations.

The European Union has selected LCA method as one The European Union has selected LCA method as one

of the of the ““officialofficial”” methods for methods for environmental evaluationenvironmental evaluation

Also the European Also the European standardisationstandardisation organisationorganisation, , CENCEN, ,

has started a system where each new product standard has started a system where each new product standard

is attached with a temporary environmental annex in is attached with a temporary environmental annex in

which LCA is a central tool.which LCA is a central tool.

LCA & LCA & ecolabelecolabel

TypeType 11 EcolabelEcolabel (ISO 14024): (ISO 14024):

environmentalenvironmental performance performance labelslabels

Marketing opportunities for products, e.g. LCA data is required for eco-labeling, environmental product declaration (EPD), etc.

Type 2Type 2 Ecolabel (ISO 14021): Ecolabel (ISO 14021): SelfSelf--declaration, declaration,

egeg. recyclable symbol is not certified. recyclable symbol is not certified

Type 3 Type 3 (ISO 14025): EPD (ISO 14025): EPD EnvironmentalEnvironmental

ProductProduct DeclarationDeclaration egeg. . SwedishSwedish EPD EPD systemsystem, ,

providesprovides tradetrade transparencytransparency

Inventory

Establishing ecological criteria for the EU Establishing ecological criteria for the EU

EcolabelEcolabel

Decision making phases in ecolabel LCA phases in ecolabel

Preliminary phase (product

group selection)

Market study

Environmental impact

assessment

Proposed criteria

Communication to EU ecolabel

division

Inventory analysis

Goal definition

Impact assessment

Proposals for setting criteria

LCA LCA & & EPD: EPD: eoliceolic ((windwind) ) energyenergy

THE ROLE OF LIFE CYCLE THINKING (LCT)

Life Cycle thinking provides the conceptual framework to a stepwise approach for the implementation of environmental tools:

LCA methodology

environmental impact values

EMAS strategic targets EPD declarations

benchmarking EPD parameters

Environmental ReportingCSR reportingEcolabel

In recent years, a number of major companies have cited In recent years, a number of major companies have cited LCAsLCAs in their in their marketing and advertisingmarketing and advertising, to support claims , to support claims that their products are 'environmentally friendly' or even that their products are 'environmentally friendly' or even 'environmentally superior' to those of their competitors. 'environmentally superior' to those of their competitors.

Based on a survey of LCA practitioners carried out in 2008 Based on a survey of LCA practitioners carried out in 2008 most life cycle assessments are carried out with dedicated most life cycle assessments are carried out with dedicated software packagessoftware packages. .

58% of respondents used 58% of respondents used GaBiGaBi software, 31% used software, 31% used SimaProSimaPro and 11% a series of other tools. and 11% a series of other tools.

According to the same survey, LCA is mostly used to According to the same survey, LCA is mostly used to support support business strategybusiness strategy (18%) and (18%) and R&DR&D (18%), as input (18%), as input to product or process to product or process designdesign (15%), in (15%), in educationeducation (13%) (13%) and for and for labeling labeling or product declarations (11%).or product declarations (11%).

LCA DiffusionLCA Diffusion

LCA: LCA: InternationalInternational developmentdevelopment

��

SETAC (Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry) is the international scientific forum of LCA

ISO (International Standardisation Organisation). Has produced standards for LCA (ISO 14040-14044) that have increased the credibility of the LCA

UNEPUNEP (United Nations Environmental Programme). (United Nations Environmental Programme). Has Has

always promoted the development and application of always promoted the development and application of

the LCA, for example through the Life Cycle Initiativethe LCA, for example through the Life Cycle Initiative

EC (EuropeanCommission). stimulates the harmonisation of LCA through the "European Platform on LCA, which is part of the JRC in Ispra

The following international organizations play an important roleThe following international organizations play an important role in the in the

development and application of LCAdevelopment and application of LCA::

LCA Scientific Journals LCA Scientific Journals

��International Journal of Life Cycle AssessmentInternational Journal of Life Cycle Assessment

��Journal of Industrial EcologyJournal of Industrial Ecology

��Journal of Cleaner ProductionJournal of Cleaner Production

��Integrated Environmental Assessment and Integrated Environmental Assessment and

ManagementManagement

��Progress in Industrial EcologyProgress in Industrial Ecology

Relevant Relevant WebsitesWebsites

�� EU EU ecolabelecolabel: : http://http://europe.eu.inteurope.eu.int//commcomm//environmentenvironment//ecolabelecolabel

�� Website of the Ministry of EnvironmentWebsite of the Ministry of Environment: :

www.minambiente.itwww.minambiente.it//sitosito//ecolabel_ecoaudit.htmecolabel_ecoaudit.htm

�� APAT APAT ecolabelecolabel WebsiteWebsite: : www.apat.gov.itwww.apat.gov.it//certificazionicertificazioni/site//site/itit--

ITIT//ecolabelecolabel

�� ECEC--JRC: JRC: http://http://lca.jrc.ec.europa.eulca.jrc.ec.europa.eu//

�� EPD EPD WebsiteWebsite ((SwedischSwedisch EnvironmentalEnvironmental Management Management CouncilCouncil): ):

www.environdec.comwww.environdec.com

�� INTEND: INTEND: www.intendproject.netwww.intendproject.net

�� SETAC: SETAC: www.setac.orgwww.setac.org

�� UNEP: UNEP: www.uneptie.orgwww.uneptie.org/pc//pc/sustainsustain//lcinitiativelcinitiative//lci_program.htmlci_program.htm

�� UniversitUniversitàà ofof LeidenLeiden, CML: , CML: www.leidenuniv.nlwww.leidenuniv.nl//interfacinterfac//cmlcml//sspssp

�� PRPRéé Consultants (Consultants (SimaProSimaPro): ): www.pre.nlwww.pre.nl

LCA: LCA: toolstools andand supportsupport

DifferentDifferent support sources are support sources are classifiedclassified afterafter whichwhich

problemproblem theythey willwill help to help to solvesolve::

�� Information support: Information support: sources for data collectionsources for data collection -- design, design,

production and marketing departments, associationsproduction and marketing departments, associations

�� CompetenceCompetence support: support: supportsupport for performancefor performance ofof thethe

studystudy -- universitiesuniversities, networks, consultants, networks, consultants

�� SupportiveSupportive toolstools: : structure structure andand guidelinesguidelines for for thethe workwork ––

ISO standards, guidelines ISO standards, guidelines andand manualsmanuals

LCA: LCA: toolstools andand supportsupport

�� Impact Impact assessmentassessment methodsmethods: : readyready--made made methodsmethods for for

thethe impact impact assessmentassessment -- EcoEco--indicatorindicator ’’99, EDIP, CML 2 99, EDIP, CML 2

baselinebaseline methodmethod, EPS, , EPS, ScarcityScarcity

�� LCA softwareLCA software: : structure structure andand management management ofof thethe

informationinformation -- SimaProSimaPro, , EcoLabEcoLab, , GaBiGaBi, TEAM. , TEAM.

WWLCAW, WWLCAW, BoustedBousted modelmodel, MET , MET MatrixMatrix

�� LCI LCI databasesdatabases:: generalgeneral data data collectedcollected fromfrom differentdifferent

sourcessources -- EcoinventEcoinvent Data, IVAM, SPINE, Data, IVAM, SPINE, EuropeanEuropean

ELCD ELCD databasedatabase, LCA , LCA ResourcesResources DirectoryDirectory

LCA support: software LCA support: software systemssystems

ThereThere are are variousvarious LCA software LCA software productsproducts on on thethe marketmarketfromfrom differentdifferent supplierssuppliers::

�� 1) 1) SytemsSytems thatthat cancan simulatesimulate onlyonly thethe LCILCI phase: phase: BoustedBoustedmodelmodel

�� 2) 2) SystemsSystems thatthat allowallow developingdeveloping the Impact the Impact assessmentassessmentphasephase ((LCIALCIA): ): EPSEPS MethodMethod, , DelphicDelphic System, MET System, MET MatrixMatrix..

�� 3) 3) SystemsSystems thatthat allowallow a a simulationsimulation of of allall the LCA the LCA phasesphasesforfor productsproducts and and servicesservices: : SimaProSimaPro, , EcoLabEcoLab, , GaBiGaBi, , TEAMTEAM, , WWLCAWWWLCAW

The The BousteadBoustead Model: structureModel: structure

Table 1. Typical input table for 1 kg of hypothetical product X.

Database Code Name Quantity Units

Air emission 1 Dust (process) 55.0 mg

Water emission 7 Nitrate (process) 60.0 mg

Raw material 3 Bauxite 5.5 kg

Solid waste 13 Slags & ash (process) 1.4 kg

EU solid waste 173 061399 Unspecified

inorganic proc. waste 1.4 kg

Fuel prod'n 19697 Electricity use — S 3.7 MJ

Mat. proc. 3682 Calcium oxide 1.1 kg

The behaviour of an industrial process is modelled by constructing an input

table that lists all of the other unit operations linked to the required process.

The The BousteadBoustead ModelModel

Input table for product X

Flow chart for product X

The The BousteadBoustead ModelModel

LCA LCA DatabasesDatabases

�� EcoinventEcoinvent DataData: : containscontains about 2500 items about 2500 items -- TheThe SwissSwiss Centre for Centre for LifeLife Cycle Inventories Cycle Inventories underunder thethe leadership leadership ofof EMPA, have EMPA, have combinedcombined andand extendedextended differentdifferent SwissSwiss LCI LCI databasesdatabases in in thetheEcoinventEcoinvent 2000 2000 projectproject. . TheThe sets sets ofof LCI data LCI data includeinclude thethe areas areas ofofenergyenergy, transportation, , transportation, wastewaste disposaldisposal, construction, , construction, chemicalschemicals, , detergentsdetergents, , paperspapers andand agriculture, agriculture, whichwhich isis validvalid for for SwissSwiss andandWestern Western EuropeanEuropean conditions.conditions.

�� IVAM LCA DataIVAM LCA Data: : containscontains 1350 items 1350 items andand consistsconsists ofof about 1350 about 1350 processesprocesses, , leadingleading to more to more thanthan 350 350 materialsmaterials. . TheThe databasedatabase isismaintainedmaintained by IVAM by IVAM whichwhich isis thethe environmentalenvironmental researchresearch, training , training andand consultancyconsultancy firmfirm ofof thethe UniversiteitUniversiteit van Amsterdam, in van Amsterdam, in environmentalenvironmental aspects aspects ofof materialsmaterials..

�� SPINE@CPMSPINE@CPM: contains about 500 items: contains about 500 items-- It is the Swedish national It is the Swedish national LCI database that includes information about energy, transportatLCI database that includes information about energy, transportation, ion, materials, and is quality reviewed. The database is maintained bmaterials, and is quality reviewed. The database is maintained by y the Centre for Environmental Assessment of Product and Material the Centre for Environmental Assessment of Product and Material Systems (CPM) at Chalmers University of Technology.Systems (CPM) at Chalmers University of Technology.


�� The The European Platform on Life Cycle Assessment European Platform on Life Cycle Assessment has the has the

purpose of supporting business and public authorities towards purpose of supporting business and public authorities towards

sustainable production and consumption. sustainable production and consumption. http://http://lct.jrc.ec.europa.eulct.jrc.ec.europa.eu//

�� Platform DeliverablesPlatform Deliverables

International Reference Life Cycle Data System International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD): consists of (ILCD): consists of

a series of detailed technical guidance documents on life cycle a series of detailed technical guidance documents on life cycle

methods, data and assessments to support consistency and qualitymethods, data and assessments to support consistency and quality

assurance. assurance.

Based on the requirements of the Based on the requirements of the

ILCD Handbook and the ISO 14040 ILCD Handbook and the ISO 14040

series, will provide consistent and series, will provide consistent and

quality assured data on resource quality assured data on resource

consumption and emissions consumption and emissions

Stakeholders worldwide can Stakeholders worldwide can

provide their data to this provide their data to this

decentraliseddecentralised network, on their network, on their

own terms and conditions, e.g. own terms and conditions, e.g.

for free or for a feefor free or for a fee


European Reference Life Cycle Database European Reference Life Cycle Database (ELCD): provides (ELCD): provides

reference LCI data on emissions and resources used for selected reference LCI data on emissions and resources used for selected

materials, energy carriers, transport and waste management. Thesmaterials, energy carriers, transport and waste management. These e

data are representative of the European market and are regularlydata are representative of the European market and are regularly

needed to conduct needed to conduct LCAsLCAs. As far as possible, the data are provided . As far as possible, the data are provided

or approved by European business associations.or approved by European business associations.

LCA Resources Directory: LCA Resources Directory: eases the access to information, eases the access to information,

including tools, databases, and service providers in the LCA areincluding tools, databases, and service providers in the LCA area on a on

a global basis, that can be used for an LCA analysisa global basis, that can be used for an LCA analysis

LCT Forum Mailing List: LCT Forum Mailing List: discussion forum that facilitates knowledge discussion forum that facilitates knowledge

exchange. It is open to all to ask technical questions on LCA anexchange. It is open to all to ask technical questions on LCA and d

related applications like Ecorelated applications like Eco--Design, EcoDesign, Eco--Labels, Carbon Footprints, Labels, Carbon Footprints,

and to announce LCA conferences and open positions.and to announce LCA conferences and open positions.

LCA STUDIES

LCA STUDIES

LCA STUDIES

LCA STUDIES

LCA STUDIES

LCA STUDIES

LCA STUDIES

National

Data

Base

National

Data

Base

National

Data

Base

LCA data

LCA data

LCA data EuropeanLCI

Data Base

Model for the creation of a European LCA data Base

IPPProcedurefor singleproducts

LCA STUDIES

LCA STUDIES

Find out what guidelines should be given to designers of coffee machines.

For instance, should they focus on material selection or energy efficiency in

the use phase? Is the consumption of paper filters important?

The environmental impacts of two coffee machines are compared . The two

models have the following specifications:

LCA exercise N°1

Coffee machine Model Sima Model Pro

Main material for

housing

Plastic Aluminium

System for keeping

coffee warm

Hotplate Thermos Jug

Perform an LCA of a simple wooden shed, to be used in a private

garden. The shed is made of just two materials: wood and some steel

for the nails and other metal parts.

There is no packaging. We also assume there is no wood

preservation or paint, there are no windows, no doors and there is no

heating or lighting. The data used for this LCA are not the best and

most representative available, and by no means complete.

LCA exercise N°2

introduction to life cycle assessment: an instrument for ... · iso 14044:2006 , environmental...

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