introduction to the study of human technology interaction · kasparov comments the loss to deep...

1

Introduction to the study ofHuman Technology Interaction

(plus some basic cognitive)

Cato A. BjørkliClinical Psychogist & PhD

Human Technology Interaction Introduction Plus 06 01 25 Cato A Bjørkli

Aim of this lecture(Or: what you should know after this)

1. Refresh the basics of cognitive psychology

2. Recognize typical cognitive models and their rationale

3. Know the main features of the development of man machinestudies

4. Know the differences of the various approaches to humanperformance

5. Be able to exemplify various approaches to man machineinteraction.

6. Ask some interesting questions at the end of the lecture.


Basis for this lecture(Or: The things you might have read)

• Flach (2000?) Human Capacity

• Reason (1999) Human Error

• Hirose (2000?) Embodied Approach

• Grunnfag Psyk-bøker ...

2


…Science …

Basic:The search of knowledge

Applied:To solve practical problems

Cognitive Psychology Human Factors & HTI

14.15 to 15.00 15.15 to 16.00


1872

1886

1894

1911

1913

1925

1942

1948

1952

1956

1957

1959


Core features of cognitive science

-Representations

-Computers

-Downplay of culture, affect, context

-Interdisciplinary studies

-Philosophical Issues

3


The human behavior pattern,whether individual or social,

is to be explained byreference to an abstract

structure, preferably logicalor mathematical in nature.

(a core axiom of structuralism)


Representations

: re-presentation :

stands for some thingin the absence of that thing

CHOMSKY, 1959:1. The mind is cognitive2. The mind has modules3. The mind is prepared

for language


Representations

Language Learning & Aquisition

1) Symbolic2) Rule-based3) Generative

External

Modal Linguistic

VisionHearingetc

4


Representations

External

Modal LinguisticInternal

Analogical Propositional


Representations

External




Diversity of languagesis not a diversity of sounds,

but of ways of looking atthe world

Karl Kerenyi

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Edvart Sapir (1884-1939) Anthropologist (student of Franz Boas)Benjamin L. Whorf (1897-1941) Linguist (student of Sapir)

We dissect nature along lines laid

down by our native languages

B.L.Whorf

The coherent and systematic nature of language interacts

and constrains thought and behaviorE.Sapir

Weak andstrong version

5


Think of nothing.Think of something that has no concept.

Think of something that cannot be said.

Modal Linguistic



Thinking may be considered the internal languageof the mind ,-

Passer & Smith (2004) p.289


Thinking : Basic structure and content

6


Internal representation

Analogical*Images with some structuralsimilarity to the represented

Propositional*Orderly strings of

concepts (and images)

Concept*Units of essential semantic content

Propotypes*Most typical andfamiliar features

of a category

vision

auditory

olifactory

modallinguistic

Central to the study of thinking is to investigate how humans structure

their perception of the world

The language of cognitivism is based on logics

1) Symbolic2) Rule-based3) Generative


`The hand holds the hammer`

Analogue Propositional


Thinking : The dynamics of representations

7


(thinking is more than representations)

: Reasoning : the capacity of inference

and discrimination

Details of instances

Formulation ofprinciples

Induction

Universal rules and forms

Individual case

Deduction


“Information is not a scarce resource. Attention is.”

Herbert Simon, 1981

Models of how human cognition process information …

Humans do not follow strict logics, do they_


Different Cogntive Models I

Broadbent Filter Theory

SensoryRegister

SelectiveFilter

Short TermMemory

Multi-Store Model of Memory

Short TermStore

SensoryStores

Long TermStore

RehearsalAttention

Decay Displacement Interference

8


Different Cogntive Models II

Auditory WordPresentation

PhonologicalStore

Visual WordPresentaion

ArticulatoryControl Process

Baddelay, 1990


Different Cogntive Models III

CentralExecutive

PhonologicalLoop

Visio/SpatialSketchpad

Active Passive Active Passive

Coordination Control Attention


Reasoning in the forms of deductionand induction is clearly based in logics

Remember the core axioms of structuralism!

“The chance of success is 50%”or “The chance of failure is 50%”

Kahneman & Tverksy, 1979

The two propositional statementsare logically equivalent, yet, people

respond differently. Why? How would a computer respond?

Human reasoning is not exclusively logical

distraction

bias

9


“Given the enormous amount of stuff, and some task to be done using some of the stuff ... What is the relevant stuff for the task?” Glymour, 1987

“Information is not a scarce resource. Attention is.”

Herbert Simon, 1981

Observability is more than mere data availability. Woods et al, 2002

Humans are notlogic machines


Thinking Beyond Logics: Steps in Problem Solving

Some kind of everyday psychology ...


Note: Despite the inadequacy of logics, the idea of structuralism is not necessarilyuntrue or useless.

We need to find a description of thinking includes our irrational whims and incredible

flexibility

Evaluate results(stop or repeat)

Step 4

Test the solutions

Step 3

Generate possible solutions

Step 2

Interpret the problem

Step 1

10


Evaluate results(stop or repeat)

Step 4

Test the solutions

Step 3

Generate possible solutions

Step 2


Step 1


Generatesolutions

Test thesolutions

Evaluate(stop orrepeat)


1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 a6 4.Ba4 Nf6 5.O-O Be7 6.Re1 b57.Bb3 d6 8.c3 O-O 9.h3 h6 10.d4 Re8 11.Nbd2 Bf8 12.Nf1Bd7 13.Ng3 Na5 14.Bc2 c5 15.b3 Nc6 16.d5 Ne7 17.Be3 Ng618.Qd2 Nh7 19.a4 Nh4 20.Nxh4 Qxh4 21.Qe2 Qd8 22.b4Qc7 23.Rec1 c4 24.Ra3 Rec8 25.Rca1 Qd8 26.f4 Nf627.fxe5 dxe5 28.Qf1 Ne8 29.Qf2 Nd6 30.Bb6 Qe8 31.R3a2Be7 32.Bc5 Bf8 33.Nf5 Bxf5 34.exf5 f6 35.Bxd6 Bxd6 36.axb5axb5 37.Be4 Rxa2 38.Qxa2 Qd7 39.Qa7 Rc7 40.Qb6 Rb741.Ra8+ Kf7 42.Qa6 Qc7 43.Qc6 Qb6+44.Kf1 Rb8 45.Ra6 1-0


Kasparov comments the loss toDeep Blue over five matches in 1997

MOSCOW (CNN) -- In Moscow, where chess is serious business, Garry Kaparov's chess match against Deep Blue is not just another board game. It's a man vs. machine epic, with profound implications for the species

11


Structures of Problem Solving

Problem Solving Schemas

Algoritms*detailed formulas Heuristics

*rules of thumb

Means EndSub-Goal

Affecting ourgeneration of

solutions






Computation over representations in the common code is what thinking is - Jerry Fodor

von Neumann’ Principles• Computing abstract

symbolic representations

• Computations is governed bya stored program of rules

• Processing is coordinated withmemory


Everyday ProblemSolving

Uncertainty Heuristics

Decisionmaking

Consequences

Emotions

Bias Confidence

Language

12


...control rooms, cockpits, tv production, stock markets ...


Taking one step back


Language and thoughtis embedded in our livesand in our sense of selvesas coherent beings - Howcan psychology dissect thisexperience into themes ofscientific investigation?

13


Representations

External




Representations

External




Conclusions (if any)

14


Questions?

Human Technology Interaction:The History of Human Capacity of Work


Main Historic Themes in MMI

• Scientific Management 1900-1940• Human Error 1940-1960• Information Processing 1960-1980• Second Generation MMI 1980-

15


Scientific Management

“...we have but vaguely appreciated the importanceof ‘the larger question of increasing our nationalefficiency.’”F.W.Taylor (1911)


Scientific management

• F.W.Taylor (1911) Principles of Scientific Management– Scientific planning of work methods for greater efficiency– Selection and training of the workers in accordance to task– Development of cooperation between workers and management– Distribution of responsibility between workers and management

• Perspective on workers:– ... lazy,– ... economizing,– ... opportunistic.– ... materialistic– ... components in machinery

Measure work by units/time ... ‘Smart work’ = Increased Unit/time


Scientific Management

• Motivation?• Efficiency and reliability• Finding the “one best way?• Man in Machines ... Machine-Machine Interaction

16


Human Error

... from the analysis of workat assembly lines to theoperation of complextechnology ...


Human Error

• A change in the nature oflabor:

More thinking,less lifting.

• A change in focus:Time and effortversusError and cause

Fitts and Jones (1947a/b)Bartlett and Craik


• Basic Question: Why dohumans make mistakes?

• Example: Crashing fullyfunctional airplanes into theground - Why? Sufficientphysical strength, but ...

Human Error

17


Human Error

• Behavorism falls apart with Tolman(1948) S/R --> S/x/R

• The context for work has changed:Technology has evolved.

• ‘Workers’ become ‘operators’serving the technological systems

• A shift from body movement (howwe do things) to mental activity(why we do things).

• What are the best conditions forwork based on mental effort?


Human Error

The Human Error Traditionrepresents a shift in the study ofman-machine interaction towardsas we know it today

1. Establishing a method for the studyof human error (/performance)

2. The notion of tools as causes forhuman error,

3. Performance was subject to errordue to failure in informationprocessing






From human error toinformation processing

“... The relatively limited number of ways in which errorsactually manifest themselves is inextricably bound up with the‘computational primitives’ by which stored knowledge structuresare selected and retrieved in response to current situationaldemands.”

J.Reason (1990), p.1

... our types of failure are tied to mechanisms of thinking, thatis, our way of selecting and processing information in a givensituation ...

18


Different Cogntive Models I

Broadbent Filter Theory

SensoryRegister

SelectiveFilter

Short TermMemory

Multi-Store Model of Memory

Short TermStore

SensoryStores

Long TermStore

RehearsalAttention

Decay Displacement Interference


Different Cogntive Models II

Auditory WordPresentation

PhonologicalStore

Visual WordPresentaion

ArticulatoryControl Process

Baddelay, 1990


Different Cogntive Models III

CentralExecutive

PhonologicalLoop

Visio/SpatialSketchpad

Active Passive Active Passive

Coordination Control Attention

19


From human error toinformation processing

J.Reason (1990) “Human Error”

• Classification of Errors:

– Behavioral level (Observation of error in behavior)

– Contextual Level (local triggers and error tendencies)

– Conceptual Level (theoretical inference of error occurrence)

• Distinction between “Error Type” and “Error Form”

– Error Type: Reference to presumed origin within stages of actionsequences (planning, storage, execution)

– Error Form: Reference to universal cognitive processes (e.g. similaritiesand frequency bias)


Information Processing

(1950-1960-1970)

• The study of man-machineinteraction gradually expand:New concepts and new areasof interest emerge.

...AttentionWorkload

Info processingAutomationBottlenecksResources

...



1950 - 1960: Solid belief informalism of human thoughtand behavior:

Any limitations inperformance is traceable tolimitations in the ability toprocess information.

And what man can’t do,machines will: Automateeverything (e.g. Chapanis,1970). MABA-MABA lists

• From operational definitions ofobservable variables to the formalspecification of cognitive structuresand processes

• Mainstream psychology movesfrom from observation to inference

• Humans are linear info-processors:

input->analysis->selection->output

20



• New perspectives onworkers/operators:Computer-metaphor

InputRecodingMemoryProcessingExecutionOutput

(“Enough data = Success”)

The Informational SoupAlthough all of the

necessary data wasphysically available, it wasnot operationally effective!


Info Overload!

Information Overload Problem1. Too much data2. Workload bottlenecks3. Hard to find the meaning

Traditional Solutions1. Reduce / limit data2. Automation to support3. Accentuate / diminish data

PS: maybe it’s not the amount of data, but the organization and design?


Transition from human errorto information processing

Coherence Correspondence

Worker

Artefact

Worker

Artefact

World

from Vicente (1999)

21


Coherence/Correspondence(closed system)/(open systems)

Coherence Correspondence

Closed Systems

Open Systems


2nd Generation MMI

Decline of Formalism:Cognition in the Wild

The search for the basis ofhuman thought and behaviorin work domains

Cognition and action emergesfrom the relationshipbetween the human bodyand its context

Opportunism, adaptiveness,expertise, flexibility, control

-Contextuality-: (Organism in habitat):


22


Aim of Man MachineInteraction Research

• To aid the design of new systems that are safe,effective, productive and healthy.

• To improve already existing systems, based onknowledge and methods for the study of manmachine interaction

• To provide insight into the training and maintenanceof man machine systems.



The Space of Performance

Task

Context

User

Man Machine Interaction ...takes place in a space ofperformance constituted bythe synthesis of a user in agiven context with a specifictask to fulfill. The outcomeis the goal directed activityof users in a meaningfulcontext.

23


A World of Problems ...... In everyday things ...


A World of Problems ...... In complex systems ...

Questions?

24

Introduction to the study ofHuman Technology Interaction

(plus some basic cognitive)

Cato A. BjørkliClinical Psychogist & PhD

introduction to the study of human technology interaction · kasparov comments the loss to deep...

Documents