involvement: its measurement for retail store research

Involvement: Its Measurement for Retail Store Research

Raj Arora* Bradley University

*The author acknowledges the financial assistance of the Board for Research and Creativity, Bradley University.

The concept of involvement has attracted a great deal of attention from behavioral scientists and marketing scholars (Arora 1982a, 1982b, Maloney and Silverman 1979, Rothschild 1979a). Involvement has been loosely con- ceptualized as some degree of concern or interest in a stimulus object. This construct is intuitively appealing and appears to solve a number of marketing problems (Krugman 1966, Rothschild 1979b, Tybjee 1979a). In the area of communications for example, the concept of involvement is valuable in decisions related to message content, media choice and frequency of exposure. It is also of assistance in pricing decisions.

Despite the apparent utility of the concept, there have been few empirical applications in the marketing area (Arora 1982a, Newman and Dolich 1979, Swinyard and Coney 1978). Major problems appear to be conceptual and methodological in nature. Conceptually, a number of definitions have been proposed. According to Sherif and Cantril (1947), a subject is said to be involved when the social object is in the subject's ego domain. Festinger (1957) defines involvement as concern with an issue. Freedman (1964) says involvement is concern about, interest in, or commitment to a particular position on an issue. Howard and Sheth (1969) refer to "degree of involvement" as another label for a variable's importance.

In their later work, Sherif and Nebergall (1965) again emphasize importance as a measure of involvement, but add another component-----commitment to a stand on an issue. This commitment component advances the concept of involvement, making explicit the notions of latitude of acceptance, latitude of rejection, and latitude of non- commitment.

�9 1985, Academy of Marketing Science, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science Spring, 1985, Vol. 13, No. 2,229-241

0092-07(13/85/1302-0229 $2.00

229

230 INVOLVEMENT: MEASUREMENT FOR RETAIL STORE RESEARCH

In the area of marketing, Tybjee (1979b) argues that the concept of involvement is multidimensional. The multidimensionality of involvement was supported empirically by Lastovicka and Gardner (1979). They iden- tified familiarity, commitment, and normative importance as the three components of involvement.

The methodological problems stem from the variety of definitions offered in the literature, their operationalization and hence measurement. A number of measures may be used to assesss involvement. Hupfer and Gardner (1969) infer the degree of involvement from the importance ratings an individual assigns to a product or issue. Lastovicka's (1979) measure of involvement utilizes both the importance of the product to the individual and the individual's commitment to a particular brand (as opposed to attributes of a brand) in the product class. In a separate study, Lastovicka and Gardner (1979) assess involvement from the importance ratings of products in a pairwise comparison context. Arora (1982a) infers involvement in retail stores from the summated mean scores of the importance of stores' attributes to the individual.

Newman and Dolich (1979) measure involvement indirectly from the size of the individual's latitudes of acceptance (LA) and rejection (LR). Re- spondents with LA less than their LR were classified as high in involvement and all others as low in involvement. The findings of this study were con- trary to the hypothesized direction.

In an effort to overcome these measurement problems, Rothschild and Houston (1977) proposed an index of involvement based on a consumer involvement matrix. The two dimensions of the matrix are (i) number of attributes an individual uses in a choice decision (vertical dimension) and (ii) size of latitude of acceptance of each attribute (horizontal dimension). This index is closer to the recent conceptualization of involvement in that it recognizes the notion of commitment. The involvement scores resulting from the application of the above dimensions to an election situation were in the expected direction. The mean scores for presidential election (high involvement) and state assembly election (low involvement) were 34.7 and 26.2. However, no attempt has been made to compare and/or validate this method against the importance scores procedure used in earlier studies.

The purpose of this paper is to assess if the two measures, the summated importance score scale (IMP) and the matrix approach (MAT) are similar. The validation of the two measures is important because if they are equivalent, the researcher may choose and use the scale which is easier to administer. This similarity is assessed and discussed with reference to theoretical meaningfulness of the concepts, internal consistency and nom-

ARORA 231

ological validity. Nomological validity is assessed by relating the involvement scores of each scale to other constructs in marketing and determining the extent to which each scale relates with these constructs as specified by marketing theory. The marketing constructs used are price consciousness, shopping proneness, frequency of shopping, satisfaction and confidence. The involvement construct is operationalized with respect to department stores.

METHOD

A necessary condition for involvement is the existence of a reference stimulus object. The stimulus object may be a product class or a brand within a product class. Past research has addressed involvement at the product class level (Arora 1982a, Hupfer and Gardner 1971, Lastovicka and Gardner 1979) and at the level of a specific brand within the product class (Arora 1982b). The present study deals with the product class level and uses retail department stores as stimulus objects. The attributes of the stores included in this study are those that were included in earlier studies (Arora 1982a, Hansen and Deutscher 1977-78, King and Ring 1980). They are shown below. Nationally known brands High quality Low Prices

Helpful sales people Best value for money Latest, fashionable products

Convenient credit/charge account Convenient to get to from home

Large overall assortment/selection Attractive decor/displays Knowledgeable sales people

Fast checkout Easy to r e t u r n / e x c h a n g e merchandise Good parking facilities

Availability of refreshments/lunch

Measurement of Involvement

Two measures of involvement are used in this study. One is based on the summated scores of items assessing the degree of importance attached to each of the stores' attributes (Arora 1982a, Hupfer and Gardner 1971). It is denoted by IMP. The degree of importance is measured on a scale from 1 (not important at all) to 7 (extremely important).

The other measure is based on Rothschild and Houston's (1977) matrix approach and is denoted by MAT. This method utilizes the same attributes as the IMP scale. However it requires the following additional information from the respondents: (1) whether or not the respondent will use the attribute


in the choice process and (2) the range (based on the lower limit and upper limit) of acceptable level of each attribute. In this study, the range of acceptable level is based on a 9-point scale. As evident from the formula below, involvement is not affected by the number of points on the scale. Rothschild and Houston (1977) show that the level of involvement is based on:

Number of attributes used in choice decision

Aggregate number of scale points in acceptable range for above attributes

Total number of scale points for above attributes

Sample

Data for the study were collected by self administered-personal interviews via a systematic sampling procedure. The interviews were conducted at two shopping malls in a medium sized Midwestern city. Both male and female adults (21 years of age or older) were contacted in approximate proportion to their presence during interviewing days. Care was taken to conduct interviews on different days of the week, as well as at different times of the day. Approximately 350 eligible respondents were approached. Of these, 285 agreed to cooperate in the study. Two hundred seventy three questionnaires were fully completed and formed the basis for analysis. In order to counterbalance the potential bias (order effect), two versions of the questionnaire, each with a different order of questions, were administered.

HYPOTHESES

The relationship of involvement with other behavioral constructs has been discussed (Rothschild 1979b, Tybjee 1979a) but has not been empirically verified. Some of these relationships are explained and tested in this paper. These relationships later become the basis of nomological validity of the two measures of involvement.

Hypothesis 1 - Price Consciousness: It is hypothesized that price consciousness is positively correlated with involvement. There are two aspects of price that are relevant to involvement. One of these is the price of the object. Rothschild (1979b) posits that a higher price would generate a higher degree of concern and higher involvement. The other aspect of price is the individual's sensitivity to price or price consciousness. The latter

ARORA 233

issue is the focus of concern in this study. The question can be asked, are price conscious individuals high or low in involvement?

While there is no evidence in the context of retail store patronage, Wil- liams et al (1978), in a study of grocery shoppers conceptualize involved shoppers as those concerned about pricing policies and customer services. The definitions of involvement imply that concern for commitment to a specific position indicates high involvement. Translated to this research, price consciousness or commitment to a specific range of acceptable prices implies high involvement. The construct price consciousness is measured by statements, "I shop a lot for specials" and "Price is more important than store atmosphere". The reliability of the scale is .52.

Hypo thes i s 2 - Shopping Proneness: It is hypothesized that shopping proneness is positively correlated with involvement. Individuals high in involvement are expected to have a great degree of concern for or interest in the products they buy. As such, they are likely to shop for a specific item until they find it. This construct is measured by statements such as "I do not mind spending a lot of time shopping", "I like to have a great deal of information before I buy." The reliability of the composite construct is .52.

Hypo thes i s 3 - Frequency of Shopping: It is expected that involvement is positively correlated with frequency of shopping. Related to shopping proneness is the construct frequency of shopping. It follows that those concerned about specific attributes will make a greater number of trips until they find the object closest to their requirements. This variable is a composite of the number of times the respondents had visited the department stores in the area during the preceding two months.

Hypo thes i s 4 - Satisfaction: It is hypothesized that involvement is positively correlated with satisfaction. Since those high in involvement are expected to have a greater concern or commitment to a specific position on an attribute, these individuals are likely to expend considerable effort in seeking the object that meets their expectations. Therefore these individuals are likely to be satisfied with their purchase decisions (Festinger 1957, Freedman 1964). The satisfaction construct is measured by statements such as, "I am very satisfied with most of my purchases at department stores" and "I feel very comfortable with my recent purchase decisions." The reliability of this construct is .83.

H y p o t h e s i s 5 - Confidence: Involvement is expected to be positively correlated with confidence. Based on the theoretical foundations of the involvement construct, one may hypothesize that those high in involvement will also exhibit higher confidence in purchase decisions. This construct is

2 3 4 I N V O L V E M E N T : M E A S U R E M E N T F O R R E T A I L S T O R E R E S E A R C H

Ul

_'2

0

I-4

0

Z i--t

O

O

H

[---i

[---t

u3

F-4

0

Z

4O "H ,'--I .i-I ,.O

"H ,--4

OJ

OJ

4o

O~

~0

0

0

Cq ~-~ ~ 04

'4q

o ~

0J ~ .H ,--I

O ~'~ co o~

-~ ~ O ~ , . c~ o . ~ ~ ~

O

0 ~ E] ~ o ~ o . ~ .

~ 0 O O r~ 0

F-q F-~ ~-q Pq

QJ o r~

�9 ~ o z: u ~ o

�9 r..t tl--I

u ~ , .H �9 H O'

CD

.H

8

ARORA 235

measured by items such as, " I am not at all lacking in self confidence." The reliability of the confidence construct is .59.

RESULTS

The reliabilities of the constructs used in the study are computed using Chronbach's alpha, and are shown in Table 1. The estimates of reliabilities range from .52 to .83. All are within the acceptable range and compare favorably with reliability estimates obtained in other studies (Kargaonkar and Moschis 1982, P. 34). Table 2 shows the product-moment correlations of these constructs with the IMP and the MAT scales of involvement. The p-levels indicating the significance of these correlations are shown in the parentheses.

Price Consciousness: The price consciousness construct is positively correlated with IMP and is significant at p = .005 level. It is positive but not significant with the MAT measure of involvement. The positive sign implies that those who attach a greater degree of importance to shopping on the basis of price are high in involvement. Although the statistical significance is mixed, the results are in the hypothesized direction.

Shopping Proneness: Involvement scores on both the IMP and MAT scales are positively correlated with shopping prone behavior. These are significant at p = .001 and p = .002, respectively.

Frequency of Shopping: Both the involvement measures are positively correlated with frequency of shopping and each is significant at p = .001 level.

Satisfaction: The satisfaction construct is positively correlated with involvement as measured by the IMP scale (r = .11) and is significant at p = .04. However the correlation between satisfaction and involvement by the MAT scale is almost zero.

Confidence: The confidence construct is positively correlated with both measures of involvement. These correlations are significant at p = .001 for the IMP scale and p = .01 for the MAT scale.

DISCUSSION

Two fundamental questions are important to both managers and research- ers. First, are the two measures of involvement equivalent? Secondly, which measure should be used for further research? The issues relevant to these questions are discussed below.

Theoretical Meaningfulness of Concepts refers to the nature and internal consistency of the language used to represent concepts. Two classes of

2 3 6 I N V O L V E M E N T : M E A S U R E M E N T F O R R E T A I L S T O R E R E S E A R C H A R O R A

0 U

U3 Z 0 r j

0

I--4

0

0

M

0

4-1

0

N .~I

o

o

I--4

0

g)

0 c.3

0 0 ~1" 0

o 0 0 0 0

",.0 0 ~ ',-t c-,I ,--t ~ r ~ r

-v.I

o

o

o ~ o o

o ~0 U o o ~ ~ to �9

o o~ o ~ -r.I u~ �9 r4 0 0 ~ I~

ARORA 237

standards exist in this regard. One relates to the concept's linguistic exact- ness, conceptual unity, scope and range. The other relates to properties of logical consistency (Bagozzi 1979). Concerning the properties of logical consistency, the theory specifies high involvement as concern for an issue(s) pertaining to the stimulus object. One question of interest in objects with several attributes pertains to the number of attributes one should be concerned with in order to be classified as high involvement. For example, consider price consciousness. A person with great concern for price may base his/her decisions solely on price and thus, conceptually, be exhibiting high involvement behavior. However, imagine now that there are ten other attributes of the object towards which the individual has no concern. Using the IMP scale, there is a high probability that this individual may be classified as low involvement, when in fact he/she cares a great deal about price. The MAT scale does not have this problem, because the individuals are asked if they would use the particular attribute in their decisions. Only those attributes that are considered in choice decisions are used in compu- tation of involvement scores. From this standpoint, the MAT approach is a better scale to use.

Internal Consistency of Operationalization is typically assessed by the use of reliability procedures. Cronbach's alpha is often used. The value of alpha for the two scales is .68 which implies a moderate to high level of agreement between the two measures.

Nomological Validity refers to the extent to which predictions based on a construct are confirmed within the context of a larger theory (Campbell 1960). The interpretation is that the validity of a concept depends not only on its operationalization but also on its conceptual and empirical relationship to one or more concepts in a theory. Therefore it is essential to consider the relationship of the concept under investigation to other concepts in an overall context of a theoretical structure (Bagozzi 1979).

Using the above criteria, the results are generally favorable but mixed. All of the five hypotheses are supported by involvement as measured by IMP scale. With regard to the MAT scale, the two relationships, price consciousness and satisfaction, are not supported. In terms of the consistency of findings between the scales, all five coefficients have the same sign, but only three are significant.

Choice of Scale Evidence related to the choice of the scale indicated that the criterion theoretical meaningfulness of concepts favors the use of the MAT scale, while the IMP scale is preferred on nomological validity. The relatively high value of Chronbach's alpha suggests a high degree of inter-

238 INVOLVEMENT: MEASUREMENT FOR RETAIL SIDRE RESEARCH

nal validity between the two measures. This implies that either scale may be used to assess involvement.

The ease of administering the questionnaire or collecting data is relevant and must be considered. The IMP scale is very simple, easy to understand and easy to respond to. Moreover, the information regarding the importance attached to each attribute is useful in computing the attitude scores toward the stimulus object.

The MAT scale is somewhat difficult to administer and may necessitate detailed instructions. This adds to the expense of data collection and the cost of the project.

CONCLUSION

This paper addressed various issues related to the validity of the two measures of involvement. The criteria used for comparison were the theoretical meaningfulness of concepts, internal consistency, and nomological validity. The matrix approach to measuring involvement appears to be su- perior on theoretical meaningfulness of involvement. The internal consistency is satisfactory in both scales as reflected by Chronbach's alpha of .68. On the criterion of nomological validity, however, the IMP scale is preferred to the MAT scale. In addition, the IMP scale is easier to administer.

Since the nomological validity is marginal for the MAT scale, several interpretations are possible (Carminers and Zeller 1979). If the evidence concerning nomological validity is negative, one may conclude that the indicator does not measure what it claims to measure and thus lacks construct validity. Another possibility is that the theoretical framework used to generate the predictions is incorrect. This implies that the relationship of involvement with price consciousness and satisfaction should not be specified as positive in nature. A third possibility is that the method or the test used to verify the relationships is inappropriate. It is also possible that the problem is not with the measure of involvement, but rather with the other constructs--price consciousness and satisfaction.

Carminers and Zeller (1979, P25) state that there is no fool-proof procedure for determining which one or more of these interpretations of negative evidence is correct. The interpretation should be made in light of total configuration of empirical evidence. The evidence indicates that the other constructs are measured with acceptable reliability and that the reliability of satisfaction is high (.83). In addition, the correlations of these constructs with the IMP scale is in the specified direction. Therefore a plausible interpretation is that the MAT scale is not a valid measure of involvement.

ARORA 239

One explanation for this interpretation may be based on the inherent diffi- culty in responding to the MAT scale. However, it was primarily for this concern that the study was designed as a self-administered personal inter- view so as to be able to provide answers to any questions that the respondents may have regarding the scale. Thus, it does not appear that lack of understanding of the scale was a likely reason for lack of nomological validity. What is apparent is that further research is warranted if full potential of involvement is to be realized in marketing strategy.

FOOTNOTES

IThe discussion on involvement measure would not be complete without a note that there are several studies where the level of involvement is assumed apriori and not measured. Examples are: Clarke and Belk (1979), Wilkinson (1975).

~Since more than 85% of the dollar volume of goods in these retail stores is accounted for by the adult population, the younger age groups (for example, the teen agers) were not included. For some department stores, the younger age segment may be substantial segment. Future studies may wish to focus on comparison of segments based on age differences.

REFERENCES

Arora, Raj (1982a), "Consumer Involvement in Retail Store Positioning," Journal of The Academy of Marketing Science, l0 (Spring) 109-124.

__(1982b), "Validation of S-O-R Model for Situation, Enduring and Response Com- ponents of Involvement," Journal of Marketing Research, 19 (November) 505-516.

Bagozzi, Richard (1980), Causal Models in Marketing, New York: John Wiley of Sons. ~ _ ( 1 9 8 2 ) , "The Role of Measurement in Theory Construction and Hypothesis Test-

ing: Toward a Holistic ModeL," in A Second Generation of Multivariate Analysis, ed. Claes Fomell, New York: Praeger Publishers, 5-23.

Block, Peter H. (198 l), "An Exploration into the Scaling of Consumers' Involvement with a Product Class," Advances in Consumer Research, 8, 61-65.

Bowen, L. and S. Chaffee (1974), "Product Involvement and Pertinent Advertising Appeals," Journalism Quarterly, 51 (Winter), 613-621.

Campbell, Donald T. (1960), "Recommendations for APA Test Standards Regarding Con- struct, Trait, or Discriminant Validity," American Psychologist, 15,546-553.

Carminers, E.G. and R.A. Zeller (1979), Reliability and Validity Assessment, CA: Sage Pubhcation Inc.

Clarke, K. and R.W. Belk (t979), "The Effects of Product Involvement and Task Definition on Anticipated Consumer Effort," Advances in Consumer Research, 6, e d , W. J. Wilkie, Proceedings of the Association for Consumer Research, Ninth Annual Conference, Miami Beach, FL, 313-318.

Evans R. H. (1983), "Effect of Response Format and Product Involvement on Questionnaire Reliability," Psychological Reports, 52,407-411.

Festinger, L.A. (1957), Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, Evanston, IL: Row-~terson. Freedman, .[.L. (1964), "invoLvement, Discrepancy, and Change," Journal of Abnormal and

Social Psychology, 60 :#'3,290-295.


Hansen, Robert A. and Terry Deutscher, "An Empirical Investigation of Attribute Importance in Retail Store Selection." Journal of Retailing, 53 Winter (1977-78), 59-72,95.

Harrel, G.D. (1977), "Industrial Product Class Involvement, Confidence in Beliefs, and Attitude-lntent Relationships," in Attitude Research Plays for High Stakes, eds., J.C. Maloney and B. Silverman, Chicago: American Marketing Association, 94-111.

Hovland, C.I., O.J. Harvey, and M. Sherif (1957), "Assimilation and Contrast Effects in Reactions to Communication and Attitude Change," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psy- chology, 54, 257-261.

Howard, J.A. and J.N. Sheth (1969), The Theory of Buyer Behavior, New York: John Wiley Press.

Hupfer, N.T. and D.M. Gardner (1971), "Differential Involvement with Products and Issues: An Exploratory Study," Proceedings, Association for Consumer Research, 262-270.

Kassarjian, H.H. and W.M. Kassarjian (1979), "Attitudes Under Low Commitment Condi- tions," in Attitude Research Plans for High Stakes, eds. J.C. Maloney and B. Silverman, Chicago: American Marketing Association.

King, Charles W. & Ring, Lowrence J. "'Market Positioning Across Retail Fashion Institu- tions: A Comparative Analysis of Store Types," Journal of Retailing, 56 Spring 1980, No. 1, 37-55.

Korgaonkar, P.K. and G.P. Moschis (1982), "An Experimental Study of Cognitive Disso- nance, Product Involvement, Expectations, Performance and Consumer Judgement of Prod- uct Performance," Journal of Advertising Research, 11 (No. 3), P 32-44.

Krugman, H.E. (1966), "The Measurement of Advertising Involvement," Public Opinion Quarterly, 30, #4,583-596.

Lastovicka, J.L. (1979), "Questioning the Concept of Involvement Defined Product Classes," Advances in Consumer Research, 6, ed., W.J. Wilkie, Proceedings of Association for Consumer Research, Ninth Annual Conference, Miami Beach, FL, 174-179.

_ _ , a n d D.M. Gardner (1979), "Components of Involvement," in Attitude Research Plays for High Stakes, eds., J.C. Maloney and B. Silverman, Chicago, IL: American Marketing Associations, 53-73.

_ _ , a n d D.M. Gardner (1978), "Low Involvement Versus High Involvement Cognitive Structures," Proceedings, Association for Consumer Research 5, 87-92.

Maloney, J.C. and B. Silverman eds. (1979), Attitude Research plays for High Stakes, Chi- cago: American Marketing Association.

Newman, L.M. and l.J. Dolich (1979), "An Examination of Ego-Involvement as a Modifer of Attitude Changes Caused From Product Testing," Advances in Consumer Research, 6, ed., W.J. Wilkie, Proceedings of Association for Consumer Research, Ninth Annual Con- ference, Miami Beach, FL. 180-183.

Ostrom, T.M. and T.C. Brock (1968), "A Cognitive Model of Involvement," in Theories of Cognitive Consistency, eds., R. Abelson, et. al., Chicago: Rand McNally.

Rhine, R.J. and W.A.J. Polowhiak (1971), "Attitude Change, Commitment, and Ego Involve- ment," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 19,247-250.

Robertson, T.S (1976), "Low Commitment Consumer Behavior," Journal of Advertising Research, 16 (April), 19-24.

Rothschild, M.L. (1979a), "Marketing Communications in Nonbusiness Situations or Why It's So Hard to Sell Brotherhood Like Soap," Journal of Marketing, 43, #2 (Spring), 11- 20.

ARORA 241

_ _ . ( 1 9 7 9 b ) , "Advertising Strategies for High and Low Involvement Situations," in Attitude Research Plays for High Stakes, eds., J.C. Maloney and B. Silverman, Chicago: American Marketing Association, 74-93.

_ _ , a n d M.J. Houston (1977), "The Consumer Involvement Matrix: Some Preliminary Findings," Educator's Proceedings, American Marketing Association, 95-98.

Sherif, M. and H. Cantril (1947), The Psychology of Ego Involvement, New York: John Wiley Press.

_ _ , a n d C. Hovland (1961), Social Judgment--Assimilation and Contrast Effects in Communication and Attitude Change, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Sherif, C.W., M. Sherif, and R+E. Nebergall (1965), Attitude and Attitude Change: The Social Judgment Involvement Approach, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Shimp, ZA. and S. Sharma (1983), "The Dimensionality of Involvement: A Test of the Automobile Involvement Scale," in Research Methods and Causal Modeling in Marketing, eds, W.R. Darden, K.B. Monroe and W.R. Dillon, Chicago: American Marketing Associ- ation, 58-61.

Slama M.E. and A. Tashchian (1983), "Comparing Methods of Measuring Involvement with Product Classes: A Structural Equations Approach,: in Research Methods and Causal Modeling in Marketing, eds. W.R. Darden, K.S. Monroe, and W.R. Dillon, Chicago: American Marketing Association, 66-69.

Swinyard, W.R. and K. Coney (1978), "promotional Effects on a High-Versus Low-Involve~ ment Electorate," Journal of Consumer Research, 5, No. 1 (June), 41-48.

Tybjee, T.T. (1979a), "Refinement of the Involvement Concept: An Advertising Planning Point of View," in Attitude Research Plays for High Stakes, eds., J.C. Maloney and B. Silverman, Chicago: American Marketing Association, 94-111+

_ _ . ( 1 9 7 9 b ) , "Response Time, Conflict, and Involvement in Brand Choice," Journal of Consumer Research, 6 (Dec.), 295-304.

Wilkinson, L+ (1975), "Effect of involvement on Similarity and Preference Structures," unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Yale University.

Williams, Robert H., J.J. Painter and H.R. Nicholas (1978), "A Policy-Oriented Typology of Grocery Shoppers," Journal of Retailing, 54 (Spring), 27-42.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

RAJ A R O R A is a Professor o f Market ing at Bradley University. He received

B.S, and M.S . degrees in Industrial and Systems Engineering f rom Uni-

versity of Southern Cal i fornia and M . B . A . and Ph .D. f rom Claremont

Graduate School . He has published in Journal o f Academy o f Marketing

Science, Journal o f Advertising Research, Journal o f Marketing Research,

and in the proceedings o f several national and regional professional

associations.

involvement: its measurement for retail store research

Documents