io handouts set1

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Introducing INDUSTRIAL / ORGANIZATIONAL

PSYCHOLOGY

Gerald B. Peñaranda, M.Sc., CSIOPCertified Industrial/Organizational Psychologist

HR Consultant Faculty: De La Salle University-Manila

[email protected]

IO PSYCH/HUMAREM

Why I/O Psychology?

• People spend more time at their jobs than any other activity in life. If people are happy and productive at their work, this can have a spill-over effect on their lives

I/O psychologists can also improve the quality of life of everyone in society by increasing employee effectiveness, which reduces the cost of goods sold by improving product quality

The Two Divisions in I/O Psych.

Industrial Psychology (the original name) tends to make a management perspective of organizational efficiency through the appropriate use of human resources. It is concerned with issues of efficient job design, employee selection and training, and performance appraisal.

It may help you to remember Industrial Psychology as the “practical” side of I/O

The Two Divisions in I/O Psych.

Organizational Psychology developed from the human relations movement in organizations and focuses more on the individual employee. Examples are employee attitudes, employee behavior, job stress, and supervisory practices.

It may help you to remember Organizational Psychology as the “soft” side of I/O

I/O Psychology is…

An applied field of

psychology that is

concerned with the

development and

application of

scientific principles to

the workplace.

“What factors can motivate employees to perform

well?”

Objective: To help organizations function more effectively.

Major I/O Fields:

1. PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY: Includes such areas as analysing jobs, recruiting applicants, selecting employees, determining salary levels, training employees, and evaluating employee performance

2. ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: Concerned with the issues of leadership, job satisfaction, employee motivation, organizational communication, conflict management, organizational change, and group processes within an organization

mailto:[email protected]

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Major I/O Fields:

3. HUMAN FACTORS/ ERGONOMICS: The area of human factors concentrate on workplace design, human-machine interaction, ergonomics, and physical fatigue and stress.

These psychologists frequently work

with engineers and other technical

professionals to make the workplace

safer and more efficient.

Scientist-Practitioner Model

SCIENCE: I/O psychologists pose questions to guide their investigations and then use the scientific method to obtain answers. In this respect, I/O psychology is an academic discipline

PRACTICE: The professional side is concerned with the application of knowledge to real problems in the world of work. I/O psychologists can use research findings to hire better employees, reduce absenteeism, improve communication, increase job satisfaction, and solve countless other problems

I/O Psychology as a Profession

I/O Psychologists belong to professional/scientific organizations. In the U.S. they have the S.I.O.P. with about 6,000 members. In the Philippines, the PAP provides a certification program for I/O practitioners.

I/O Psychology as a Science

Often, research is conducted in specific organizations to solve a particular problem while others focuses on understanding some organizational phenomenon.

Examples of scientific journals: Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, Personnel Psychology, Academy of Management Journal, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology

Founders of the Field

Considered by many as "the father of industrial psychology”, Hugo Münsterberg (1863-1916) was particularly interested in the selection of employees and the use of new psychological tests.

In 1913 his book Psychology and Industrial Efficiency addressed such things as personnel selection and equipment design

Two experimental psychologists are credited for being the main founders of the field:

Founders of the Field

Walter Dill Scott (1869-1955) pioneered the use of psychological principles to produce more effective advertisements. His book, The Theory and Practice of Advertising (1903) was the first of its kind

Two experimental psychologists are credited for being the main founders of the field:

In WW1, he classified and placed enlistees, conducted performance evaluations of officers, and developed and prepared job duties and qualifications for over 500 jobs. He received the Distinguished Service Medal from U.S. Army.

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Pioneers of I/OJames McKeen Cattell (1860-1944). He created the Psychological Corporation in 1921, still in existence today. The main purpose was to advance psychology and promote its usefulness to industry. It also served as a place for companies to get reference checks on prospective psychologists.

Pioneers of I/O

Walter Bingham. He started the Division of Applied Psychology for Carnegie Institute of Technology – the first academic program in industrial psychology (Krumm, 2001). He headed the Personal Research Federation and directed The Psychological Corporation.

Pioneers of I/O

Lilian (1876-1972) and Frank

(1868-1924) Gilbreth. A wife and

husband team who combined

engineering and psychology to study

efficient ways of performing tasks.

Their best contribution was the time

and motion study. Lilian is one of the

first working female engineers

holding a Ph.D., she is held to be the

first true industrial/organizational

psychologist.

Pioneers of I/ORobert Mearns Yerkes (1876-1956). During

WW1, Robert Yerkes and others offered their

services to the Army. Their newly invented

psychological tests led to the identification of

Army Alpha and Army Beta.

Pioneers of I/O

Mary Parker Follett (1866-1933). A social philosopher, she

advocated people-oriented

organizations. Her writings

focused on groups, as opposed

to individuals, in the

organization. Thus, Follet’s

theory was a forerunner of

today’s teamwork concept and

group cohesiveness.

Pioneers of I/O

Frederick Winslow

Taylor (1856-1915). An

engineer who studied

employee productivity, he

developed an approach to

handling production

workers in factories.

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Pioneers of I/OElton Mayo (1880–1949). His Human Relations approach countered scientific management. He recognized the "inadequacies of existing scientific management approaches" to industrial organizations, and underlined the importance of relationships among people who work for such organizations.

The Hawthorne Studies

A series of studies conducted for 10 years in

Western Electric Company that ultimately led to

the launching of the “O” of I/O. The

investigation of the lighting level effects led to

what is now known as the Hawthorne Effect,

i.e. the increase in productivity really had nothing

to do with the amount of light but because the

employees were conscious that they were being

observed.

Pioneers of I/O

Kurt Zadek Lewin (1890-1947). In 1939, he led the first publication of an empirical study of the effects of leadership styles which initiated arguments for the use of participative management techniques. In 1945 he formed the Research Center for Group Dynamics at MIT to perform experiments in group behavior

CODE OF ETHICS FOR PSYCHOLOGISTS

1. Competence: A psychologist only does work that he or she is competent to perform.

2. Integrity. Psychologists are fair and honest in their professional dealings with others.

3. Professional and Scientific Responsibility: Psychologists maintain a high standard of professional behavior.

CODE OF ETHICS FOR PSYCHOLOGISTS

4. Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity: Psychologists respect the rights of confidentiality and privacy of others.

5. Concern for Others’ Welfare. Psychologists attempt to help others through their professional work.

6. Social Responsibility: Psychologists have a responsibility to use their skills to benefit society.

Research Methods in I/O Psychology

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Research Methods in I/O Psychology

OBJECTIVES:

1. Explain the major concepts of design.

2. Describe the major types of designs and list their advantages and limitations.

3. Discuss the types of reliability and validity?

4. Explain how inferential statistics can be used to make conclusions about data.

5. State the major principles of research ethics.

What is research?

• The systematic study of phenomena according to scientific principles

• A formal process by which knowledge is produced and understood

Goals of Science: • It has been suggested that science has three goals: (1)

Description, (2) Explanation, (3) Prediction

• DESCRIPTION: Describing the levels of productivity, numbers of employees who quit during the year, average levels of job satisfaction

• EXPLANATION: This is the statement of why events occur as they do—why employees quit, why they are dissatisfied, and so forth

• PREDICTION: Researchers try to predict which employees will be productive, which ones are likely to quit, and which ones will be dissatisfied; data can be used in selecting applicants who can be better employees

The Empirical Research Process

1. What question or problem need to be answered?

2. How do you design a study to answer a question?

3. How do you measure the variables and collect the necessary data?

4. How do you apply statistical procedures to analyse the data?

5. How do you draw conclusions from analysing the data?

PICTURE THIS:

Imagine that you are a practicing I/O psychologist working for a company. You are assigned the task of determining if a new training program is effective in producing better performance in employees. Employees are being trained in the use of a new computer system that is supposed to increase employee productivity. How would you go about finding out if the training works?

The Research Question

Every study begins with a research

question which defines the purpose

of the study. For I/O psychologists,

the research question usually aims to

address an immediate issue for the

organization.

What causes people to like or dislike their jobs?

Does level of pay affect how much people like their jobs?

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Hypothesis. Rather than merely

raising the question, the

hypothesis is a theoretical answer.

A hypothesis is the researcher’s best

guess (or hunch) about what the results

of a study will be.

e.g. “People who are fairly paid will like their jobs more than people who are not.”

The hypothesis is usually based on a

theory, previous research, or logic.

Research Design Concepts

Variables. A variable is an attribute or characteristic of

people or things that can vary (take on different values).

People’s abilities (e.g. intelligence), attitudes (e.g. job

satisfaction), behavior (e.g. absence from work) and

job performance (e.g. weekly sales) are examples of

common variables in I/O research.

Each subject’s standing on each variable is quantified (converted to numbers) so that statistical methods can be applied.

Independent Variables. Those that the researcher

manipulate. They are assumed to be the cause of

the dependent variables.

Dependent Variables. Those that are assessed in

response to the independent variables. It is most often

the object of the researcher’s interest and is

usually some aspect of behaviour

Does a training program on the use of computer system increase employee productivity?

The Research SettingLaboratory settings are artificial environments in which phenomena of interest do not normally occur, such as in a university. Disadvantages include external validity, or generalizability of results to organizations to “real world”.

A field setting is one in which

the phenomenon of interest

occurs naturally, such as the

assembly line of an automotive.

Losing control of extraneous

variables that are not of interest

to the researcher (internal

validity) is its disadvantage.

Generalizability

Generalizability of results means that

the conclusions of a study can be

extended to other groups of people,

organizations, settings, or situations.

Findings for studies done laboratory setting might not be true for organizational settings

Findings in one organization might not have the same results in other organizations

The results of studies done in Western countries might not be applicable to the Philippines

Control Control refers to procedures that

allow researchers to rule out

certain explanations for results

other than the hypothesis.

Holding constant or systematically varying the levels of one or more variable.

Having a control group in experiments. A control group is a collection of people who receive a condition or manipulation different from the one of interest.

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Random Assignment andRandom Selection

The term random refers to a process

that eliminates systematic influences on

how subjects are treated in study.

Random assignment occurs when people are assigned to

various treatment conditions of levels of an independent

variable in a non-systematic way. Every subject has an equal

chance of being assigned to every condition.

Random selection means choosing the subjects of the

study by a non-systematic method: Every possible subject

has an equal chance of being chosen as participant.

Research Design

An research design is the basic structure of the study. An

experiment is a design in which there are one or more independent variables and one or more dependent variables, as well as random assignment of subjects.

IV examples: length of daily work (in hours), pay

categories (in local currency), availability or non-

availability of training, setting or non-setting of job goals.

DV examples: frequency of absences from work,

satisfaction with the job, job performance, turnover

Research Design

Survey Designs use a series of questions compiled to study one or more variables of interest. This is one of the simplest and easiest to conduct.

Cross-sectional survey design is one in which all the data were collected at a single point in time.

Longitudinal survey design is when data are

collected at more than one point in time.

Research Design

Observational Design happens when the researcher

observes employees in their organizational settings.

In obtrusive methods, the researcher might watch individual employees conducting their jobs for a period of time. Employees would know that the observer was conducting research.

In unobtrusive methods, the subject of the study might be aware of researcher’s presence, but they would not know that they are being studied.

Research Design

Qualitative Studies offer an alternate to the highly

quantitative approach of I/O psychologists. In pure form, the

qualitative approach involves observing behavior in an

organization and recording those observations in narrative form.

Ethical Issues in Research

Participants in psychological research are granted five rights that are specified in the code of ethics:

1. Right to Informed Consent: to know the purpose and risks of the research, to decline or withdraw participation anytime without negative consequences

2. Right to Privacy: participants limit to the amount of information they reveal about themselves

2. Right to Confidentiality: Who will have access to research data? How will records be maintained? Will participants remain anonymous?

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Ethical Issues in Research

Participants in psychological research are granted five rights that are specified in the code of ethics:

4. Right to Protection from Deception: Intentionally misleading a participant about the real purpose of the research can produce fake beliefs and assumptions. It should be used only as a last resort.

5. Right to Debriefing: debriefing must answer the participants questions about the research, to remove any harmful effects brought on by the study, and to leave the participants with a sense of dignity.

JOB ANALYSIS

De La Salle UniversityIOPSYCH/HUMAREM

Gerald B. Peñaranda, M.Sc., CSIOPIndustrial-Organizational Psychologist

HR [email protected]

Objective:

1. LIST the uses of job analysis information.

2. DESCRIBE the sources and ways of collecting job analysis information

3. DISCUSS the different job analysis methods.

4. DESCRIBE the evidence for reliability and validity of job analysis methods.

5. EXPLAIN how job evaluation is used to set salary levels for jobs.

Job Analysis is a method for describing jobs and/or

the human attributes necessary to perform them;

gathering, analysing, and structuring information

about a job’s components, characteristics, and

requirements

3 elements that comprise a formal job analysis:

1. The procedure must be systematic. The analyst needs to specify the procedures in advance.

2. A job is broken into smaller units. We describe components of jobs rather than the overall job.

3. The analysis results in some written product, either electronic or on paper.

Job-Oriented Approach: Provides information

about the nature of tasks done on the job.

TASK: Completes report after arresting an accused

CHARACTERISTIC: Uses pencils and pens.

LEVEL OF SPECIFITY

o Level of specificity answers the question: Should the job analysis break a job down into very minute, specific behaviours (e.g., tilts arm at a 90-degree angle” or moves foot forward three inches), or should the job be analysed at a more general level (“makes financial decisions”, “speaks to clients”)

o Informal requirements (such as picking mail, making coffee, or picking up the boss’ children from school) may need to be made formal to reduce potential confusion regarding who is responsible for the task


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FIVE LEVELS OF SPECIFITY1. POSITION: A collection of duties that can be performed by

a single individual.

e.g. Patrol Officer, Desk Officer

2. DUTY: A major component of a job.

e.g. Enforce the law

3. TASK: A complete piece of work that accomplishes some particular objective.

e.g. Arrest suspects who violate the law.

4. ACTIVITY: Individual parts that make up the task.

e.g. Driving to a suspect’s house to perform an arrest.

5. ELEMENT: Very specific actions to perform an activity.

e.g. Place handcuffs on a suspect.

Person-Oriented Approach: Provides a description

of the characteristics, or KSAOs necessary for a

person to successfully perform a particular job.

Knowledge: what a person needs to know to do a particular job.

Skill: what a person is able to do on the job.

Ability: a person’s aptitude or capability to do job tasks or learn to do job tasks.

Other personal characteristics: anything relevant to the job that is not covered by the other three.

Examples of KSAOs and Associated Tasks

KSAO TASK

Knowledge of legal arrest procedures

Arrest suspects

Skill in using a firearm Practice shooting firearm on firing range

Ability to communicate with others

Mediate a dispute between two people to prevent violent incident

Courage (as the personal characteristic)

Enter dark alley to apprehend suspect.

ABILITY DESCRIPTION

1. Verbal Comprehension

The ability to understand what words mean and to readily comprehend what is read.

2. Word fluency The ability to produce isolated words that fulfil specific symbolic or structural requirements (such as all words that begin with the letter b and have two vowels).

3. Numerical The ability to make quick and accurate arithmetic computations such as adding and subtracting.

4. Spatial Being able to perceive spatial patterns and to visualize how geometric shapes would look if transformed in shape or position.

5. Memory Having good rote memory for paired words, symbols, lists of numbers, or other associated terms.

6. Perceptualspeed

The ability to perceive figures, identify similarities and differences, and carry out tasks involving visual perception.

7. Inductive reasoning

The ability to reason from specifics to general conclusions.

Who provides the information?

They actually do the job or spend time observing employees doing the job and translate these experiences into a job analysis.

They are considered subject matter experts (SMEs) because they have detailed knowledge about the content and requirements of their own jobs or the jobs that they supervise.

USE Description

Career development Define KSAOs necessary for advancement

Legal issues Show job relevance of KSAOs

Performance appraisal Set criteria to evaluate performance

Recruitment and selection of employees

Delineate applicant characteristics to be used as basis for hiring

Training Suggest areas for training

Setting salaries Determine salary levels for jobs

Efficiency/safety Design jobs for efficiency and safety

Job classification Place similar jobs in groupings

Job design Design content of jobs

Planning Forecast future need for employees with specific KSAOs

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Approaches to Collecting Job Analysis Information

Job Analyst Performs the Job

ADVANTAGES: o Provides context in which job is done.o Provides extensive detail about the job.

DISADVANTAGESo Fails to show differences among jobs with

same title. o Expensive and time consumingo Can take extensive training of analyst.o Can be dangerous to analyst.


Interview

ADVANTAGES: o Provides multiple perspectives on a job. o Can show differences among incumbents

with same job.

DISADVANTAGESo Time consuming as compared to

questionnaires. o Fails to show context in which tasks are

done.


Observe Employees Doing the Job

ADVANTAGES: o Provides relatively objective view of the job. o Provides context in which job is done.

DISADVANTAGESo Time-consumingo Employees might change their behavior

because they know they are being observed.


Questionnaires

ADVANTAGES: o Efficient and inexpensive.o Shows differences among incumbents in same job. o Easy to quantify and analyse statisticallyo Easy to compare jobs on common job dimensions.

DISADVANTAGESo Ignores context in which job is doneo Limits respondents to question asked.o Requires knowledge of job to design questionnaireo Easy for job incumbents to distort to make their

jobs seem more important.

1. Job Components Inventory (JCI) Developed in Great Britain to address the need to

match job requirements to worker characteristics (Banks, Jackson, Stafford, and Warr, 1983)

FIVE COMPONENTS OF JOBS

1. Use of tools and equipment2. Perceptual and physical

requirements3. Mathematics4. Communication5. Decision making and

responsibility

Examples of Frequently Needed Skills for Clerical Jobs

COMPONENT SKILL

Use of tools and equipment

Use of pensUse of telephone

Perceptual and physical requirements

Selective attentionWrist/finger/hand speed

Mathematics Use decimalsUse whole numbers

Decision-making and responsibility

Decide on sequencing of workDecide on standards of work

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2. Functional Job Analysis (FJA)

Uses both observation and interviews to provide a description of a job and scores on several dimensions concerning the job and potential workers.

O*NET (http://online.onetcenter.org) is a computer-based resource for job –related information on approximately 1,100 groups of jobs sharing common characteristics, a very extensive undertaking.

3. Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) This questionnaire (McCormick, Jeanneret, & Mecham,

1972) contains 189 items dealing with the task requirement or elements of jobs.

SIX MAJOR CATEGORIES

1. Information input2. Mediation processes3. Work output4. Interpersonal activities5. Work situation and job content6. Miscellaneous aspect

Major Categories of the PAQ

CATEGORY EXAMPLE

Information input Collecting or observing information

Mediation processes Decision-making and information processing

Work output Manipulating objects

Interpersonal activities Communicating with people

Work situation and job context

Physical and psychological working conditions

Miscellaneous aspects Work schedule

4. Task Inventories A questionnaire that contains a list of specific tasks

that might be done on a job that is being analysed and rating scales for each task

POSSIBLE DIMENSIONS

1. Amount of time spent doing the task

2. Criticality of the task for doing a good job

3. Difficulty of learning the task4. Importance of the task

http://online.onetcenter.org/

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Gerald B. Peñaranda, M.Sc., CSIOP

[email protected]

IOPSYCH./HUMAREM Recruitment, Selection, and Placement

Recruitment: Attracting people with the right qualifications (as determined in the job analysis) to apply for the job

Selection: Process of choosing individuals with qualifications needed to fill jobs

Placement: Fitting a person to the right job

Recruitment

When there are vacant jobs, companies can either do internal recruitment by promoting someone from within the organization, or do external recruitment by hiring someone from outside the organization

Advantage of internal recruitment include enhancing employee morale and motivation

Disadvantage of internal recruitment include running the risk of a stale workforce devoid of new ideas from new employees

Recruitment Methods NEWSPAPER ADS: A common method for recruiting

employees although considered least effective (SHRM, 2007)

Applicants can be asked to call, apply in person, or send a resume directly or through a blind box

ELECTRONIC MEDIA: The effectiveness of using television and radio , although promising, still needs empirical investigation

Different TV channels and radio stations can be used to reach different types of audiences

Recruitment Methods

SITUATION-WANTED ADS: These ads are placed by the applicant rather than by organization providing encouraging results for people looking for jobs

Advantageous to the organization because this method don’t cause the organization any money

POINT-OF-PURCHASE METHODS: Job vacancy notices are posted in places where customers or current employees can see them: store windows, bulletin boards, restaurant placemats, and the side of trucks

It is targeted toward people who frequent the business

Recruitment Methods

CAMPUS RECRUITERS: Organizations send recruiters to college campuses to interview students for available positions

VIRTUAL JOB FAIRS: College students and alumni can use the Web to “visit” many organizations at one time, and where they talk to or instant-message the recruiter

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Recruitment Methods: Outside Recruiters

Employment Agencies: Charges either the company or the applicant when the applicant takes the job (10 to 30% of the applicant’s first year salary)

Executive Search Firms: Better known as “head hunters”, the jobs they represent tend to be higher-paying, non-entry level positions; they charge their fees to organizations rather than to applicants, fees charged tend to be 30% of applicants first year salary

Public Employment Agencies: State and local employment agencies designed primarily to help the unemployed find work; of great value in filling blue collar and clerical positions

Recruitment Methods: Employee Referrals

In employee referral, current employees recommend family members and friends for specific job openings

Rated by many HR professionals as the most effective recruitment method

Can result to unintended discrimination if companies do not ensure that referral pool is representative of the ethnic and racial make-up of the qualified workforce

Recruitment Methods: Direct Mail

With direct-mail recruitment, an employer typically obtains a mailing list and sends help-wanted letters or brochures to people through the mail

Especially useful for positions with specialized skills

Recruitment Methods: Internet

Employer-Based Websites: An organization lists job openings and provides information about itself and the minimum requirements needed to apply

Applicants can upload their resumes, answer questions designed to screen out unqualified applicants, take employment tests that are typically scored instantly, and interviews are scheduled electronically

Major employer-search websites are now using the .jobs domain to make the process easier

Recruitment Methods: Internet

An internet recruiter is a private company whose website lists job openings for hundreds of organizations and resumes for thousands of applicants

Advantages include the cost because it is 10 times cheaper than advertising in major city newspapers, and it can reach more people

Blogging is also used to more informally discuss an organization’s career opportunities and corporate culture

Recruitment Methods: Job Fairs

Job fairs are designed to provide information in a personal fashion to as many applicants as possible

Organizations can have booths at the same location, representatives hand out company literature and souvenirs

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Recruitment Methods: Incentives

Incentives are offered for employees to accept jobs with an organization

It can take the form of financial signing bonus, employee discounts on company products and services, mortgage assistance, etc.

A meeting between the job applicant and someone at the employing organization who will have input into the hiring decision.

STRUCTURE:

o STRUCTURED INTERVIEW: (1) the source of the questions is a job analysis (job-related questions), (2) all applicants are asked the same questions, (3) there is a standardized scoring key to evaluate each answer

o UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW: (1) interviewers are free to ask anything they want, (2) not required to have consistency in what they ask of each applicant, and (3) may assign numbers of points at their own discretion

o Highly structured interviews are more reliable and valid than interviews with less structure (Huffcutt & Arthur, 1994)

Types of Employment Interviews


STYLE:

o One-on-one interviews: One interviewer interviewing one applicant

o Serial interviews: Involves a series of single interviews

o Return interviews: The applicant is asked to return at a later time for another interview

o Panel interviews: Multiple interviewers are asking the same questions and evaluating answers of the same applicant at the same time

o Group interviews: Multiple applicants answering questions during the same interview


MEDIUM:

o Face-to-face interviews: Both the interviewer and the applicant are in the same room

o Telephone interviews: Often used to screen applicants but do not allow the use of visual cues

o Videoconference interviews: Conducted at remote sites

o Written interviews: The applicant answers a series of written questions and then sends the answers back

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Advantages of Structured Interviews (+) More valid than unstructured interviews

even over the phone

(+) Can add predictive power to the use of cognitive ability tests

(+) Viewed more favourably by the courts because it has job analysis as the basis

(+) Results in less adverse impact because it taps on job knowledge, job skills, applied mental skills, and interpersonal skills

(-) Is perceived by applicants to be more difficult than unstructured interviews

(-) Applicants may feel they did not have the chance to tell the interviewer everything they wanted to

Problems with Unstructured Interviews 1. Poor Intuitive Ability: Human intuition and

judgment are inaccurate predictors of future employee success

2. Lack of Job Relatedness: Information that is used to select employees must be job related if it is to have any chance of predicting future employee performance

3. Primacy Effects: To prevent judgments from getting influenced by “first impressions”, interviewers need to rate the applicant’s response after each question

4. Contrast Effects: The interview performance of one applicant may affect the interview score given to the next applicant. An applicant's performance is judged in relation to the performance of previous interviewees.

Problems with Unstructured Interviews 5. Negative-Information Bias: Negative

information apparently weighs more heavily than positive information

6. Interviewer-Interviewee Similarity: Research suggest that an interviewee will receive a higher score if he is similar to the interviewer in terms of personality, attitude, gender, race

7. Interviewee Appearance: Research indicate that, in general, physically attractive applicants receive higher scores

8. Nonverbal Cues: The use of appropriate nonverbal communication is highly correlated with interview scores. Structured interviews are not as affected by nonverbal cues as are unstructured interviews

Creating a Structured Interview

Determining the KSAOs to Tap

1. Conduct a thorough job analysis and write a detailed job description

2. Determine the best way (i.e., interview, psychological tests, job samples, background checks, etc.) to measure an applicant’s ability to perform each of the tasks identified in the job analysis. Not every KSAO can and should be tapped during the interview.


Creating Interview Questions

1. Clarifiers: Allow the interviewer to clarify information in the resume, cover letter, and application, fill in gaps, and obtain other necessary information. Example: “I noticed a three-year gap between two of your jobs. Could you tell me about that?”

2. Disqualifiers: Questions that must be answered a particular way or the applicant is disqualified. Example: “Do you have a driver’s license?”

3. Skill-Level Determiners: Tap an interviewer’s level of expertise. Example: “Several months after installing a computer network, the client calls and says that nothing will print on the printer. What could be going wrong?”



4. Future-Focused Questions: Also called situational questions, ask an applicant what she would do in a particular situation. This is done by collecting critical incidents. Example: “Imagine that you told a client that you would be there at 10:00 a.m. It is now 10:30 and there is no way you will be finished with your current job until 11:30. You are supposed to meet with another client for lunch at noon and then be at another job at 1:15 p.m. How you handle this situation?”

5. Past-Focused Questions: Also referred to as patterned behaviour description interviews (PBDIs), applicants are asked to provide specific examples of how they demonstrated job-related skills in previous jobs. Example: “When you are dealing with customers, it is inevitable that you are going to get someone angry. Tell us about a time when a customer was angry with you. What did you do to fix the situation?”

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6. Organizational-Fit Questions: Tap the extent to which an applicant will fit into the culture of an organization or with the leadership style of a particular supervisor. The idea is to make sure that the applicant’s personality and goals are consistent with those of the organization. Example: “What type of work pace is best for you?”

Creating a Scoring Key for Interview Answers

Three Main Methods

1. Right/Wrong Approach: Can be scored simply on the basis of whether the answer was correct or incorrect. Example: “As a server, can you serve a glass of wine to a 16-year-old if his parents are present and give permission?”

2. Typical-Answer Approach: Done by creating a list of all possible answers to each question, having subject-matter experts rate the favourableness of each answer, and then use these ratings to serve as benchmark answer for each point on the scale.

3. Key-Issues Approach: SMEs create a list of key issues they think should be included in the perfect answer. For each key issue that is included, the interviewee gets a point. The key issues can also be weighted so that the most important issues get more points.

Conducting the Structured Interview

1. BUILDING RAPPORT: Let the applicant settle themselves so that they can feel more positive about the interview

2. SET THE AGENDA: Explain the process by telling applicants the types of questions that will be asked and point out that each interviewer will be taking notes and scoring the answers immediately after the interviewee has responded

3. ASK THE INTERVIEW QUESTIONS: A one-trained interviewer may ask the questions, or have each panel member ask some questions. Each answer needs to be scored after it has been given.

4. PROVIDE INFORMATION ABOUT THE JOB AND THE ORGANIZATION: Might include salary and benefits, the job duties, opportunities for advancement, a history of the organization, etc.

5. END THE INTERVIEWEE: Compliment the interviewee and let her know when you will be contacting her about job offers.

Sources of Background Information Reasons for Using References and Recommendations

Confirming Details on a Resume. Resume fraud is not uncommon. Organizations need to confirm the truthfulness of information provided by the applicant.

Checking for Discipline Problems. An applicant’s history of discipline problems can include: poor attendance, sexual harassment, and violence. Protects the organization from charges of negligent hiring.

Discovering new information about the applicant. Other information can include work habits, character, personality, and skills. Reference checkers should always obtain specific behavioural examples and try to get consensus from several references.

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Reasons for Using References and Recommendations

Predicting Future Performance. References and letters of recommendation are ways of looking at past performance to try to predict future performance. Low validity shown in research may be due to four main problems:

- Leniency. Because applicants choose their own references, it is not surprising that most letters of recommendation are positive. Fear of legal ramifications (slander or libel) may prevent organizations from giving negative recommendations.

- Knowledge of the Applicant. The person writing the letter often does not know the applicant well, and/or has not observed all aspects of an applicant’s behaviour.

- Reliability. The lack of agreement between two people who provide references for the same person.

- Extraneous Factors. More specific rather than general, longer letters are more positively perceived.

Meta-analyses indicate that a student’s GPA can predict job performance, training performance, salary, and graduate school performance

GPA is most predictive of the first few years after graduation

In the police academy, education was a good predictor of job performance

Consists of a standard set of items or tasks that a person completes under controlled conditions. Most involve paper-and-pencil tasks, such as answering questions or solving problems, although some involve manipulation of physical objects to assess such characteristics as manual dexterity or eye-hand coordination.

Are used to assess ability, interests, knowledge, personality, and skill

Characteristics of Tests

Group versus Individually Administered Tests.

A group test can be administered to several people at once. The test itself is in printed form (e.g., booklet) that can be given to hundreds or thousands of people at one time.

An individual test, in contrast, is one that a test administrator gives to a single test taker at a time rather than to a group of individuals. This is necessary because the administrator has to score the items as the test proceeds or because an apparatus is involved that only one person can use at a time.


Closed-Ended versus Open-Ended Tests

With a closed-ended test, the test taker must choose one from several possible responses, such as multiple-choice exams test for ability and knowledge. The advantage is its greater ease in scoring.

An open-ended test is like an essay exam where the test taker must generate a response rather than choose a correct response. For example, writing ability is best assessed by asking a person to write an essay.


Paper-and-Pencil versus Performance Tests

With a paper-and-pencil test, the test is on a piece of paper or other printed (or electronic) medium, and the responses are made in written form, often with a pencil. Examples are multiple-choice course exams and open ended tests.

A performance test involves the manipulation of apparatus, equipment, materials, or tools. The widely used performance test is the typing test.

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Power versus Speed Tests

A power test gives the test taker almost unlimited time to complete the test.

A speed test has a strict time limit. It is designed so that almost no one could finish all the items in the allotted time. First, a speed test can contain challenging items that must be completed under time pressure. The second use is with a test that is designed to assess a person’s speed in doing a particular task.

A test that asks a person to perform a simulated job under standardized conditions. It is designed to measure the extent to which an applicant already has a job-related skill

The person is given the necessary materials and tools and must perform a particular task, such as assembling a motor, under controlled conditions.

Examples: an applicant as automotive mechanic might be asked to fix a torn fan belt, a secretarial applicant might be asked to type a letter, and a truck-driver applicant might be asked to back a truck up to a loading dock

(+) Excellent selection method: directly related to the job, predictive of actual performance, less challenged in courts

(-) Expensive to construct and administer

A selection technique characterized by the use of multiple assessment methods that allow assessors to actually observe applicants perform simulated job tasks

Measures how well a person is able to perform the tasks of a specific job; commonly used to assess potential for managerial or other white-collar jobs.

Common exercises include the in-basket technique, simulations, work samples, leaderless group discussions, structured interviews, personality and ability tests, and business games

Assessors typically hold positions two levels higher than the assesses and spend one day being trained. They rate the applicants going through the assessment centre.

In an in-basket exercise, the assessesare asked to pretend that is the first day of a new job and they have found a series of items in their in-basket (e-mails, letters, memos, and phone messages). The applicant is asked to go through the items and respond as if he were actually on the job.

In a leaderless group exercise, several assesses are given a problem to solve together, with no leader appointed. The problem might be competitive (e.g., dividing a scarce resource) or cooperative (e.g., generating a solution to an organizational problem). Applicants are rated on dimensions such as cooperativeness, leadership, and analytical skills.

In a problem-solving simulation, the assessee is given a problem and asked to come up with a solution, perhaps by producing a report

In a role-play exercise, the assessee is asked to pretend to be a particular person in a specific organizational role. The task is to handle a problem or situation, such as counselling a troubled employee or dealing with an irate customer.

Business Games are exercises that allow the applicant to demonstrate such attributes as creativity, decision making, and ability to work with others Ability tests tap the extent to which an applicant can learn or perform a

job-related skill. Ability tests are primarily used for occupations in which applicants are not expected to know how to perform the job at the time of hire, but would be taught the necessary job skills and knowledge.

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A ability or an aptitude is the capacity to do or learn to do a particular task.

Cognitive abilities, such as intelligence, are relevant to tasks that involve information processing and learning.

Psychomotor abilities, such as manual dexterity, involve bodily movements and manipulation of objects.

Some job tasks require mostly cognitive abilities (e.g., programming a computer), whereas others rely mainly on psychomotor abilities (e.g., sweeping a floor). Many tasks require both types of abilities (e.g., repairing a computer or a complex piece of equipment)

Cognitive Ability Tests

Dimensions can include oral and written comprehension, oral and written expression, numerical facility, originality, memorization, reasoning (mathematical, deductive, inductive), and general learning

An intelligence, or IQ, test of general cognitive ability is the best known cognitive ability test.

There are also tests of individual cognitive abilities, such as mathematical or verbal ability.

Some tests have been developed that do not rely on reading ability such as non-verbal intelligence test where the items involve problem solving without words

Research has consistently shown that cognitive ability tests are valid predictors of job performance across a large number of different kinds of jobs.

Psychomotor Ability Tests

Assess such things as ability to manipulate objects and use tools.

Involve both the coordination between senses and movement (e.g., eye-hand coordination) and accuracy of movements.

Psychomotor abilities include finger dexterity, manual dexterity, control precision, multilimb coordination, response control, reaction time, arm-hand steadiness, wrist-finger speed, and speed-of-limb movement

Useful for jobs as carpenter, police officer, sewing-machine operator, post office clerk, and truck driver

People are scored on their ability to perform motor tasks, such as putting pegs in holes or using simple tools to manipulate objects.

The Hand-Tool Dexterity Test

Assesses the ability to use simple tools to manipulate small objects. This test involves removing and reassembling several fasteners using wrenches and a screwdriver. The score is based on the time it takes to complete a task.

The Stromberg Dexterity Test

Assesses arm and hand movement accuracy and speed. The person must place the coloured disks into the correct color-coded holes. Again, scores are based on the speed with which the person can accomplish the task.

Physical Ability Tests

Used for jobs that require physical strength and stamina, such as police officer, firefighter, and lifeguard

Through job simulations, physical strength is measured by asking the applicant to demonstrate job-related physical behaviours such as when a firefighter climbs a ladder while dragging a 48-pound hose 75 feet across a street.

Through tests, basic abilities needed to perform certain behaviours have also been developed such as push-ups, sit-ups, and grip strength

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Critical Physical Abilities (Fleishman & Quaintance, 1984)

1. STATIC STRENGTH: “the ability to use muscle force to lift, push, pull, or carry objects”

2. EXPLOSIVE STRENGTH: “the ability to use short bursts of muscle force to propel oneself or an object”

3. GROSS BODY COORDINATION: “the ability to coordinate the movement of the arms, legs, and torso in activities where the whole body is in motion”

4. STAMINA: “the ability of the lungs and circulatory (blood) systems of the body to perform efficiently over time

A knowledge and skill test, often called an achievement test, is designed to assess a person’s level of proficiency.

A knowledge test assesses what one knows, whereas a skill test assesses what one is able to do. The emphasis is on prior knowledge.

Some tests focus on general skills, such as math and reading. Others are useful in assessing skills for a particular job tasks, such as typing.

An example is the Bennett Mechanical Comprehension Test which assesses a combination of mechanical ability and knowledge about tools.

A personality trait is the predisposition or tendency to behave in a particular way across different situations.

Personality traits can be important because certain classes of behavior can be relevant for job performance in organizations.

For instance, sociability and conscientiousness can be an important trait for a salesperson, while conscientiousness and dominance can be an important trait for a supervisor

Some personality tests are designed to assess a single personality trait, while others assesses multiple dimensions and are sometimes used to provide profiles across several personality traits.

TESTS OF NORMAL PERSONALITY measures traits exhibited by normal individuals in everyday life. The most widely used is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) which is based on Carl Jung’s theory. Other good tests include the NEO-PI-R, 16 PF, Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory.

TESTS OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY determine whether individuals have serious psychological problems such as depression, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia. Projective tests include the Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test. Objective test include the MMPI-2, Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MMCI-III), and the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI)

Conscientiousness and emotional stability are the best predictors of individual performance in almost every job

Conscientious employees set higher personal goals for themselves, are more motivated, and have higher performance expectations

Extroversion is associated with performance in sales and management jobs

Agreeableness is associated with performance in jobs where employees are expected to be cooperative and helpful

People high on the openness-to-experience dimension tend to be more creative and adaptable to change.

VIDEO SOURCES/PHYSICAL ABILITIES Test for Correctional Officers.mp4

VIDEO SOURCES/PHYSICAL ABILITIES Test for Correctional Officers.mp4

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Emotional intelligence (EI) can be defined as the ability to control and recognize emotions in oneself and in others

In theory, this ability makes people more socially skilled, enabling them to be aware of and to control their impact on others

In a work setting, this means being able to work smoothly with colleagues, and in supervisory positions, the ability to exert leadership

Currently, the construct validity of EI is still in dispute among researchers

Social Awareness

Self-management

Empathy; understanding the emotions of others and their impact on relationships.

Self-regulation; thinking before acting and staying in control of one’s emotions.

Self-awarenessUnderstanding own emotions and their impact on oneself and others.

Relationship Management

Rapport; making use of emotions to build and maintain good relationships

Lowest

Highest

Emotional Intelligence Competencies

An integrity test is designed to predict whether an employee will engage in counterproductive or dishonest behavior on the job.

Such tests have been used to predict such behaviours as cheating, sabotage, theft, unethical behaviours, and sometimes absence and turnover.

Overt integrity test assesses attitudes and prior behavior (“It is all right to lie if you know you won’t get caught.”). They measure attitudes by asking the test-taker to estimate the frequency of theft in society, how harsh penalties against thieves should be, etc.

Personality integrity test assesses personality characteristics that have been found to predict counterproductive behavior

A vocational interest test matches either the interests or the personality of the test taker to those of people in a variety of different occupations and occupational categories.

Interests are assessed by asking the test taker to indicate preferences for engaging in various activities, such as attending a sporting event or visiting a museum.

Data from vocational interest tests are available about the answers of people in many different occupations. The test taker’s answers are matched to those of people in different occupations to see how well they fit each occupation.

One of the most popular vocational interest tests is the Self-Directed Search (Holland, 1994)

Asks more detailed background questions than a typical application form. Whereas application forms about level of education and work experience, the biographical inventory asks about specific experiences at school and work, or even other areas in life.

BIOGRAPHICAL INVENTORY

When you were in grade school and people were being picked for teams, when were you usually picked?

Did you attend your high school person?

In high school, what grades did you get in chemistry class?

In your first full-time job, how often did you initiate conservation with your immediate supervisor?

Sample Items

Enjoyed very muchEnjoyed somewhat Enjoyed a littleDidn’t enjoy at all

VIDEO SOURCES/Emotional Intelligence.mp4

VIDEO SOURCES/Emotional Intelligence.mp4

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Organizations have turned to drug testing of applicants and employees as a means of controlling drug use at work

Various research have demonstrated that drug users are more likely to miss work and use health care benefits, to get fired and quit their jobs, and cause many accidents on the job

Such testing is of popular importance in jobs that are safety-sensitive, meaning that impaired performance could lead to accidents or injury (e.g., air traffic controller and bus driver)

Drug testing is very accurate in detecting the presence of drugs. Stage 1: urine or hair sample is submitted for enzyme multiplied immunoassay technique (EMIT) and radioimmunoassay (RIA). If positive, second stage: thin-layer chromatography or gas chromatography/mass spectometryanalysis.

Also known as handwriting analysis, the idea behind it is that the way people write reveals their personality, which in turn should indicate work performance

Popular selection method in France

Looks at the size, slant, width, regularity, and pressure of a writing sample

Predictive of affective states such as stress (Keinan & Eilat-Greenberg, 1993) but not job performance

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Industrial-Organizational Psychologist/HR Consultant

Performance Appraisal, Development, and Management Performance Appraisal: The

process of assessing performance

to make administrative decisions

Performance Development: Assessment of performance with

the goal of providing feedback to

facilitate improved performance

Performance Management: Process that incorporate appraisal and development to make performance-based administrative decisions and help employee improve

Why do we appraise employees?

1. Administrative Decisions:

Basis for punishments (demotion and termination)

and rewards (retention, promotion and pay raises)

2. Employee Development and Feedback

Supervisors need to inform their subordinates about expectations and how well the expectations are being met; identify T&D needs

On top of the annual appraisal, companies can include semiannual goal setting, periodic coaching and feedback sessions between employee and supervisor

Why do we appraise employees?

3. Criteria for Research:

Job performance data can serve as the criterion

against which many of the efforts of I/O

psychologists are evaluated, such as: designing

better equipment, hiring better people, motivating

employees, and training employees.

Who will evaluate performance? 1. Supervisors:

Most common source; they are responsible for that

person’s performance

See end results (such daily sales), but may not see every

minute of an employee’s behavior; danger of bias for or

against

2. Peers:

They see actual behaviour of employee; can result to open

communication, cohesion, and reduced social loafing

Employees tend to react worse to negative feedback from

peers than from experts (Albright & Levy, 1995)

3. Subordinates:

Usually for developmental rather than for pay purposes,

can improve the manager’s performance

Also called upward feedback, honest subordinates rating

can be difficult to obtain if employees fear a backlash if

they unfavourably rate their supervisor

Subordinates prefer giving anonymous responses (not

surprisingly), and those who must identify themselves

tend to give inflated ratings

Who will evaluate performance?


VIDEO SOURCES/Performance Management.mp4

VIDEO SOURCES/Performance Management.mp4

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4. Customers:

Informally, customers can provide feedback on

employee performance by complimenting or filing

complaints

Formally, customers can be asked to complete evaluation

cards

Secret shoppers - organizations can also seek customer

feedback from customers who have been enlisted by a

company to periodically evaluate the service they receive

Who will evaluate performance? Who will evaluate performance?

5. Self-Appraisal:

An employee evaluates his/her own behaviour and

performance;

Tend to suffer from leniency errors for certain

countries such as in the U.S., mainland China,

India, and Singapore

Self-ratings in countries such as Japan, Korea, and

Taiwan suffer from modesty (Barren & Sackett,

2008)

May be more accurate if not used for

administrative purposes

What is the focus of the appraisal?

1. Trait-Focused Performance Dimensions:

Concentrates on such employee

attributes such as honesty,

dependability, courtesy

Provide poor feedback and thus

will not result in employee

development and growth

Because traits are personal, the

employee is likely to become

defensive


2. Competency-Focused Performance Dimensions:

Concentrates on the

employee’s knowledge,

skills, and abilities

Makes it easy to provide

feedback and suggest steps

necessary to correct

deficiencies


3. Task-Focused Performance Dimensions:

Organized by the similarity of tasks that are

performed and includes several competencies

Because supervisors are

concentrating on tasks that

occur together, evaluating

performance in other

dimensions becomes easier to

visualize

Difficult to offer suggestions

to correct deficiencies


4. Goal-Focused Performance Dimensions:

The appraisal is organized on the basis of goals

to be accomplished by the employee

Makes it easier

for an employee

to understand

why certain

behaviours are

expected

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Characteristics of Performance CriteriaActual versus Theoretical Criteria:

A theoretical criterion is

a theoretical construct

(definition) of what good

performance is

An actual criterion is the

way in which the theoretical

criterion is assessed or

operationalized

Characteristics of Performance Criteria

Contamination, Deficiency, and Relevance:

Criterion contamination refers to that part of the actual criterion that reflects something other than what it was designed to measure. It can arise from biases in the criterion and from unreliability.

Criterion deficiency means that the actual criterion does not adequately cover the entire theoretical criterion, an incomplete representation of what we are trying to assess (insufficient content validity)

Criterion relevance refers to the extent to which the actual criterion assesses the theoretical criterion it is designed to measure, or its construct validity


Criterion Complexity:

Criteria can become quite

complex because jobs involve

multiple tasks that can be

evaluated from several perspectives

For instance, quality

dimension (how well the

worker does the job) versus

quantity dimension (how

much or how quickly the

worker does the job)


Two Ways to Deal with Criterion Complexity:

1. Composite criteria approach: combining

individual criteria into a single score

2. Multidimensional approach: when the individual

criterion measures are not combined

Attendance 5

Professional appearance 4

Work quality 4

Work quantity 5


Dynamic Criteria:

This refers to the variability of performance over

time which would make the assessment difficult

because the performance would not have been the same

throughout the entire measurement time period.

Contextual Performance:

Consists of extra, voluntary things employees do to

benefit their coworkers and organizations that must be

considered in developing criteria for jobs.

DISTRIBUTIONAL ERRORS

When a rater tends to rate everyone

the same on a rating scale regardless

of actual performance

Leniency Errors: When the rater rates everyone at

the favourable end of the performance scale.

Severity Errors: Also known as strictness error, it

happens when the rater rates everyone at the

unfavourable end of the performance scale

Central Tendency Errors: When the rater rates

everyone in the middle of the performance scale.

Rater Bias and Error

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HALO ERRORS When a rater gives an individual the same rating across all

rating dimensions despite differences in performance across

dimensions

Happens when the rater allows either a single attribute or an

overall impression of an individual to affect the ratings that

she makes on specific qualities

Dimension Emp. 1 Emp. 2 Emp. 3 Emp.4

Attendance 5 3 1 4

Communication 5 3 1 4

Following directions 5 3 1 4

Work quality 5 3 1 4

Work quantity 5 3 1 4


PROXIMITY ERRORS Occur when a rating made on one dimension affects the

rating made on the dimension that immediately follows it on

the rating scale

For example, because second dimension is physically located

on the rating form next to the first, there is a tendency to

provide the same rating on both dimensions

Dimension Emp. 1 Emp. 2 Emp. 3 Emp.4

Attendance 5 3 1 4

Communication 5 3 1 4

Following directions 5 3 1 4

Work quality 5 3 1 4

Work quantity 5 3 1 4


CONTRAST ERRORS Happens when the

performance rating one

person receives is influenced

by the performance of a

previously evaluated person

For example, the employee

who is evaluated after the best

employee might receive lower

ratings because her

performance is contrasted to

the other employee


Low Reliability across Raters Two people rating the same employee seldom agree with each

other

Happens because (1) raters often

commit in rating errors, (2) raters have

very different standards and ideas about

the ideal employee, (3) different raters

may actually see very different

behaviours by the same employee


Sampling Problems Recency Effect: Recent behaviours are given more weight in

the performance evaluation than behaviours that occurred

during the first few months of the evaluation period

Infrequent Observation: Occurs because many managers

and supervisors do not have the opportunity to observe a

representative sample of employee behaviour

Cognitive Processing of Observed Behaviour Observation of Behaviour: Memory accuracy decreases

over time—need for immediate rating after behaviour

Emotional State: The amount of stress under which a

supervisor operates also affects her performance


Cognitive Processing of Observed Behaviour Bias: Raters who like the employee being rated may be

more lenient and less accurate in their ratings than would

raters who neither like nor dislike their employees (Cardy

& Dobbins, 1986)

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REDUCING RATER

ERRORS

o Rater Error Training (RET): Raters are

familiarized with rater errors and taught to avoid

these rating patterns.

o Frame-of-Reference Training: Attempts to provide

a common understanding of the rating task

o 360 Degree Feedback: Using multiple perspective

for manager feedback. Managers evaluate

themselves, then evaluated by peers, subordinates,

and supervisors

RATING COMMITTEES

o Usually composed

of the employee s

immediate

supervisor and

three or four other

supervisors.

o Multiple raters often see different facets of an

employee’s performance, helping cancel out

problems such as bias on the part of individual

raters

Six Points of a Legally Defensible

Performance Appraisal System

1. Perform job analysis to define dimensions

of performance.

2. Develop rating form to assess dimensions

from prior point.

3. Train raters in how to assess performance.

4. Have higher management review ratings and

allow employees to appeal their evaluations.

5. Document performance and maintain

detailed records.

6. Provide assistance and counselling to poor-

performing employees prior to actions

against them.

Methods for Assessing Job Performance

Objective Measures

Counts of various behaviours (e.g., number of days absent from work) or the results of job behaviours (e.g., total monthly sales).

Subjective Measures

Ratings of people who should

be knowledgeable about the

person’s job performance,

usually by supervisors

SUBJECTIVE MEASURES OF JOB PERFORMANCE

1. Graphic Rating Scales

2. Employee Comparison Methods

a) Rank Order

b) Paired Comparison

c) Forced Distribution

3. Behaviour-Focused Rating Forms

a) Critical Incidents

b) Behaviourally Anchored Rating

Scales (BARS)

c) Behavioural-Observation Scale

(BOS)

d) Mixed Standard Scales (MSS)

Graphic Rating Scales The most commonly used rating scale

Assesses individuals on several dimensions of performance;

Focuses on the person’s performance (e.g., work quality &

quantity), or his/her characteristics or traits (e.g., appearance,

attitude, dependability, and motivation)

Consists of multi-point scale that represents a continuum of

performance from low to high and usually contains from four

to seven values.

A supervisor checks off a rating scale for each of the

dimensions

(+) Easy to construct and use

(-) Susceptible to rating errors such as halo and leniency

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In these methods, individuals are compared with one

another

The concentration of ratings at one part of the scale

caused by rating error is avoided

(+) Eliminates central tendency and leniency errors

because raters are compelled to differentiate among the

people being rated

(-) Halo error is still possible because it manifests itself

across multiple evaluations of the same person

(-) Performance is not compared with a defined

standard—they do not provide information about how an

employee is actually performing

Employee-Comparison Methods

The rater ranks employees from high to low on a given

performance dimension

The person ranked first is regarded as the “best” and the

person ranked last as the “worst”

(+) Easily used when there are only a few employees to rank

(-) Becomes tedious and even meaningless to rank order

large numbers of people

(-) We still do not know how good the “best” is and how bad

the “worst” is. We do not know the level of performance


RANK ORDER

Involves comparing each possible pair of employees and

choosing which one of each pair is the better employee

Typically used to evaluate employees on a single dimension:

overall ability to perform the job

At the conclusion of the evaluation, the number of times each

person was selected as the better of the two is tallied: people

are then ranked by the number of tallies they receive

(+) Best for relatively small samples

(-) Becomes prohibitive with large number of people:

evaluating 100 employees would result in 4,950 separate

comparisons!


PAIRED COMPARISON

Also called the “rank and yank”, this procedure is based on

the normal distribution and assumes that employee

performance is normally distributed

Using predetermined percentages based on the normal

distribution, the rater evaluates an employee by placing him

or her into one of the categories

(+) Increases levels of organizational productivity

(+) Employee-comparison method of choice for large

number of employee

(-) Considered by employees as harsh and least fair

(-) Assumes that employee performance is normally

distributed, although it can also be not normally distributed


FORCED-DISTRIBUTION METHOD

Concentrates on specific instances of behavior that a

person has done or could be expected to do.

Behaviours are chosen to represent different levels of

performance

Example for attendance: (a) Good behavior: “Can be

counted to be at work every day on time.” (b) Poor

behaviour: “Comes to work late several times per week”

The rater’s job is to indicate which behaviours are

characteristic of the person being rated

Reflects the most recent advancement in performance

appraisal

Behaviour-Focused Rating Forms

Critical incidents are behaviours that result in good or poor

performance

Usually written in a critical incident log—formal accounts of

employee performance that were observed by the supervisor

Should be communicated to the concerned employee at the

time they occur

(+) Helps supervisors recall behaviours when they are

evaluating performance, and helps an organization defend

against legal actions

(-) Not having numerical ratings makes it not as useful for

comparing employees or for salary decisions


CRITICAL INCIDENTS

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Are a combination of the critical incidents and

rating-scale methods: performance is rated on a

scale, but the scale points are anchored with

behavioural incidents

The rater chooses the behaviour that comes closest

to describing the performance of the person in

question

Time-consuming to develop but the benefits make

it worthwhile


BEHAVIOURALLY ANCHORED RATING

SCALE Contains items that are also based on critical

incidents

The rater must rate the employee on the frequency

of critical incidents

The final step is to do item analysis to detect the

critical incidents that most influence overall

performance

(+) Content valid: the aspects of performance are

derived directly from the job


BEHAVIOR OBSERVATION SCALES (BOS)

Example of a Mixed Standard Scale to Assess the Dimension of Relations with Other People

For each item on the scale, indicate if the employee is:

A. Better than the item

B. As good as the item

C. Worse than the item

___ Good Performance: Is in good terms with everyone. Can get

along with people when he or she doesn’t agree with them.

___ Satisfactory Performance: Gets along with most people.

Only very occasionally does he or she have conflicts with others

on the job, and these are likely to be minor.

___ Poor Performance: Has the tendency to get into unnecessary

conflicts with other people.

Developed by having employees rate job behaviours

and critical incidents on the extent to which they

represent various levels of job performance

For each job dimension, a behaviour or incident is

chosen to represent excellent performance (+),

average performance (0), and poor performance (-)

1. The ratee is better than the statement

2. The statement fits the ratee

3. The ratee is worse than the statement


MIXED-STANDARD SCALES (MSS)

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TRAINING

Training

Definition

“The systematic acquisition of attitudes, concepts, knowledge, roles, or skills, that result in improved performance at work.”

5 STEPS FOR EFFECTIVE ORGANIZATIONAL

TRAINING PROGRAMS:

Conduct TNA

Set Objectives

Design Training

Deliver Training

Evaluate Training

NEEDS ASSESSMENT

The first step in developing an employee

training system

Needs assessment is conducted to determine

which employees need training and what the

content of their training should be (Arthur,

Bennett, Edens, & Bell, 2003)

Has three types: (1) organizational analysis,

(2) task analysis, and (3) performance analysis

NEEDS ASSESSMENT: Organizational Analysis

Purpose: To determine organizational factors that either facilitate or

inhibit training effectiveness

Focus: Goals the organization wants to achieve, the extent to which

training will help achieve these goals, the organization’s ability to

conduct training (e.g., finances, physical space, time), and the extent

to which employees are willing and able to be trained (e.g., ability,

commitment, motivation, stress)

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Purpose: To identify the tasks to be performed by each employee, the

conditions under which these tasks are performed, and the

competencies (knowledge, skills, abilities) needed to perform the tasks

under the identified conditions

Methods: Interviews, surveys,

observations, and task inventories

Is fairly easy and does not take much

time if job descriptions are written in a

detailed manner

NEEDS ASSESSMENT: Task Analysis

Comparing task analysis results with training programs

Purpose: To verify that there is a performance

deficiency and to determine whether the employer

should correct such deficiencies through training or

some other means

(1) Performance appraisal scores may indicate that additional

training for identified dimensions may be needed

(2) Survey can ask employees what knowledge and skills they

believe should be included in future training

NEEDS ASSESSMENT: Performance Analysis

(3) Interviews can yield more in-depth answers to questions about

training needs

(4) Skill and knowledge tests may indicate that, if employees score

poorly on these tests, training is needed

(5) Critical Incidents will show that dimensions with many examples

of poor performance (e.g., productivity, absenteeism and

tardiness, grievances, waste, late deliveries, product quality,

downtime, repairs, equipment utilization, and customer complaints)

NEEDS ASSESSMENT: Performance Analysis

Designing Training Programs

Planning the overall training program includes:

Setting performance objectives

Creating a detailed training outline

Choosing a program delivery method

Verifying the overall program design

with management

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INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

The first step in the design process is to write learning objectives

Learning objectives should be practical given financial

(development costs, direct and indirect costs) and time constraints

They should specify in measurable terms what the trainee should

be able to accomplish after successfully completing the training

program

Example: “The technical service representative will be able to adjust

the color guidelines on this HP Officejet All-in-One printer copier

within 10 minutes according to the device s specifications.”

Components of a Learning Objective:

1. PERFORMANCE:

Should describe observable behaviors that the participants will be able

to do as a result of the training

Must use specific action verbs that are not subject to interpretations

Words such as to understand, know, and learn are NOT ACCEPTABLE

because these are not observable

Example: “The technical service representative will be able to adjust the

color guidelines on this HP Officejet All-in-One printer copier within 10

minutes according to the device’s specifications.”


2. CONDITION:

Pertains to the circumstances under which the participant will be

performing the activity

Also describes the equipment, supplies, and job aids; describes the work

setting and any given information used to direct the action





3. STANDARD:

Specifies the level or degree of proficiency that is necessary to perform

the task or job successfully

Indicates the quality of the performance required to achieve objectives

May involve speed, accuracy with a margin of error, maximum of mistakes

permitted, productivity level, or degree of excellence




TRAINING DESIGN

Transfer of Training – the expectation that employees apply knowledge and skills learned on the job.

Trainee Characteristics

Training Design:Feedback

General PrinciplesIdentical Elements

OverlearningSequencing

Work Environment

Trainee Characteristics

Individual differences in ability and motivation are important factors in learning.

Abilities: Not everyone has the same ability to learn a given task, and training needs to recognize these differences.

Attitudes and Motivation: By giving rewards for successful completion, and by making the training interesting to the trainers, participants can be more motivated.

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Design factors that affect transfer of training:

Feedback: Should be given to the trainees so that they can tell if they are learning the correct material (e.g., test, asking questions, etc.)

General Principles: This section should teach why something is done, i.e., the general principles behind the material

Identical Elements: The responses in training situation are identical to the job situation (e.g., flight simulator)

Overlearning: Giving the trainees practice beyond what is necessary to reach a criterion and achieve automaticity

Method Advantages

Lecture A presentation by a trainer to a group of trainees.Economical; good information-giving method

Case Study Method

Presents a trainee with a written description of an organizational problem. Allows diagnosis of realistic cases and presentation of proposed solutions.

On-the-job-training

Having a person learn the job by actually doing it; high level of transfer (e.g., apprenticeship); useful in trade occupations

Training Methods Training Methods

Method Advantages

Audio-visualinstruction

Electronic presentation (e.g. DVD, films, audiotapes). The stop-action, instant replay, and fast- orslow-motion capabilities useful for illustrating how to follow a certain sequence over time.

Conference Meeting of trainees and a trainer. Allows for free flow of ideas; high level of trainee involvement

Programmed Learning

Step-by-step, self-learning method (e.g., programmed instruction trough textbook, PC, or Internet). Gives immediate feedback to trainees; allows individualized pacing, reduces training time

Method Advantages

Role Playing Having trainees assume roles of specific persons in a realistic situation. Can trigger spirited discussions; may train someone to be more sensitive to other’s feelings

Behavior Modelling

Having trainees watch someone perform a task and then having them model what they have seen. High level of feedback; provides practice of new skills

Training Methods

Method Advantages

Vestibule Training

Trainees learn on the actual or simulated equipment they will use on the job, but are trained off the job (a separate room or vestibule. Necessary when it’s too costly or dangerous to train employees on the job

Training Methods

VIDEO SOURCES/Aston Martin Apprenticeship.mp4

VIDEO SOURCES/Aston Martin Apprenticeship.mp4

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Method Advantages

Internet-Based Training

Employing Internet-based learning to deliver programs.Online courses can be done through company’s own Intranet or from online training vendors

Training Methods

Method Advantages

Mobile Learning Delivering learning content on demand via mobile devices like cell phones, laptops, and iPads.Employers use mobile learning to deliver corporate training and downloads.

Training Methods

Method Advantages

Computer-Based Training (CBT)

Uses interactive computer-based systems to increase knowledge or skills.Increasingly interactive and realistic (e.g. virtual reality),reduces learning time

Training Methods Mentoring

A special kind of work relationship between two employees in which the more experienced one offers career guidance, counselling, and emotional support, and serves as a role model, to the less experienced one

(+) Helps employees develop their careers with the company.

(+) According to research, protégés have better job performance, quicker promotion, better job attitudes, and less turnover

Executive Coaching

High level executives are paired with a consultant who serves as executive coach to help them improve performance

The incumbent has significant performance deficiencies and the cost of finding a replacement is high

Plans to enhance specific skills can be devised with the coach based on feedbacks from people who interact with the executive

(+) The coach might work with the executive for an extended period, providing continual advice and feedback

VIDEO SOURCES/IBM Mobile Learning.mp4

VIDEO SOURCES/IBM Mobile Learning.mp4

VIDEO SOURCES/Virtual Reality Training Military.mp4

VIDEO SOURCES/Virtual Reality Training Military.mp4

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1. Adults must recognize the need to learn.

2. Adults want to apply new learning back on the job.

3. Adults need to integrate past experience with new material.

4. Adults prefer the concrete to the abstract.

Differences Between Children and Adults As Learners

Children:

Rely on others to decide what is important to be learned

Accept information being presented at face value

Expect what they are learning to be useful in the long run

Have little experience upon which to draw; are relatively clean slates

Rely on others to decide what is important to be learned

Little ability to serve as knowledgeable resource to teacher or fellow classmates

Adults:

Decide for themselves what is important to be learned

Needs to validate the information based on their beliefs and experience

Expect what they are learning to be immediately useful

Have much past experience upon which to draw; may have fixed viewpoints

Significant ability to serve as knowledgeable resource to the trainer and to fellow learners

5. Adults need a variety of training methods.

6. Adults learn better in an informal, comfortable environment.

7. Adults want to solve realistic problems.

8. Adults prefer the hands-on method of learning.

The trainer is not the change agent…

In adult learning, the change agent is not the trainer/facilitator. It is the trainee who must decide that he/she is capable and potentially

equipped to make the change.

The TRAINEE isthe change agent!

Making the Presentation

VIDEO SOURCES/6 Tips for Adult Learning.mp4

VIDEO SOURCES/6 Tips for Adult Learning.mp4

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DIFFICULT PARTICIPANTS

Talkative “I appreciate your contribution, but let’s hear from some other people.” “In order to stay on schedule and on track, let’s discuss this further during the break or after the session.”

Clueless “Something I said must have led you off track. What I was trying to say was. . . .”

Rambling “I don’t understand. How does this relate to what we’re talking about?”

Belligerent “I understand and appreciate your point of view. What do some of the rest of you think?”

Stubborn “I appreciate your position, but for the sake of the activity, I’m going to insist that we move on. I’ll be happy to discuss this with you later.”

Indifferent/

Silent“I know you have some experience in this area. Please tell us about it.”

DIFFICULT PARTICIPANTS

Know-it-all “That’s one point of view. However, there are other ways of looking at it.”

Class Clown “We all enjoy a little levity. But right now, let’s get serious and concentrate on the topic at hand.”

Negative“I understand your point. What suggestions do you have to

change the situation?” “For the sake of discussion, what might be some arguments for the opposite point of view?”

Personality Clashes

“I suggest that we keep personalities out of the discussion. Let’s get back to the topic at hand.”

Side Talks “[Persons’ names], we were just talking about. . . . What are your thoughts?”

PRESENTATION SKILLS

Make eye contact with the audience

Use gestures effectively

Don’t read your presentation

Don’t hide behind the podium

Use a conversational style

Be confident—avoid the use of fillers, speak at an appropriate volume, and don’t brag about yourself

Speak at a pace that is neither too fast nor too slow

Avoid swearing, making off-color or offensive remarks, and demeaning other people, groups, or organizations

Make the presentation interesting (e.g., stories, humor, variety of activities, sharing, etc.

When answering questions, repeat, paraphrase, don’t bluff

Don’t force humor

PRESENTATION SKILLS

TRAINING EVALUATION

A training program is not complete until its effectiveness has been evaluated

Evaluation: a piece of research to determine whether the program had its intended effects.

Training evaluation requires 5 steps:

Set criteria for evaluation

Select a design for the study

Select measures to assess criteria

Collect data for the study

Analyze and interpret the data

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1) Set CRITERIA

Criteria are standards of comparison so that you can determine if training has been effective (i.e., what is the training supposed to achieve?)

Training Criteria are classified into two levels:

Training-Level Criteria: concerned with abilities learned and applied by people at the end of training in the training environment itself rather than on the job

Performance-Level Criteria: concerned with person’s performance on the job rather than in the training setting, i.e., transfer of training

L1 - Reactions Criteria: How much trainees liked the training and how much they believed they got out of it (questionnaire at the end of training)

L2 - Learning Criteria: What knowledge or skills the trainees learned in training (examination at the end of the training)

L3 - Behavior Criteria: Trainee’s behaviors on the job that might have been due to the training (performance appraisal)

L4 - Results Criteria: Whether the training had its intended effect (cost-benefit analysis, tracking, operational data)

Kirkpatrick’s 4 Levels of Training Evaluation

o Criticisms: Too subjective, may become a popularity contest

o Limitations: Does not measure learning or ability to apply learning on the job, cannot measure changes in attitudes or beliefs

o Categories: End-of-session evaluation form should include content, materials, instructional methods, trainer, environment, logistics, recommendations

o Format: Two-choice questions with room for explanation or comments, short answers, complete the sentence, ratings, rankings, checklist

LEVEL 1: REACTIONS CRITERIA

o “Extent to which participants change attitudes, improve knowledge, and/or increase skill as a result of attending the program” (Kirkpatrick, 1994)

o Tests: Give both a pre-test and a post-test to get an even more accurate picture of what the participants have learned

o Observation: Trainers can watch participants practicing and applying skills, tools, and techniques during the session

o Interviews: Shortly after the training, interview the participants and ask them what they learned in the session

LEVEL 2: LEARNING CRITERIA

o Answers the question: “How has the training affected the way participants perform on the job?”

o Challenges: Time-consuming and costly; requires good organizational and follow-up skills and processes

o Methods: Observations of employees back on the job, interviews of those affected by the training participant, surveys, and control group to compare results

o Time considerations: Enough time for the behavior change to take place could be three to six months after attending the training

LEVEL 3: BEHAVIOR CRITERIA

o Determines the impact of the training on the organization

o Critical success factors: Production output, sales, operating costs, customer satisfaction, quality standards, safety record, turnover rate, absenteeism, employee grievances, employee satisfaction, budget variances, promotions

o Limitations: Time-consuming, costly, and difficult (many variables come into place after the participant leaves the training)

LEVEL 4: RESULTS CRITERIA

VIDEO SOURCES/The Four-Levels Training Evaluation Model.mp4

VIDEO SOURCES/The Four-Levels Training Evaluation Model.mp4

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2) Choose DESIGN

Design – structure of a study that specifies how data are collected.

Two most popular designs:

Pretest-Posttest Design: Assesses trainees before and after training.

Control Group Design: Compares trainees with a group of employees who have not received the training.

A series of performance measures are taken before and after the training program, and are compared for possible improvement

Can be used to assess the amount learned in the training itself or the amount of change in behavior back on the job.

A practical design to use in organizations

A major drawback is the difficulty of attributing changes to the training itself rather than other events in the organization

Pretest-Posttest Design

Used to compare employees who receive training to equivalent employees who have not been trained

Comparison between two subgroups of employees indicates the effects of the training.

This design is more difficult to use in an organization because it is not always possible to assign employees at random to the two groups

This design is an improvement over the pretest-posttest when you wish to determine the effects of training

Helps control for the possibility that it was something other than training that caused the changes you observed in employees

Control Group Design 3. Choose Measures of Criteria

Criterion determines a great extent what sorts of measures can be used to assess it

Examples:

Reaction criteria: questionnaire that asks for employees reactions

Learning criteria: knowledge test to determine what has been learned for knowledge-based training, or role play and simulation test for skills-based training

Performance criteria: measuring trainee behavior or results in the job setting rather than training

4) Data Collection

Poses many practical problems such as uncooperative people

Best possible design should always be planned ahead

Modifications might have to be made during the study based on the problems that will be faced as the study is being conducted.

5) Data Analysis and Interpretation

Data from evaluation studies are analyzed with inferential statistics.

If all four steps have been well done, it is possible to reach a confident conclusion about the effectiveness of the training program.

Training must be effective at both levels (training-level and performance-level) to consider the program effective.

A training program is considered not effective if training does not work in both levels

1

Workplace Emotions, Attitudes, and Stress

“It’s not only how people

think but also how they feel”


Industrial-Organizational Psychologist/HR Consultant

[email protected]

EMOTIONS defined

Strong positive or negative feelings directed toward someone or something; tend to be short-term

Most emotions occur without our awareness

Moods are lower intensity emotions without any specific target source; may persist for some time

Foundations of Emotions and Moods

Positive Affectivity

• Tendency to be perceptually positive; generally extroverted—outgoing, talkative, sociable, and assertive

Negative Affectivity

• Tendency to experience negative moods in a wide range of settings and under many different conditions

Self-conscious Emotions

• Emotions that arise from internal sources that help individuals regulate their relationships with others

• Examples: shame, guilt, embarrassment, and pride

Foundations of Emotions and Moods

Social Emotions

• Emotions that are stimulated by external sources

• Examples: pity, envy, and jealousy

Emotion and Mood Contagion

Emotion and Mood Contagion: The spillover effects of one’s emotions and mood to others

Evidence shows that positive and negative emotions are contagious. In one study, team

members were found to share good and bad moods within two hours of being together; bad moods, interestingly, travelled person-to-person faster than good moods.

Emotion and mood contagion is an important leadership issue that should be managed with care because everyone watches the boss

ATTITUDES defined

Predisposition to respond in a positive or negative way to someone or something in one’s environment

“Liking” or “disliking” someone or something is an expression of attitude

Attitudes represent the cluster of beliefs, assessed feelings, and behavioral intentions toward a person, object, or event (called attitude object)

2

EMOTIONAL LABOR defined

Effort, planning and control needed to express organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions.

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Emotional labor is higher when job requires:

frequent and long duration display of emotions

displaying a variety of emotions

displaying more intense emotions

Emotional Labor ChallengesDifficult to display expected emotions accurately, and to hide true emotions.

• More stressful when a person copes with it with surface acting—hiding true feelings while displaying very different ones

• Deep acting—modifying one’s feelings to better fit the situation (such as empathizing with an irate customer) can be less stressful to the person

WORKPLACE ATTITUDES

Three Components:

1. An acceptance of the organization’s goals;

2. A willingness to work hard for the organization

3. The desire to stay with the organization

ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT

The loyalty of an individual to the organization.

Dimensions of Organizational Commitment

Continuance Commitment

Refers to employees' assessment of whether the costs of leaving the organization are greater than the costs of staying

Employees who perceive that the costs of leaving the organization are greater than the costs of staying remain because they need to

Normative Commitment

Refers to employee's feelings of obligation to the organization

Employees with high levels of normative commitment stay with the organization because they feel they ought to


3

Affective Commitment

Refers to employee's emotional attachment, identification with, and involvement in the organization

Employees with a strong affective commitment stay with the organization because they want to


• Is the extent to which people like (or dislike) their jobs

• One of the most studied variables in O.B.

• Argued as the cause of important employee and organizational outcomes ranging from job performance to health and longevity

JOB SATISFACTION

The degree to which an individual feels positive or negative about a job overall as well as various aspects of them.

Five Facets of Job SatisfactionOne of the most popular measures of Job Satisfaction is the Job Descriptive Index (JDI). It measures five facets:

1. The work itself—responsibility, interest, and growth.

2. Quality of Supervision—technical help and social support

3. Relationship with co-workers—social harmony and respect

4. Promotion opportunities—chances for further advancement

5. Pay—adequacy of pay and perceived equity vis-à-vis others

Research Findings on Job Satisfaction

The fairness with which pay is distributed (or, equity) is more important determinant of pay satisfaction than the actual level of pay

Many studies have shown that older workers are more satisfied with their jobs than younger workers (lowest level at around 26 to 31)

Identical twins have been found to have similar levels of job satisfaction despite being reared apart and despite working at dissimilar jobs. Inherited personality traits such as negative affectivity are related to our tendency to be satisfied with jobs (Ilies & Judge, 2003)

Dissatisfied employees reported more physical symptoms, such as sleep problems and upset stomach (Begley & Czajka, 1993; O’Driscoll & Beehr, 1994)

Job satisfaction leads to better job performance when rewarded!

Job Satisfaction and OCBsJob satisfaction is also linked with organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs). These are discretionary behaviors that represent a willingness to “go beyond the call of duty” or “go the extra mile” in one’s work.

A good organizational citizen:

1. Interpersonal OCBs—Does things that although not required of them help others (i.e., altruism)

2. Organizational OCBs—Advance the performance of the organization as a whole (e.g., doing what needs to be done, following rules, coming to work on time, and not wasting time)

Job Satisfaction and CWBsJob dissatisfaction is often associated with a variety of counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs), behaviours intended to harm the organization and other people at work, such as coworkers, supervisors and customers.

Personal Aggression—Sexual harassment, verbal abuse, physical abuse, intimidation, humiliation

Production Deviance—wasting resources, avoiding work, disrupting workflow, making deliberate work errors

Political Deviance—spreading harmful rumors, gossiping, using bad language, lacking civility in relationships

Property Deviance—destroying or sabotaging facilities and equipment, stealing money and other resources

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Workplace StressSTRESS defined

An adaptive response to a situation that is perceived as challenging or threatening to the person’s well-being.

20

A state of tension experienced by individuals facing extraordinary demands, constraints, or opportunities.

Sources of Stress: WORK STRESSORS

List of common work stressors include the following:

o Task Demands—being asked to do too much or being asked to do too little (quantitative workload) or being asked to do very difficult work relative to one’s capabilities (qualitative workload)

o Role Ambiguities—the extent to which employees are uncertain about what their job functions and responsibilities are

o Role Conflicts—arises when people experience incompatible demands either at work (intrarole) or between work and non-work (extrarole)

o Ethical Dilemmas—being asked to do things that violate personal values or the law

o Interpersonal Problems—experiencing bad relationships with coworkers

o Career Developments—moving too fast and feeling stretched; moving too slowly and feeling stuck

o Physical Setting—noise, heat, lack of privacy, pollution, etc.

Sources of Stress: WORK STRESSORS

Sources of Stress: LIFE STRESSORS

Forces in the personal lives of people can spillover and affect them at work, such as:

o Family Events—e.g., birth of a new child, illness or death of a loved one

o Economic Difficulties—e.g., sudden loss of an investment, financial worries, debts, inflation, etc.

o Personal Affairs—e.g., starting a new relationship, jealousy, different values, separation or divorce

Work-family conflict is a form of extrarole conflict in which the demands of work interfere with the family, for example, having to spend time at work leaves insufficient time for home, or the demands of the family interfere with the work, for example, having to take a sick child to the doctor might require a person to be absent from work.

Work-family conflict has been linked to anxiety, depression and physical symptoms, absence and lateness, dissatisfaction with family life, and dissatisfaction with life in general

Two of the most frequently used approaches are flexible work schedules and onsite child care in the workplace

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Behavioral

Psychological

Smoking, substance abuse, poor work performance, shorter temper, accidents, absenteeism, aggression, poor decisions

Anger, frustration, job dissatisfaction, moodiness, depression, emotional fatigue

PhysiologicalCardiovascular disease, hypertension and stroke, headaches, kidney disease, gastrointestinal disorder, cancer

Consequences of Distress Job Burnout

Burnout is a distressed psychological state than an employee might experience after being on the job for a long period of time

Emotional exhaustion is the feeling of tiredness and fatigue at work Depersonalization is the development of a cynical and callous

feeling toward others

Reduced personal accomplishment is the feeling that the employee is not accomplishing anything worthwhile at work

Individual Differences in Stress

Different threshold levels of resistance to stressor

Resilience to stress depends on personality and use of different stress coping strategies

Workaholism

• Highly involved in work

• Inner pressure to work

• Low enjoyment of work

WORK SCHEDULES

Night Shifts Many organizations, such as hospitals and police departments, run

24 hours per day, requiring the use of two or three shifts of workers to cover the entire day

A typical three-shift sequence includes the day shift (8 a.m. to 4 p.m.), the evening shift (swing) (4 p.m. to 12 a.m.) and the night or graveyard shift (12 a.m. to 8 a.m.)

Some organizations hire people to work a fixed shift (they work the same shift all the time), while others use rotating shifts (employees work one shift for a limited time, and then switch to another shift)

The major health problem with working night shifts is that the typical sleep/waking cycle is disturbed

Most obvious health problem in working night shifts is sleep disturbance—either being unable to fall asleep or having poor quality of sleep (Daus, Sanders, & Campbell, 1998)

Barton and Folkard (1991) found that employees on temporary night shifts had greater sleep problems than employees who worked permanent night shifts, but the permanent night shift workers were no more likely to have sleep problems than the day shift workers

Aside from disruption of the circadian rhythm, Koller et al. (1978) believe that night shift workers get worse sleep because there is more noise during the day when they are trying to sleep

Digestive system problems have also been shown to be more frequent in night shift workers because of the decrease in gastrin, a hormone which is related to stomach acid secretion

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Night work

Circadian rhythm disturbance

Sleep disturbance

Physiological and psychological

effects

Night shift leads to both circadian rhythm disturbance and sleep problems. These in turn lead to physical problems, such as stomach upset, and psychological problems, such as anxiety.

Compressed Workweeks Longer shifts than the typical full time work, usually involving either

10 hours a day for 4 days, or 12 hours a day for 3 days

Many employees have jobs that do not have fixed shifts but can require long work days (truck and bus drivers, police officers)

Some organizations that operate 24 hours per day have gone to two 12-hour shifts per day

Disadvantages: Work fatigue is one important difficulty with the long work day (Bendak, 2003)

Advantages: More vacation days, more time to spend with family, opportunity to moonlight, and reduced commuting costs and times

Most organizations provide 20–40 minutes of paid breaks during the workday; employers can give a place to nap

Flexible Work Schedules Although fixed daily work schedules is still the norm, increasingly

organizations have been trying flexible schedules (flextime) that allow workers to determine, at least in part, the hours of the day that they work

There are many varieties, from systems requiring only that employees work their allotted hours per day to systems that allow employees the option of starting their shift an hour early or an hour late

From the organization’s perspectives, an advantage of a flexible work schedule is that it allows employees to take care of personal business on their own time rather than on work time

Physical work conditions tend to have direct physical effects on people

Sometimes the effects are immediate, as when an employee is injured in an automobile accident

Other times illness or injury may develop after exposure at work for many years to a harmful condition (e.g., loud noise or toxic substance)

Serious illness and injury are almost certainly associated with some level of psychological distress and trauma

Steps can be taken to avoid or minimize accidents and exposures to harmful conditions through the adoption of safe workplace design and safe procedures for doing the job

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY

Frequent Sources of Illness and Injury

Source Occupation

Infectious disease Dentist, nurse

Loud noise Airline baggage, musician

Physical assault (fatal) Police officer, taxi driver

Physical assault (nonfatal)

Nursing home aide, psychiatric nurse

Repetitive actions and lifting

Data-entry clerk, nurse

Toxic substances Exterminator, farmer

Safety climate is the shared perception by employees that safety is important and they should take steps to work safely

The climate is reflected in the policies of the organization and in the practices it adopts that are relevant to safety, such as the use of personal protective equipment (PPE)

Organizations that are high on safety climate have employees who behave more safely and have fewer accidents than organizations that are low on safety climate

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Reducing Unsafe Acts

1. Identify and try to eliminate potential risks, such as unguarded equipment

2. Reduce potential distractions, such as noise, heat, and stress

3. Carefully screen, train, and motivate employees

4. Praise employees when they choose safe behaviors

5. Listen when employees offer safety suggestions, concerns, or complaints

6. Be a good example, for instance, by following every safety rule and procedure

Employees who must deal with the public (e.g., hairstylists, police officers, sales clerks, teachers) may be exposed to infectious diseases

Exposure to serious infectious diseases is a particular concern to people in the healthcare professions, who must deal with seriously ill and dying patients

Murphy, Gershon, and DeJoy (1996) noted that AIDS exposure is a major source of job stress for healthcare workers, frequently leading to anxiety and distress

With many employees traveling to and from international destinations, monitoring and controlling infectious diseases has become an important safety issue

Infectious Disease

Universal Precautions, a set of safety procedures that can dramatically reduce exposure. These include:

1. Disposing of sharp objects in a special sharps container.2. Wearing disposable gloves when handling blood or bodily

fluids.3. Immediately cleaning all bodily fluid spills with disinfectant. 4. Recapping needles that have been used.

Sealed buildings can produce illnesses such as itchy eyes and trouble breathing, a phenomenon some call “sick building syndrome”

Emissions from printers and photocopiers and other chemical pollutants, left unmonitored, can dramatically reduce air quality

The solution is to institute continuous monitoring systems

Sick Building Syndrome

Workplace Smoking

It is not illegal to deny employment to a smoker. “A No-Smokers Hired” policy is not discrimination, because smoking is not a disability

After giving enough notice of warning and offering smoking secession assistance, you can begin firing or forcing out all workers who smoke, including those who do so in the privacy of their homes

Loud Noise Loud noise occurs at many jobs, particularly those involving heavy

equipment or machinery

Airports, construction sites, factories and mines can all be noisy places, exposing employees to conditions that can affect both their health and their job performance

The intensity of noise is measured in decibel (dB) units

Exposure to extremely loud noises, such as explosions, can severely damage a person’s sense of hearing, sometimes permanently

Of even more concern at work is continuous exposure to moderately loud noise that exceeds 85 decibels that if continued over a period of months or years can lead to permanent hearing loss

8

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Jet airplane at takeoff

Power saw

Trucks and machinery

Conversation

Bird chirping

SOURCE: Sound Sense, by National Safety Council, 1992, Itasca, IL: Author.

Repetitive Actions

Many jobs require repeated physical actions by various body parts

Employees who use computers at work often spend their entire day typing

Traditional assembly-line work requires workers to perform the same operation over and over, while other jobs require the lifting of heavy objects or people

Repetitive actions can result in repetitive strain injuries, in which the body parts involved can become inflamed and sometimes permanently damaged

Lifting can result in acute injury, often to the lower back.

o Urban transit workers who drive buses or trains are most at risk for back or neck pain (Greiner & Krause, 2006)

o Nurses are subject to back injury from lifting patients (Rickett, Orbell, & Sheenan, 2006). Both kinds of injuries are forms of musculoskeletal disorder (MSD)

o Those who do a lot of keyboard work or typing are at risk for carpal tunnel syndrome, a wrist injury that causes pain, numbness, and weakness in the fingers and hands. It is brought on by repeated use of the fingers and wrist.

o Position wrists at the same level as the elbow. Awrist rest can help prevent carpal tunnel syndrome in people who use computer

o Employees should take a 3 to 5 minute break from working at the computer every 20 to 40 minutes, and use the time for other tasks, like making copies.

o Use adjustable chairs with mid-back supports. Don t stay in one position for long periods.

o Acute lifting injuries can be reduced by the use of mechanical devices that take the heavy load (Rickett et al., 2006)

Toxic Substances Many jobs entail exposure to toxic substances, such as employees

in chemical plants, exterminators, and farm workers who use insecticides

Office workers in enclosed buildings can also be exposed to various chemicals, such as toners from copying machines or solvents used to clean ink

Reactions to exposure can range from fairly minor symptoms, such as headache or nausea, to serious conditions that can permanently damage vital organs, such as the kidneys or liver

The problem with exposure to many substances is that adverse health effects such as cancer can take years or decades to develop

Workplace Violence For most occupations, fatal assaults are extremely rare, and

employees are safer at work than almost anywhere else they might be

However, there are occupations for which homicide is a more significant risk, such as taxi drivers, liquor store clerks, police officers, and gas station attendants

Nonfatal assault is far more common for those who work with the public

People who work in nursing homes, social service agencies, and hospitals are at the greater risk of violence by their patients

VIDEO SOURCES/Carpal Tunnel Syndrome.mp4

VIDEO SOURCES/Carpal Tunnel Syndrome.mp4

9

Four Types of Workplace Violence

ViolenceType

Definition Likely Occupation to Experience It

Type 1 Strangers committing a crime (no business relation with the organization)

Convenience store clerk, taxi driver

Type 2 Client/Customer/ Patient

Nurse, social worker

Type 3 Other employees Any job with coworker contact

Type 4 Relationship (relationship violence that spills over to the workplace)

Any job

Guarding Against Workplace Violence

1. Heighten security measures: external lighting, mirrors, alarms and surveillance cameras, provide training in conflict resolution and nonviolent response, close establishments during high-risk hours late at night, zero-tolerance policy toward workplace violence

2. Improve employee screening: Test for attitude towards revenge and carefully check references. Be vigilant for prior insubordinate or violent behavior on the job, criminal history involving harassing or violent behavior, prior termination for cause with a suspicious (or no) explanation, history of drug or alcohol abuse, etc.

Dismissing Violent Employees

1. Anticipate, based on the person’s history, what kind of aggressive behavior to expect

2. Have a security guard nearby when the dismissal takes place3. Clear away furniture and things the person might throw4. Don t wear loose clothing that the person might grab5. Don t make it sound as if you re accusing the employee; instead, say

that according to company policy, you re required to take action6. Maintain the person s dignity and try to emphasize something good

about the employee7. Provide job counseling for terminated employees, to help get the

employee over the traumatic post-dismissal adjustment8. Consider obtaining restraining orders against those who have

exhibited a tendency to act violently in the workplace

References

1. Aamodt, M. G. (2010). Industrial and organizational psychology:

An applied approach (6th ed.). CA: Cengage Learning

2. Dessler, G. (2013). Human resource management (13th ed.). New

Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.

3. McShane, S.L., & Von Glinow, M.A. (2010). Organizational

behavior: Emerging knowledge and practice for the real world

(5th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

4. Spector, P.E. (2008). Industrial and organizational behavior:

Research and practice (5th ed.). NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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