IR3001 week 7 IR3001 week 7 lectureslectures

Trans-national Actors Trans-national Actors I:I:

TerrorismTerrorism

How has Terrorism been How has Terrorism been Defined?Defined? US Department of Defence: “The calculated use US Department of Defence: “The calculated use

of violence or the threat of violence to inculcate of violence or the threat of violence to inculcate fear intended to coerce or intimidate fear intended to coerce or intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or that are generally political, religious, or ideological”ideological”

Home Office proposal: “serious violence against Home Office proposal: “serious violence against persons or property, or the threat to use such persons or property, or the threat to use such violence … for political, religious or ideological violence … for political, religious or ideological ends” (including damage against property)ends” (including damage against property)

Walter Laqueur: “Terrorism constitutes the Walter Laqueur: “Terrorism constitutes the illegitimate use of force to achieve a political illegitimate use of force to achieve a political objective when innocent people are targeted”objective when innocent people are targeted”

Problems of DefinitionProblems of Definition CoreCore: “The use or the threat of the use of violence in : “The use or the threat of the use of violence in

order to achieve political aims”order to achieve political aims” Are terrorists only Are terrorists only non-state groups?non-state groups?

– authoritarian regimes using methods; state authoritarian regimes using methods; state sponsorshipsponsorship

– Is it legitimate for states to violence without moral Is it legitimate for states to violence without moral restraint? restraint?

Non-combatantsNon-combatants: is targeting non-combatants : is targeting non-combatants legitimate ?legitimate ?– Hamas tries to justify targeting Israeli civilians Hamas tries to justify targeting Israeli civilians

because they are all ‘conscripts’…because they are all ‘conscripts’… ThreatsThreats: do threats alone terrorise?: do threats alone terrorise? ““Terrorists want a lot of people watching, but not a lot Terrorists want a lot of people watching, but not a lot

of people dead” (B. Jenkins)of people dead” (B. Jenkins)– True of left-wing terrorism, it was not of right-wing True of left-wing terrorism, it was not of right-wing

terrorism, and ‘religious’ terrorismterrorism, and ‘religious’ terrorism– Visibility is a key aim of political impact, and use of Visibility is a key aim of political impact, and use of

fear fear

Terrorism and Ideology…Terrorism and Ideology… Conceptual difficultiesConceptual difficulties

– Guelke: definition has become so elastic it can include Guelke: definition has become so elastic it can include anything…anything…

– Who defines what legitimate violence is, and using Who defines what legitimate violence is, and using what criteria?what criteria?

Political ManipulationPolitical Manipulation The label terrorist makes a political group The label terrorist makes a political group

illegitimate and an acceptable target for violent illegitimate and an acceptable target for violent repressionrepression– Nelson Mandela’s ANC was labelled terroristNelson Mandela’s ANC was labelled terrorist

A freedom fighter can later be a terroristA freedom fighter can later be a terrorist– E.g. Bin Laden – Afghan resistance to USSR vs. al-E.g. Bin Laden – Afghan resistance to USSR vs. al-

QaedaQaeda Most states secured their existence using terrorist Most states secured their existence using terrorist

means at some point! E.g. Decolonisation…means at some point! E.g. Decolonisation…

Ethics and Violence: Questions Ethics and Violence: Questions for Security Studiesfor Security Studies

Are “freedom fighters” unpalatable but Are “freedom fighters” unpalatable but necessary?necessary?– Algerian FLN secured independence from FranceAlgerian FLN secured independence from France– Arafat’s PLO put Palestinian dispossession on the Arafat’s PLO put Palestinian dispossession on the

international agendainternational agenda– The Irgun secured British withdrawal from The Irgun secured British withdrawal from

Palestine and creation of IsraelPalestine and creation of Israel Asymmetrical violence: terrorism as “the Asymmetrical violence: terrorism as “the

weapon of the poor”?weapon of the poor”?– What other means of setting the agenda and What other means of setting the agenda and

affecting change do they have? Controversial!affecting change do they have? Controversial! Ethics of violence as a political tool: ties in to Ethics of violence as a political tool: ties in to

wider debates on securitywider debates on security Democratic accountability: if you support a Democratic accountability: if you support a

government the actions of which cause death government the actions of which cause death & destruction, are you a ‘fair’ target?& destruction, are you a ‘fair’ target?

Terrorist movements in Terrorist movements in recent historyrecent history

Left-wing groupsLeft-wing groups: Red Army Faction (Germany), : Red Army Faction (Germany), Red Brigades (Italy), Action Directe (France), Red Brigades (Italy), Action Directe (France), Japanese Red Army (Japan), Revolutionary Japanese Red Army (Japan), Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC, Colombia)Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC, Colombia)

Right-wing groupsRight-wing groups: Ku Klux Klan, Aryan Nations, : Ku Klux Klan, Aryan Nations, The Order (USA), Combat 18 (UK) The Order (USA), Combat 18 (UK)

Some groups are better defined by Some groups are better defined by the the territorial disputesterritorial disputes they are engaged in: PLO they are engaged in: PLO (1970s), Popular Front for the Liberation of (1970s), Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine vs. Kach and Kahane Chai (Israel and Palestine vs. Kach and Kahane Chai (Israel and United States), or IRA/PIRA vs. Ulster Volunteer United States), or IRA/PIRA vs. Ulster Volunteer Force, Ulster Defence Association, LTTE (Sri Force, Ulster Defence Association, LTTE (Sri Lanka)Lanka)

Ideology, Targeting & Ideology, Targeting & Tactics:Tactics:

Left-wing groups, Left-wing groups, mostly Marxist-Leninistmostly Marxist-Leninist symbolic strikessymbolic strikes against the leaders of capitalist class against the leaders of capitalist class

to ‘raise consciousness’, and lead a socialist to ‘raise consciousness’, and lead a socialist revolution.revolution.

usually domestic actions, limited casualtiesusually domestic actions, limited casualties always claim responsibility for actions (‘educational’ always claim responsibility for actions (‘educational’

aims)aims) Right-wing groupsRight-wing groups: predominantly Neo-Fascist or Neo-: predominantly Neo-Fascist or Neo-

Nazi, sometimes linked to religious groupsNazi, sometimes linked to religious groups ‘ ‘strategy of tension’ in order to provoke a clamp-down strategy of tension’ in order to provoke a clamp-down

on civil liberties, preventing socialist revolution.on civil liberties, preventing socialist revolution. Mostly indiscriminate targeting, bombs in public places Mostly indiscriminate targeting, bombs in public places

(without warnings) (without warnings) – 2 August 1980: bomb in Bologna Central Station 2 August 1980: bomb in Bologna Central Station

killed 85 and wounded more than 200.killed 85 and wounded more than 200. Do not claim responsibility for actions, nor justify themDo not claim responsibility for actions, nor justify them collusion with security services? (e.g. Bologna collusion with security services? (e.g. Bologna

bombing) – useful to conservative political forces?bombing) – useful to conservative political forces?

Traditional Responses to Traditional Responses to Terrorism ITerrorism I

Security/IntelligenceSecurity/Intelligence: : police and security organisations - police and security organisations -

– infiltrate organisations to gather intelligence infiltrate organisations to gather intelligence – infiltrate and monitor related non-violent infiltrate and monitor related non-violent

organisationsorganisations– intercepting communications & mass surveillanceintercepting communications & mass surveillance

‘‘target hardening’: making state objectives target hardening’: making state objectives harder to hitharder to hit– usually results in targeting of ‘soft’ objectives…usually results in targeting of ‘soft’ objectives…

‘‘hard line’: often first phase of state hard line’: often first phase of state response, with security forces legally/illegally response, with security forces legally/illegally using means of violenceusing means of violence– e.g. ‘pre-emptive neutralisation’, Israel’s policy of e.g. ‘pre-emptive neutralisation’, Israel’s policy of

‘targeted assassination’ in the Occupied ‘targeted assassination’ in the Occupied TerritoriesTerritories

– this usually provokes escalation of conflictthis usually provokes escalation of conflict

Traditional Responses to Traditional Responses to Terrorism IITerrorism II

Legal & PoliticalLegal & Political:: security-driven responses are usually not security-driven responses are usually not

sufficient and often counter-productivesufficient and often counter-productive put in place legal instruments facilitating put in place legal instruments facilitating

‘defection’‘defection’ political negotiation or reform political negotiation or reform concerning concerning

underlying issues has been key to resolving underlying issues has been key to resolving conflictconflict

1. bring terrorists to negotiating table; 1. bring terrorists to negotiating table; 2. drain support from sympathisers as their 2. drain support from sympathisers as their

grievances appear to be addressed grievances appear to be addressed (=’mainstreaming’ politics)(=’mainstreaming’ politics)

– e.g. Red Brigades in Italy, IRA/N. Ireland, PLO in e.g. Red Brigades in Italy, IRA/N. Ireland, PLO in Palestine, ETA in SpainPalestine, ETA in Spain

Terrorism and (Organised) Terrorism and (Organised) CrimeCrime Terrorist suspects in Guantanamo Bay are not Terrorist suspects in Guantanamo Bay are not

benefiting from Geneva Conventions because they benefiting from Geneva Conventions because they are ‘criminals’, not ‘soldiers’…are ‘criminals’, not ‘soldiers’…Thus, what is the Thus, what is the relationship between crime and terrorism?relationship between crime and terrorism?

Terrorism is illegal… But is it immoral?Terrorism is illegal… But is it immoral?– Terrorist groups frame themselves as fighting an unjust Terrorist groups frame themselves as fighting an unjust

‘system’. ‘system’. – Occasionally they are convincing (Apartheid)…Occasionally they are convincing (Apartheid)…

Crime to fund activities? arms smuggling; drug Crime to fund activities? arms smuggling; drug trafficking; or racketeering…trafficking; or racketeering…– E.g. Provisional IRA, GIA (Algeria), Sendero Luminoso (Peru), E.g. Provisional IRA, GIA (Algeria), Sendero Luminoso (Peru),

FARC (Columbia)FARC (Columbia) Sometimes, criminals use terror tactics…Sometimes, criminals use terror tactics…

Narcoterrorism - terrorist-type attacks against anti-Narcoterrorism - terrorist-type attacks against anti-narcotics police. E.g. Pablo Escobar's (Medellin narcotics police. E.g. Pablo Escobar's (Medellin Cartel) in Columbia.Cartel) in Columbia.

State sponsors and ‘rogue states’State sponsors and ‘rogue states’ State terrorismState terrorism: Judge B. Garzón: Judge B. Garzón

– “…“…a political system whose rule of recognition permits a political system whose rule of recognition permits and/or imposes a clandestine, unpredictable, and and/or imposes a clandestine, unpredictable, and diffuse application, even regarding clearly innocent diffuse application, even regarding clearly innocent people, of coercive means prohibited by the people, of coercive means prohibited by the proclaimed judicial ordinance."proclaimed judicial ordinance."

– Is authoritarianism terrorism?Is authoritarianism terrorism? State-sponsored terrorismState-sponsored terrorism: The funding and/or : The funding and/or

supplying of terrorist groups by states.supplying of terrorist groups by states.– IranIran: ‘exporting the revolution’ in the 1980s, Hezbollah: ‘exporting the revolution’ in the 1980s, Hezbollah– USAUSA: Overthrowing Mossadeq in Iran; supporting : Overthrowing Mossadeq in Iran; supporting

Pinochet in Chile; Grenada; sponsoring the Contras Pinochet in Chile; Grenada; sponsoring the Contras against the Sandinistas in Nicaragua; etc. against the Sandinistas in Nicaragua; etc.

Rogues States and WMDs: a state that refuses to Rogues States and WMDs: a state that refuses to play by the rules of the game? Current definitions play by the rules of the game? Current definitions emphasise sponsoring of terrorism and WMDs…emphasise sponsoring of terrorism and WMDs…

Islamist Terrorist GroupsIslamist Terrorist Groups GroupsGroups: e.g. Al-Jihad (Eg: e.g. Al-Jihad (Egypt), ypt), GIA (Algeria) Al-GIA (Algeria) Al-

Aqsa Martyrs Brigade and Hamas (Palestine)Aqsa Martyrs Brigade and Hamas (Palestine) ‘‘Salafist’ (reform): need to rebel against unjust Salafist’ (reform): need to rebel against unjust

authority; reinvent classical theories of authority; reinvent classical theories of jihad jihad to to make violence permissiblemake violence permissible

Violent action meets ‘consciousness raising’ of Violent action meets ‘consciousness raising’ of marginalised groupsmarginalised groups– to promote Islamic law, and an egalitarian societyto promote Islamic law, and an egalitarian society– often radicalised into violence by repressionoften radicalised into violence by repression

Al-Qaeda is unusual in its targeting of US soil: a Al-Qaeda is unusual in its targeting of US soil: a new globalisation of the Islamist agenda? (Roy)new globalisation of the Islamist agenda? (Roy)

like left-wing groups, Islamists claim like left-wing groups, Islamists claim responsibility for actions & issue communiqués responsibility for actions & issue communiqués justifying them justifying them

Dilemmas of the War on TerrorDilemmas of the War on Terror security, intelligence, & military crackdown as core security, intelligence, & military crackdown as core

response: e.g. Afghanistanresponse: e.g. Afghanistan– Enormous pressure to show ‘strength’ in response to Enormous pressure to show ‘strength’ in response to

9/11…9/11…– Ignores the political grievances of these movements…Ignores the political grievances of these movements…

Despite the successful European experience of Despite the successful European experience of political solutions!political solutions!

– Can terrorism be defeated by force, does it create new Can terrorism be defeated by force, does it create new recruits?recruits?

Political initiatives: US: traditional and cultural diplomacy Political initiatives: US: traditional and cultural diplomacy to secure allies (9/11 exhibition) to secure allies (9/11 exhibition)

Legal: Civil libertiesLegal: Civil liberties– E.g. USA: Patriot Act, Guantanamo Bay and torture E.g. USA: Patriot Act, Guantanamo Bay and torture

scandals scandals – Dilemma of choosing between ‘personal freedom’ and Dilemma of choosing between ‘personal freedom’ and

‘security’…‘security’…– ME authoritarian states have been encouraged to crack ME authoritarian states have been encouraged to crack

down on any opposition they consider terrorist!down on any opposition they consider terrorist!

Dilemmas of the War on Terror Dilemmas of the War on Terror IIII

EconomicEconomic– threats and incentives in the security council to threats and incentives in the security council to

secure support for the war in Iraqsecure support for the war in Iraq– Lack of support in the Global South could mean Lack of support in the Global South could mean

trade and aid disastertrade and aid disaster– Postwar Iraq contracts to supporters!Postwar Iraq contracts to supporters!– No fundamental change in economic No fundamental change in economic

relationship with ME…relationship with ME…

What are the reasons for this ‘new wave’ of What are the reasons for this ‘new wave’ of terrorism? …Responses to ‘imperialism’? U. Beck terrorism? …Responses to ‘imperialism’? U. Beck ‘NGOs of violence’ – protest movements ‘NGOs of violence’ – protest movements questioning monopolies in security, power, wealth questioning monopolies in security, power, wealth etc.etc.

Conclusion: Implications for Conclusion: Implications for conceptions of Securityconceptions of Security

Core security concern post-9/11: has led to multiple Core security concern post-9/11: has led to multiple wars…wars…

……and redefinitions of security priorities with the UN and redefinitions of security priorities with the UN How do we define priorities for global security, How do we define priorities for global security, whowho

does it?does it? Does this fundamentally challenge the primacy of the Does this fundamentally challenge the primacy of the

state in realist IR (a small group changed everything?) state in realist IR (a small group changed everything?) or reinforce it (The US is the hegemon – does not or reinforce it (The US is the hegemon – does not need to UN to respond, and can do as it pleases?)need to UN to respond, and can do as it pleases?)

Is the ‘Liberal Peace’ a liberation, or hegemonic?Is the ‘Liberal Peace’ a liberation, or hegemonic? Does our distaste for terrorism mean that we should Does our distaste for terrorism mean that we should

question violence as means to secure political goals question violence as means to secure political goals more widely?more widely?