is there a history of pragmatics

8/10/2019 Is There a History of Pragmatics

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ELSEVIER

Journal of Pragm atics 25 (1996) 455-470

I s t h e r e a h i s t o r y o f p r a g m a t i c s ?

A n a t B i l e t z k i

Department of Philosophy Tel Aviv University Ramat Aviv Tel Aviv IL-69978 Israel

Received July 1994; revised version February 1995

A b s t r a c t

Pragmat ics , the las t o f the three leve ls ( the o thers be ing syntac t ics and semant ics ) of l in -

guist ic analysis to at t ract widespread interest and systematic research, is s t i l l general ly per-

ce ived as a newly born subjec t wi th no h is tory to boas t of . My working assumpt ion i s tha t

'new' theor ies of language may have roots in the pas t , and , fur thermore , tha t the mer i t o f

these theor ies can be , in par t , checked by such phi losophica l roots . A methodology for seek-

ing out these roots i s sugges ted , prof i tab ly adopt ing the def in i t ion of pragmat ics as ' expl ic i t

and essent ia l ' ment ion of the user of a language . Examples of ' case s tudies ' us ing th i s

me thodo logy are presen ted in Various a reas o f h i s tor ica l l anguage s tudy . T he t rad i t iona l d i s -

c ip l ines of gram m ar and rhe tor ic a re f i r s t candida tes for such research , bu t i t i s in phi losop hy

and spec i f ica l ly , ph i losophy of language of the pas t - tha t t rue pragmat ics i s unear thed .

Such 'd i scover ies ' ra i se the more fundamenta l ques t ion: what a re the ra t iona les for looking

for harb ingers of pragmat ics? A f i r s t approximat ion to an answer i s en te r ta ined wi th i t s pos-

i t ive , and ne ga t ive , impl ica t ions for pragm at ics today .

I . I n t r o d u c t i o n

I n t h ir t y y e a r s p r a g m a t i c s h a s a d v a n c e d f r o m t h e p r o v e r b i a l w a s t e b a s k e t t o a f u ll

g r o w n a c a d e m i c f ie l d , r e p l e t e w i t h it s o w n j o u r n a l , c o n f e r e n c e s , r e s e a r c h g r a n t s , a n d

c o m p r e h e n s i v e b i b l i o g r a p h y . I t s m a t u r i ty i s a t te s t ed t o b y b o t h t h e n u m b e r o f p r a c -

t i ti o n e r s i n t h e f ie l d , a n d t h e v a r i e t y o f d ir e c t i o n s i n w h i c h i ts b r a n c h e s g r o w o u t t o

v a r i o u s d i s c i p l in e s . Y e t s i tt in g o n a n y o f t h e b r a n c h e s o f t h is p r a g m a t i c t r e e - b e

t h e y p h i l o s o p h i c a l , l i n g u is t ic , p s y c h o l o g i c a l - o n e w o n d e r s i f t h e t r e e m i g h t n ' t t o p -

p l e o v e r f o r l a c k o f r o o t s . F o r p r a g m a t i c s s e e m s t o h a v e n o f o r m a l , i n s t it u t i o n a li z e d

h i s t o r y .

S u b s c r i b i n g t o t h e r e c e i v e d v i e w t h a t t h e t e r m ' p r a g m a t i c s ' w a s b o t h c o i n e d a n d

c o n c e i v e d b y C h a r l e s M o r r i s ( 1 9 3 8 : 8 4 ), t h e j o u r n a l o f t h e f ie l d , t h e Journal of

Pragmatics i n it s s e v e n t e e n y e a r s o f p u b l i c a t io n , h a s p r i n t e d o n l y t h r e e a r t i c le s t h a t

h a v e t o d o w i t h t h e d i s c i p l i n e ' s b i r t h a n d p a s t . O n e g o e s b a c k a f u l l t e n y e a r s e a r l i e r

t h a n M o r r i s a n d d i s c o v e r s n o t e s o f s p e e c h a c ts in K o s c h m i e d e r ' s w o r k ( K e c k a n d

S t u b b s , 1 9 8 4 ) ; a n o t h e r t u r n s e v e n f u r t h e r b a c k t o C . S . P e i r c e a n d , in a m o r e f a m i l -

0378-2166/96/$15.00 1996 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved

SSDI 0 3 7 8 - 2 1 6 6 ( 9 5 ) 0 0 0 1 9 - 4


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456 A. Biletzki / Journal of Pragmatics 25 1996) 455~170

i a r v e i n , c o n t r a s t s t h e ' O l d ' p r a g m a t i c s o f t h at v e n e r a b l e p h i l o s o p h e r w i t h th e ' N e w '

( F e l d m a n , 1 98 6) .1 I n f a c t , o n l y i n o n e v e r y r e c e n t a r t i c l e ( N e r l i c h a n d C l a r k e , 1 9 9 4 )

i s a n y t h i n g l i k e a h i s t o ri c a l g ra s p o f p r a g m a t i c s a t t e m p t e d a n d e n t e r t a in e d w i t h a

v i e w t o h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h i n m i n d .

L i k e w i s e , a p r a g m a t i c s b i b l i o g r a p h y ( V e r s c h u e r e n , 1 9 78 ) l is ts n o ' h i s t o r y o f p ra g -

m a t i c s ' i n i ts s u b j e c t i n d e x . T h e f o u r t e e n e n t r i e s u n d e r ' h i s t o r i c a l l i n g u i s t i c s ' s e e m

t o h a v e b e e n i n c l u d e d o n t h e b a s i s o f b e i n g e x e r c i s e s i n h i s t o r ic a l l in g u i s t i c s w h i c h

t a k e p r a g m a t i c s i n t o a m o r e o r g e n e r a l l y l e ss c o n s c i o u s a c c o u n t . S i m i l a r l y , al l b u t

o n e o f th e f i ve e n t r ie s u n d e r ' h i s t o r y : a u x i l i a r y a n d b e n e f i c i a r y d i s c i p l i n e s ' h a v e

n o t h i n g w h a t e v e r t o d o w i t h p r a g m a t i c s ' p a s t . 2

F i n a l l y , w h e n o n e t u r n s to th e m u l t i t u d i n o u s v o l u m e s o n t h e h i s t o r y o f l i n g u i s t i c s,

o n e m a y e n c o u n t e r s p o r a d i c m e n t i o n o f w r i t i n g s o f th e p a s t a s b e i n g ' p r a g m a t i c a l ' .

T h i s i s m o r e o f t e n t h a n n o t d o n e i n a p e r f u n c t o r y m a n n e r - e i t h e r a s l i p s e r v i c e t o a

p e r s p e c t i v e w h i c h , i t i s a c k n o w l e d g e d , i s g a i n i n g h e a d w a y i n th e l i n g u i s t i c m i l i e u ,

o r , fo r w a n t o f a b e t t e r t e rm , a s a g e n e r a l h e a d i n g u n d e r- w h i c h o n e c a n s t il l g r o u p

t o g e t h e r v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f l a n g u a g e u s e w h i c h s e e m t o o n l y m e r i t a w a s t e b a s k e t . 3

P r a g m a t i c s i s o b v i o u s l y p e r c e i v e d , t h e n , a s a n e w l y b o r n s u b j e c t w i th n o h i s t o r y

t o b o a s t o f. I t i s t h e r e f o r e p r o m i s i n g t o e n c o u n t e r t h e r e c e n t t r e a t m e n t o f p a s t p r a g -

m a t i c p h e n o m e n a t h a t d o e s , c o n s c i o u s l y , p r e s e n t i ts e l f a s " a h i s t o ry o f p r a g m a t i c

i d e a s in E u r o p e ( a n d to a c er t a in e x t e n t A m e r i c a ) d u r i n g t h e 1 9 th c e n t u r y " ( N e r l i c h

a n d C l a r k e , 1 9 94 : 4 4 1 ) . N e r l i c h a n d C l a r k e c l a i m to b e t r a c in g " c r o s s - q u o t a t i o n s "

a s th e i r m e t h o d o f r e s e a rc h , a d m i t t in g t h e p o s s i b i l i ty o f t w o o t h e r m e t h o d s , a s e a r c h

f o r t h e " u s e o f v a r i o u s p r a g m a t i c k e y t e r m s " , a n d a m o t e s p e c i f i c l o o k a t " t h e

t r e a t m e n t o f m o o d s f r o m A n t i q u i t y t o m o d e r n t i m e s " t o fi la d c o r r e l a t io n s w i t h t h e

" d e s c r i p t i o n o f s p e e c h a c ts a s s u c h " ( i b id . : 4 4 0 ) . 4 T h e y p o i n t t o v a r i o u s " p r e l i m i -

Peirce's Pragmatism is, in fact, recognized by many as having direct l inks to Morris 's three-fold

description of pragma tics, syntactics, and semantics, and, indeed, M orris him self says that his program

is "an attempt to carry out resolutely the insight o f Charles P eirce" (1946: 27). This self-alleged conti-

nuity is itse lf questionable an d has come un der attack. Nowhere doe s Peirce mention pragm atics (as

oppo sed to pragmatism) and his division of semiotic is rather into pure gramm ar, logic proper, and pure

rhetoric. It is not clea r whether ou t of this distinction pragm atics, as Mo rris perce ived it, can be gleaned.

Dewey, for instance, counters that "it is a complete inversion of Peirce to identify an interpretant with

interpreter" and feels that "M orris gives a radica lly new version o f the subject matter, intent, and

method of pragmatic doc trine" ( 1949: 269).

2 Only one ar t icle (Schwarz, 1984) is descr ibed as an example of ' speech act his tory ' .

3 An exception to this tendency, in its attempt to chart the history o f language w hile takin g pragmatics

seriously, is Ap el (1963).

4 W ere we to limit the history o f pragmatics to, for example, a history o f speech acts 'as such ', we

would, by definition, have embarked on a different, yet relevantly related, enterprise. This project has

been undertaken by Sm ith (1984, 1988, 1990), who, noticing that most 'anticipation s of speech act the-

ory ' have consisted in isolated remarks, l ists ten conditions which m ake a theory o f the pa st similar

enough to contemporary speech act theory to be characterized as such. (E.g.: Linguistics must be con-

ceive d of as a general universal science, language m ust be seen as prima rily an instrument of communi-

cation, performative utterances must be more than expressions of acts of will, speech actions must

involve a n ap peal to the hearer, etc.) I f ind such demands inappropriate for two reasons. F irst , even p re-

supposing agreem ent w ith Smith on the pos sibil ity of specifying such conditions, one m ay still disagree

with the content of specific conditions. In other words, one has to be fully in agreement with Smith on


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A. Biletzki / Journal of Pragmatics 25 1996) 455-470 457

n a r y s t u d i e s " w h i c h h a v e p r o v i d e d u s w i t h d a ta c o n c e r n i n g p r a g m a t i c " i d e a s a n d

i n s i g h t s " , t h u s o f f e r i n g t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f a h i s t o r y o f t h e f i e ld ( ib i d .) . 5 A n d f i n a l ly ,

a f t e r p r e s e n t i n g t h e i r p e r c e p t i v e , h i s t o r i c a ll y a n d i n t e l l e c tu a l l y g r o u n d e d l is t o f p r a g -

m a t i c i s t s , t h e y p o i n t t o f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h a g e n d a s w h i c h " c o u l d l e a d t o a d i r e c t c r o s s -

f e r t i l i z a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e p a s t a n d t h e p r e s e n t " ( i b i d . : 4 5 5 ) .

T h e c r u x o f th e p r e s e n t a r t i c l e ' s m a t t e r i s p r e c i s e l y t h a t l as t s ta t e m e n t , p h r a s e d a s

a q u e st io n . T h e n e w n e s s o f p r a g m a t i c s m a y b e q u e s t i o n e d v i a t h e th e o r e ti c a l u n d e r -

p i n n i n g t h a t ' n e w ' t h e o ri e s o f la n g u a g e m a y h a v e p h i l o s o p h i c a l r o o ts i n th e p a s t, a n d

f u r t h e r m o r e , t h a t t h e m e r i t o f t h e s e t h e o r i e s c a n b e , i n p a r t , c h e c k e d b y t h e i r p h i l o -

s o p h i c a l ro o t s. L o c a t i n g r o o t s , h o w e v e r , i s a e u p h e m i s m f o r d o in g h i s t o r y ; a n d s u c h

d o i n g s m u s t b e a d v a n c e d a n d c o n s t r a i n e d b y m e t h o d o l o g i c a l g u i d e l i n e s . T h e p r o b -

l e m o f m e t h o d o l o g y , m o r e o v e r , in th e h u m a n i t ie s , p o s e s p r o b l e m s o f a p r o f o u n d

n a t u r e . B y s a y i n g h u m a n i t i e s , I a m , f i n a l l y , p o i n t i n g t o t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d h i s t o r -

i c a l f o c u s o f t h is a r t i c le ( r a t h e r t h a n t h e c o m p e t i n g , y e t d e f i n i t e l y e q u a l , l i n g u i s ti c

a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s o n p r a g m a t i c s , w h i c h w i ll n o t b e d e a l t w i th h e r e ). S o

a n y a t t e m p t t o u n e a r t h r o o t s , a n d t h e r e b y t o w r i t e a h i s t o r y o f p r a g m a t i c s , 6 w i l l h a v e

t o a n s w e r t w o p r e l i m i n a r y q u e s t i o n s , o n e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y e s s e n t i a l , t h e o t h e r p h i l o -

s o p h i c a l ly i m p o r t a n t : W h a t s h o u l d w e l o o k f o r, an d w h y ?

2 . W h a t s h o u l d w e l o o k f o r ?

2 .1 . D e f i n it i o n s o f p r a g m a t i c s

V a r i o u s d e f i n i ti o n s o f p r a g m a t i c s a l o n g s i d e v a r i o u s p r a g m a t i c a l p r o g r a m s c l a i m

t h e b i r t h r i g h t b e q u e a t h e d b y ( P e i r c e a n d ) M o r r i s . D e l v i n g i n t o t h i s c o n f u s i n g i s s u e

i n v o l v e s t h e o b l i g a t i o n t o d i s c u s s t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s o f f e r e d b y S t a l n a k e r , A l l w o o d ,

K a s h e r , G a z d a r , K a m p , M a r t i n , V e r s c h u e r e n , L e e c h a n d m a n y o t h e r s . T h e r e l a t i v e l y

y o u n g a g e o f p r a g m a t i c s h a s h a d t he f u r t h e r e f f e c t o f a p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f a t t e m p t s a t

n e a t l y d e m a r c a t i n g p r a g m a t i c s ( a s p h i l o s o p h i c o - l o g i c o - l i n g u i s t i c v s . p s y c h o l o g i c a l

s t u d y ; o r a s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d f r o m s e m a n t i c s ; o r a s c o m p e t e n c e v s . p e r f o r m a n c e ; e t c . ) .

W h e t h e r o n e w a n t s t o v i e w p r a g m a t i c s as th e s t u d y o f g r a m m a t i c a l l y e n c o d e d

a s p e c t s o f c o n t e x t , o r a s t h e s t u d y o f c o n s t r a i n t s o n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f u t t e ra n c e s ,

the contem porary theory of speech ac ts (a situation which denies the legitimacy of current debates), in

order to app ly his requiremen ts to historical thinkers. Second, betwee n 'isolated remark s' and a rigorous,

up-to-date theory lies the expanse of discussions within which fundamental recognition of speech acts

can be ascertained, and to w hich it is, therefore, possible and profitable to affix the term 'pragma tics'.

5 Ner l ichand C larke list an astounding array of b ooks and articles which go far in providing evidence

of a h istory of pragm atics, but these sources are all 'data-oriented' (I owe this insight and terminolog y

to an ano nymous referee for the Journal o f Pragmatics). See , for exam ple, Nerlich (1986, 1990) and

Neum ann (1987).

6 N erlic h and Clarke emphasize that their exercise is 'a ' history, not ' the' history. I similarly desist

from any d ogmatism which would com mit one to describing her research as ' the ' history of pragmatics.

Yet th is liberalism should not entice us to ignore a m ethodological basis which is n ecessary for 'a ny '

history.


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458 A. Biletzki / Journal of Pragmatics 25 1996) 455-470

o r a s d e f i n e d o s t e n s i v e l y a s a li st o f t o p i c s ( to n a m e j u s t a f e w a l t e rn a t i v e s ) w i l l

m a k e a g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e , i n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , t o w h a t o n e i s l o o k i n g f o r i n a h i s t o r y

o f p r a g m a t i c s .

D e f i n i t i o n s ( o f c o n c e p t s , d o m a i n s , i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , r e la t i o n s ) m a y b e i n t e n s i o n a l o r

e x t e n s i o n a l . O n e m a y e i t h e r c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e d e f i n i e n d u m b y s o m e g e n e r a l t r a i t

w h i c h p u r p o r t s , a t l e a s t t h e o r e t i c a l l y , t o l i m i t u s t o a l l a n d o n l y t h o s e a s p e c t s w h i c h

a r e r e l e v a n t , o r o n e m a y g i v e a li st w h i c h a t t e m p t s t o b e e x c l u s i v e o f t h o s e a s p e c t s .

B o t h t y p e s o f d e f i n i t io n s a r e l e g i ti m a t e ; e a c h i n v o l v e s d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f in s i g h t i n to

t h e s u b j e c t a t h a n d .

E x a m p l e s o f i n t e n s i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n s o f p r a g m a t i c s a r e : " t h e s t u d y o f t h e r e l a ti o n s

o f si g n s to i n t e r p r e t e r s " ( M o r r i s , 1 9 3 8 : 8 4 ) ; " t h e s t u d y o f i n d e x i c a l r u l e s f o r r e la t -

i n g l i n g u i s t i c f o r m t o a g i v e n c o n t e x t " ( B a t e s , 1 9 7 6 : 3 ) ; " a t h e o r y t h a t h a s a s i t s

s u b j e c t m a t t e r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a l a n g u a g e , i t s s u b j e c t m a t t e r , a n d t h e u s e r s

o f t h e l a n g u a g e " ( M a r t i n , 1 9 7 1 : 1 3 8 ) ; " t h e t h e o r y o f t h e r e l a t io n b e t w e e n t h e l a n -

g u a g e u s e r s a n d t h e l a n g u a g e s t r u c t u r e " ( A p o s t e l , 1 9 7 1 : 3 3 ) ; " t h e s c i e n c e o f l a n -

g u a g e u s e " ( H a b e r l a n d a n d M e y , 1 9 7 7 : 1). E x a m p l e s o f e x t e n s i o n a l d e fi n i ti o n s :

" P r a g m a t i c s i s t h e s tu d y o f d e ix i s , i m p l ic a t u r e , p r e s u p p o s i t i o n , s p e e c h a c ts , a n d

a s p e c t s o f d i s c o u r s e s t r u c t u r e " ( L e v i n s o n , 1 9 8 3 : 2 7 ) ; " P r a g m a t i c s , f o r a n a t u ra l l a n-

g u a g e , c o n c e r n s ' i l l u c u t i o n a r y f o r c e ' , ' i m p l i c a t u r e ' , ' p r e s u p p o s i t i o n ' , a n d ' c o n t e x t -

d e p e n d e n t a c c e p t a b i l i t y ' " ( G a z d a r , 1 9 7 9 : 2 ) . 7 O f t e n , o f c o u r s e , i n t e n s i o n a l d e f i n i -

t i o n s a r e a u g m e n t e d b y a l i s t , i n o r d e r t o b e t t e r i l l u s t r a t e w h a t i t i s w e a r e d e a l i n g

w i t h ; a n d c o n v e r s e l y , e x t e n s i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n s a r e g i v e n s o m e t e n t a t i v e o v e r a l l f r a m e -

w o r k f o r t h o s e w h o d o n o t h a v e t he i n s i g h t t o fi n d t he c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r . 8

A h i s t o r ic a l q u e s t w h i c h i s li m i te d , f o r i n s t a n c e , t o t h e s e a r c h f o r a " s t u d y o f

i n d e x i c a l r u l es f o r r e l a t in g l i n g u i s ti c f o r m t o a g i v e n c o n t e x t " s e e m s a f o o l h a r d y

p r o p o s i t i o n d u e t o t h e n a r r o w n e s s o f s u c h a d e fi n i ti o n - i t s i m p l y d o e s n o t c o v e r

m o s t o f t h e p h e n o m e n a w h i c h a r e c o n c e i v e d a s p r a g m a t i c . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f t h e

s e a r c h f o r p r a g m a t i c s b e l e d b y d e f i n it i o n s a s g e n e r a l a s " t h e s t u d y o f th e r e l a ti o n s

o f s ig n s t o i n t e r p r e t e r s " , o r as " t h e s c i e n c e o f la n g u a g e u s e " o n e c o u l d , a l m o s t a p r i -

7 Recent encyclopedias and dictionaries of linguistics proffer similar definitions, many time s quoting

past formu lations. Thu s, Bright (1992: 26 0) introduces the entry 'Pragmatics, implicature and presuppo-

sition' wh ile quoting M orris, Carnap, Peirce and Stalnaker. Crystal (1991) begins his entry by describ-

ing pragmatics as "[a] term traditionally us ed to label one o f the th ree major divisions of Semiotics ... .

In modem linguistics it has come to be applied to the study of language from the point of view of the

users. ' I n like fashion, Malmkjaer (1991: 35 4) and Fraser (A sher, 1 99 4: 3255 ) explicitly define prag-

matics (respectively) as "the study of the rules and principles which govern language in use", and as

"the study of the system which und erlies the ability of language u sers to interpret utterances". Notwith-

standing these definitions being oriented to linguistics - as opposed to the philosophical perspective of

this article - they are , nevertheless, in general, a summ ation of a 'y ou ng ' tradition. (But see fn. 8 for

Mey o n the problem o f definition.)

8 Mey (199 3, 19 94) addresses the problems I have encountered of intensional vs. extensional defini-

tions, as did Levinson (1983). Both supply us with, literally, lists of definitions while analyzing the

advantages and shortcomings o f all aspects. W hile Me y's perspec tive is scientifically linguistic ("Prag-

matics is the science of language se en in relation to its users" (1993: 5)) it progresses, finally, to a def-

inition which can serve a philosopher as well: "[P]ragmatics is the study of the conditions o f human lan-

guage u ses as these are determined by the context of society" (ibid.: 4 2).


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A. B iletzki /Journal of Pragmatics 25 1996) 455-470 459

o r i , c l a i m t h e e x i s t e n c e o f p r a g m a t i c s i n v i r t u a l l y a n y t r e a t is e t h a t m e n t i o n s l a n -

g u a g e . 9 S o , i f w e d o n e e d s o m e i n t e n s io n a l g u i d e p o s t s i n o r d e r t o l o c a l i z e o u r s e l v e s ,

w e m u s t f i n d a c h a r a c t e r i z a t io n o f p r a g m a t i c s w h i c h i s n o t t o o s o p h i s t ic a t e d l y n a r-

r o w a s t o t h w a r t a n y r e s e a r c h , a n d n o t t o o g e n e r a l l y d i f f u s e t o m a k e t h a t r e s e a r c h

t a u t o l o g i c a l .

K a s h e r ( 1 9 7 7 : 1 0 6) p a r a p h r a s es , a n d e n l a r g e s o n , M o r r i s ' s a n d C a r n a p ' s d e f i n i-

t i o n o f p r a g m a t i c s , s a y i n g t h a t " a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t h e fi e l d o f l a n g u a g e s t u d y i s

a s s i g n e d t o P r a g m a t i c s i f r e f e r e n c e i s m a d e i n it , e x p l i c i t l y a n d e s s e n t i a l l y , t o th e

u s e r o f a l a n g u a g e " . T h e t w o w o r d s , exp l i c i t l y and e s sen t ia l l y , a r e t he c r uc i a l e l e -

m e n t o f th e d e f i n i t io n a n d t h a t w h i c h m a k e s i t m e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y r e l e v a n t a n d o f

p r a c t i c a l u s e f o r h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h . A n a l y z i n g h i s t o r i c a l te x t s , o n e m a y t a k e t h e s e

e l e m e n t s - e x p l i c i t n e s s a n d e s s e n t i a l it y - a s a d e q u a c y c r i t e r ia f o r l a b e l i n g a c o n c e p t ,

a t h e o r y , a n i n v e s t ig a t i o n o r a p h i l o s o p h e r p r a g m a t ic .

2 . 2. C r i t er i a o f n e c e s s i t y a n d a d e q u a c y

E x p l i c i t n e s s s e e m s t o b e t h e e a s i e r o f th e t w o t o i d e n t i f y . I ts i m p o r t a n c e l i e s i n it s

e v i d e n t i a l f u n c t i o n . T h e m o d e r n p r a g m a t i c i s t , h o n e s t l y b e l i e v i n g i n t h e e s s e n t i a l i t y

o f th e u s e r o f a l a n g u a g e , m a y b e p r o n e t o i d e n t if y s u c h r e f e r e n c e to a s p e a k e r o r

h e a r e r , e v e n w h e n t h i s r e f e r e n c e i s i m p l i c i t o r s i m p l y n o t t h e r e . Y e t t h e f a c i l i t y i n

f i n d i n g e x p l i c i t m e n t i o n o f t h e s p e a k e r , w h e n i t i s t h e r e , m u s t p u t u s o n g u a r d

a g a i n s t s i m p l y s l i d i n g i n t o t h e p i tf a l l o f c l a i m i n g p r a g m a t i c a l i t y f o r t o o m a n y

p h i l o s o p h e r s o r p r a c t i ti o n e r s o f l a n g u a g e . S i n c e l a n g u a g e i s s e e n b y v i r t u a l l y a l l i n

t h e l i n g u i s t i c - p h i l o s o p h i c a l t r a d i t i o n a s b e i n g a h u m a n a r t i f a c t , r e f e r e n c e t o t h e l a n -

g u a g e u s e r m a y o f t e n b e t r i v i a l , b u t n o t e s s e n t i a l . I n o t h e r w o r d s , e x p l i c i t n e s s i s a

n e c e s s a r y , b u t n o t s u f f ic i e n t c o n d i t i o n f o r i d e n t if y i n g p r a g m a t i c s .

T h e o t h e r s id e o f th e c o i n , e s s e n ti a li ty , i s fa r m o r e c o m p l e x a n d p r o f o u n d .

W h e r e a s e x p l i c i t n e s s i s a m a t t e r o f r e a d i n g c o r r e c t l y , e s s e n t i a l i ty i s a m a t t e r o f i n te r -

p r e t i n g ( w h e r e c o r r e c t n e s s d o e s n o t a p p l y ) . S u p p o s i n g a t r a c t o n l a n g u a g e h a s m a d e

e x p l i c i t m e n t i o n o f t h e s p e a k e r ( o r h e a r e r ) - w h e n m a y w e s a y t h a t t h is m e n t i o n i s

e s s e n t i a l? W h e n a n d h o w d o w e d e c i d e t h at th e a n a l y s is o f la n g u a g e w h i c h is b e i n g

i n t e r p r e t e d c o n s t r u e s t h e s p e a k e r a s f u n d a m e n t a l ? B e y o n d t h e r a r e c i r c u m s t a n c e i n

w h i c h t h e a u t h o r o r p h i l o s o p h e r m i g h t e x p l i c it l y ta l k o f t h e e s s e n t i al i ty o f t h e

s p e a k e r , t h e a n s w e r l i e s i n t h e c l a i m t h a t t h e a n a l y s i s w o u l d c h a n g e d r a m a t i c a l l y i f

m e n t i o n o f t h e s p e a k e r w e r e o m i tt e d . I n o t h e r w o r d s , w e m u s t h a v e r e c o u r s e t o fu r -

t h e r, p r a c t i c a l g u i d e l in e s w h i c h l o c a t e d i f fe r e n c e s b e t w e e n a n a l y s e s, t h u s e s t ab l is h -

i n g e s s e n t i a l i t y , a n d a c c o r d i n g l y p r a g m a t i c a l i t y .

T h e s e g u i d e l i n e s , i n o r d e r to p i n p o i n t p r a g m a t i c a l i ty , m u s t d o m o r e t h a n i n d ic a t e

a r e a d i n g o f a p r a g m a t i c a l ' a t m o s p h e r e ' o f te x t s . A f r u i t f u l f i rs t st e p to t a k e i s to t u r n

t o t h e e x t e n s i o n a l r e n d e r i n g s o f p r a g m a t i c s - a s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e in t e n s i o n a l u n d e r -

9 For instance, Charles Morris ascribes pragmatics to everyone who has don e language philosophy

since pre-history. M ore recently, philosophers of language as v ariegated as D avidson and R orty (in a pri-

vate comm unication)have attested o the inherent pragmatics involved n any discussion which sincerely

treats of the speaker of a language.


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460 A. Bi le t zk i / Journal o f Prag mat ics 25 1996) 455~170

s t a n d i n g a b o v e - a n d u s e t h e m i n t h e in t e r p r e t a ti v e r e a d i n g o f h is t o r ic a l t e x ts .

I n s t e a d o f si f ti n g t h r o u g h t h e s p e c i f i c d e f in i t i o n s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , w e c a n r a t h e r

t u r n to t h e m u l t i f a c e t e d l is t o f f r e q u e n t l y c i t e d c o n c e p t s i n m o d e r n p r a g m a t i c s . A

t e n t a ti v e l is t w o u l d l o o k li k e th i s : c o n t e x t , i n d e x i c a l s , c o m m u n i c a t i o n , u s e , im p l i c a -

t u r e , p r e s u p p o s i t i o n , s p e e c h a c t , c o n v e n t i o n , i n t e n t i o n ( a n d t h e i r a f f i l i a t e s ) . T h e s e

c o n c e p t s a r e w h a t p r a g m a t i c i s t s t a l k a b o u t w h e n t h e y d o p r a g m a t i c s ; i n t h i s c o n t e x t ,

t o o , t h e s e c o n c e p t s a r e c o n s i d e r e d e s s e n t i a l t o p r a g m a t i c s . Y e t t h e l i s t s h o u l d n o t b e

v i e w e d a s a n i n c i d e n t a l g a t h e r i n g o f m o d e r n c a t c h w o r d s . I t s e s s e n t i a l it y r e s i d e s i n

t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f i ts p a r ts t o a t h e o r y o f l a n g u a g e u s e . l S u c h a t h e o r y e x h i b i t s

e s s e n t i a li t y v i a i ts a n a l y s i s , m e n t i o n , o r e x p l ic i t d i s c u s s i o n o f th e s e c o n c e p t s , b y

r e l a t in g t h e m t o a s y s t e m o f u n i v e r s a l r u l e s o f us e .

T h e w o r k i n g h y p o t h e s i s o f a h i s t o ry o f p r a g m a t i c s s h o u l d t h e n b e t h a t a p h il o -

s o p h i c a l o r li n g u i s ti c t r e a ti s e o n l a n g u a g e w h i c h d e a l s w i t h t h e s e c o n c e p t s ( b y t h e s e

o r a n y o t h e r n a m e s ) is e s s e n t ia l ly p r a g m a t i c a l . A n d ju s t a s m o d e r n p h i l o s o p h e r s d o

n o t s u b s c r i b e t o a f i x e d , e x h a u s t i v e , a g r e e d u p o n l is t, s o n e i t h e r d o w e h a v e t o fi n d

a ll o f th e a b o v e i n a n y o n e t r e at is e o f a n y h i s t o r ic a l p e r i o d i n q u e s t i o n . l l R a t h e r , t h e

l is t s h o u l d b e c o n c e i v e d a s a c lu s t e r w h i c h p o i n t s i n t h e d i r e c t io n o f p r a g m a t i c a l i t y ;

a n d a n y p h i l o s o p h e r w h o s e r i o u s ly a d d r e s s e s a n u m b e r o f t h e s e c o n c e p t s c a n b e s ee n

a s m a k i n g e s s e n t i a l r e f e r e n c e t o t h e u s e r a n d h e n c e b e a c c e p t e d i n t o t h e c i r c l e o f

p r a g m a t i c s . T h e c r i t e r io n o f e s s e n t ia l it y , v i a p r a g m a t i c c o n c e p t s , i s s t r o n g e n o u g h t o

o v e r s h a d o w e x p l ic i tn e s s , f o r w h e r e a s e x p l ic i t m e n t i o n o f th e u s e r d o e s n o t e n s u r e

p r a g m a t i c a l i ty , a c o n v i n c i n g e s s e n t i a l tr e a t m e n t o f u s e r ( b y a n a l y s i s o f c o n t e x t ,

i n t e n t i o n , s p e e c h a c t s , e t c . ) d o e s s o b y p r e s u p p o s i n g t h e u s e r .

I t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e s e a r c h f o r p r a g m a t i c s s h o u l d b e g u i d e d b y a n a t t e m p t t o i n te r -

p r e t te x ts o f o t h e r t i m e s i n th e l ig h t o f m o d e r n p r a g m a t i c c a t c h w o r d s . L o o k i n g a t

p h i l o s o p h e r s , g r a m m a r i a n s , r h e t o r i c ia n s , o r a n y th i n k e r s d e a l i n g w i t h l a n g u a g e in

o t h e r c e n t u r i e s i t i s, o f c o u r s e , e a s y t o g e t c a r r i e d a w a y a n d s a y t h a t th e o v e r a l l

a t m o s p h e r e o f a c e r ta i n t e x t o r tr e a ti s e i s p r a g m a t i c a l , m e a n i n g t h a t it i s s i m i l a r i n

l0 T h is remark is fraught with difficulties. Not coincidentally, different definitions o f pragmatics turn

to this sam e list to buttress their respective theories; and, in fact, it is not quite clear that these concep ts

are systematically used to illustrate their particular contribution to a particular theory. Thus, fo r instance,

Kasher and Lappin (1977: 34) define pragmatics as "the theoretical discipline which describes and

explains the systematic connections between sentences, their meaning, and the appropriate circumstances

of their utterance", but then noncommittally (and unsystematically, not to mention not essentially)

explain: "W e shall now indicate several central subjects which are treated by pragmatics ..." (ibid.: 37).

Levinson (1983: 32 ), who em phasizes the problematics in defining pragma tics, caves in to a similar

extensionality. "... if one really w ants to know what a particular field is concerned with ... one must sim-

ply observe what practitioners do. The rest of this book will largely be concerned with an overview of

some o f the central tasks that pragmaticists wrestle with". The rem aining chapters of his book do just

that; they elucidate the contemporary issues o f deixis, conversational implicature, presupposition, speech

acts, and conversational structure. It follows that ther e is an implicit awareness of the essential contribu-

tion of the above list to a theory of pragm atics, but that the system atics of this contribution is hazy. I do

not pursue this point in detail, but note that for methodological (and consensual) reasons such a list is

conducive to the essentiality clause in K asber's definition.

~ One m ust, howeve r, be wary of using too few, or too obvious, concepts, on the penalty of finding

talk of communication, for instance, in any philosopher of language, without ensuring pragmaticality.


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A. Biletzki / Journal of Pragmatics 25 1996) 455-470

461

s o m e b a s i c , y e t a m o r p h o u s , w a y t o m o d e m p r a g m a t i c s . I t i s h e r e t h a t a ' d e f i n i t i o n '

s u c h a s K a s h e r ' s ( o f e x p l i c i t a n d e s s e n t i a l r e f e r e n c e t o u s e r ) b e c o m e s c r u c i a l , a n d

t h a t i t s e x t e n s i o n a l p a r a l l e l s ( c a t c h w o r d s ) a c t a s c o n s t r a i n t s . T o b e p r a g m a t i c i n a

h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t i s , t h e r e f o r e , t o e x p l i c i t l y d e a l w i t h c o n t e x t , o r t o e x p l i c i t l y a n a l y z e

s p e e c h a s a c t , o r to f u n d a m e n t a l l y t re a t o f im p l i c a t u r e s o r p r e s u p p o s i t i o n a s i n h e r -

e n t l y i m p o r t a n t t o l a n g u a g e s t u d y , a n d s o o n .

3 . S o m e c a s e s t u d i e s

T h e m e t h o d o l o g y o u t l i n e d a b o v e i n s t r u c t s u s t o l o o k f o r e x p l i c i t a n d e s s e n t i a l

r e f e r r a l s t o t h e l a n g u a g e u s e r i n t h e s e a r c h f o r r o o t s , p r e c u r s o r s , p r e d e c e s s o r s , a n d

a n c e s to r s o f p o s i ti o n s w h i c h , b e in g l a b e l ed ' p r a g m a t i c ' , a r e c o n f i n e d t o th e h o u s e o f

m o d e r n i t y . S u c h a s e a r c h i s a h i s t o r i c a l e n t e r p r i s e h a r b o r i n g c e r t a i n i m p l i c a t i o n s

w h i c h , i n t u r n , c o n c e r n i ts e n d s ( o r, a l t e r n a t i v e l y , it s f u ti l i ty ) . A n u m b e r o f ( p o s i t i v e

a n d n e g a t i v e ) e x a m p l e s o f t h e o n g o i n g s e a r c h f o r r o o t s o f p r a g m a t i c s i n e a r l i e r c e n -

t u r i e s w i l l s e r v e , f o r t h e m o m e n t , t o p o i n t t o i n s i g h t s w h i c h w i l l t h e n b e i n s t r u m e n -

t a l i n a n s w e r i n g th e ' w h y ' q u e s t i o n p o s e d a b o v e .

3 .1 . E a r l y g r a m m a t i c a l c a t e g o r ie s

T w o c o n t e x t u a l , i . e . h i s t o r i c a l , c o n s i d e r a t i o n s l e a d s p e c i f i c a l l y t o t h e e a r l y g r a m -

m a r t e x t b o o k s o f t h e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s a s p o t e n t i a l c a n d i d a t e s f o r

p r a g m a t i c a w a r e n e s s . F i r s t , a n a t u r a l i n t u i t i o n s a y s t h a t t h e m o v e f r o m c l a s s i c a l

L a t i n g r a m m a r t o v e r n a c u l a r g r a m m a r m a y c o n t a i n e x p l ic i t m e n t i o n o f th e v e r n a c u -

l a r s p e ak e r . S e c o n d , b e c a u s e o f t h e c o n f u s i o n b e t w e e n l o g ic , g r a m m a r a n d r h e to r ic

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h o s e t i m e s , i t b e h o o v e s u s t o i n s p e c t g r a m m a r i a n s v a c i l l a t i n g

b e t w e e n l o g i c a l a n d r h e t o r i c a l l e a n i n g s .

T h e t e x t b o o k s o f g r a m m a r o f t h e s e c e n t u ri e s d i s p la y a b e w i l d e r in g a r ra y o f c o n t i -

n u i t y a n d c h a n g e , u n i t y a n d d i v e r s i t y - a l l w i t h i n a g e n e r a l c o n s t r u c t i v e a m b i e n c e

c o n s e r v e d s i n c e Q u i n t i l i a n . I n d e e d , t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y d e f i n i t i o n s o f g r a m m a r a t f i r s t

s e e m p r o m i s i n g , b u t i n t h e e n d t h e y p r o v e d i s a p p o i n t i n g . P e r u s i n g t h e l i t e r a l d e f i n i -

t i o n s o f g r a m m a r i n t h e t e x t b o o k s , a n d g o i n g o n t o t h e p e d a g o g i c a l d e b a t e o n h o w

t o t e a c h g r a m m a r , o n e f i n d s th e w o r d ' u s e ' i n v a r i o u s , m u l t i f a r i o u s q u a r t e rs . A n

o p t i m i s t i c r e s e a r c h e r m a y , i n t a k i n g e x p l i c i t n e s s t o t h e e x t r e m e , p u r s u e s u c h o c c u r -

r e n c e s i n t h e h o p e o f f i n d i n g a t h e o r y o f u s e . H o w e v e r , a m o r e r e a l i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a -

t i o n o f n u m e r o u s , v e r y s i m i l a r d e f i n i t i o n s , l e a d s t o a d e a d e n d , s i n c e t h e u s e o f ' u s e '

d o e s n o t p o i n t t o a n y t h i n g r e s e m b l i n g a t h e o r y o f u s e . T h e r e i s n e i t h e r a n i n t e n t i o n

o f , n o r a p r e t e n s io n a t p o s it i n g r ul e s o f us e . T h e w o r d ' u s e ' i s st a n d a r d ly , c o m m o n l y

u s e d w i t h n o c o m m i t m e n t to t h e m o d e m p r o f u n d i t y w e a s c r ib e t o i t, b u t r a t h er a s a

s y n o n y m fo r ' e x e r c i s e ' .

G o i n g b e y o n d t h e g e n e r a l l y u n i f o r m d e f i n i t i o n s , i t i s r a t h e r w i t h i n t h e d e t a i l s o f

g r a m m a r t e x t b o o k s t h a t o n e m e e t s r ea l d i v e rs i ty , a n d w i t h i t, s o m e g l i m m e r i n g s o f

p r a g m a t i c s . O n e o u t s t a n d i n g c a s e i s t h a t o f t h e r e l a t i v e l y o r i g i n a l , y e t t r u l y p r a g -

m a t i c t r e a t m e n t o f t h e c a t e g o r y o f m o o d e n c o u n t e r e d i n R i c h a r d J o h n s o n ' s G r a m -


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4 6 2 A. Biletzki / Journal of Pragmatics 25 1996) 455--470

matical Commentaries

o f 1 7 0 6 . J o h n s o n s u p p l i e s a d e t a i l e d a n d c o p i o u s m e t a - d i s -

c u s s i o n o f a ll e le m e n t s g r a m m a t i c a l t o b e f o u n d i n a n y c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s g r a m m a r -

i a n ( B i l e tz k i , 1 9 91 ). H e p o s e s t h e q u e s t i o n o f f o r m a l v s . o t h e r c r it e r ia o f g r a m m a t i -

c a l c a t e g o r i e s , t h e r e a f t e r d e d i c a t i n g o v e r 8 0 p a g e s t o t h e a n a l y s i s o f m o o d . I n

a t t a c k i n g t h e s t a n d a r d L i l y a n g r a m m a r t e x t , ~2 h e p r e s e n t s d e f i n i t i o n s o f m o o d h a u n t -

i n g l y r e m i n i s c e n t o f m o d e m s p e e ch a c t t h e o r y , w i t h m o o d s b e i n g c o n s t r u e d a s s e p-

a r a te s p e e c h a c ts . F u r t h e r m o r e , a n d f a r m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , o n a h i g h t h e o r e t i c a l le v e l

J o h n s o n s a t i s f i e s t h e t w o m e t h o d o l o g i c a l d e m a n d s o f e x p l i c i t n e s s a n d e s s e n t i a l i t y

p o s i t e d a b o v e , f o r in s t a n c e w h e n h e s a y s : " I t m u s t t h e r e f o r e b e u n d e r s t o o d a t l e a st ,

t ha t t he re i s no necess i ty , t ha t t he Mood shou ld be in the Word i t se l f , . . . i t i s no t

r e q u i r ' d t h a t i t s h o u l d b e i n t h e V e r b . . . . a n d s o c a n n o t b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y t h a t [ t e r-

m i n a t i o n ] a l o n e , b u t b y t h e s e n s e o f t h e S e n t e n c e , o r b y t h e C o n t e x t " ( J o h n s o n ,

1 7 0 6: 2 5 4 ). N o t h i n g c o u l d b e m o r e e x p l i c i t , y e t t o d r i v e t h e m a t t e r o f e s s e n t i a l it y

h o m e , J o h n s o n a d d s : " H e t h a t u n d e r s t a n d s w h e n t h e y m a y b e u s e d , t o g e t h e r w i t h

t h e u s e o f t h e o t h e r M o o d s , k n o w s a s m u c h a s is r eq u i s i t e o f t h i s M a t t e r " ( i b id . :

2 7 8 ) . A n e x c e p t i o n a l l y l o n g l i s t o f u s e s f o l l o w s , a s J o h n s o n s e t s o u t t o d e f i n e , b y

w a y o f t h e se u s e s , s e v e ra l d i f f e re n t m o o d s . T h i s d i v e r g e n c e f r o m o t h e r g r a m m a r s

m a y b e v i e w e d , p r i m a f a c i e , a s a q u a n t i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e - b u t i t i s i n d e e d t h e q u a n -

t i ty ( w h i c h w a s f o r m e r l y a b s e n t ) t h a t l ea d s t o b e t t e r e x p l a n a t io n s . T h e l i s t is o r i e n t e d

t o a c t io n i n s p e e c h a n d i s s e e n t o e n r i c h t h e t ra d i t io n a l ' s e m a n t i c s ' o f m o o d s . I n s t e a d

o f r e p r e s e n t i n g ' i n c l i n a t i o n s o f t h e m i n d ' , a s t h e L i l y a n m o o d s w e r e e x p l i c a t e d in t h e

s t a n d ar d w a y , m o o d s s t a n d f o r ' m o d e s o f p r e d ic a t i o n ' w h i c h a re d e p e n d e n t o n t h e

' o c c a s i o n s o f m a n k i n d ' . T h e m e a n i n g o f m o o d s b e c o m e s , t h e n , a f u n c t i o n o f t h e i r

u s e , a n d t h e i r u s e , i n t u r n , a f u n c t i o n o f c o n t e x t , c i r c u m s t a n c e , p r i o r k n o w l e d g e ,

i n t e n t i o n a n d a t t e n d a n t i n f e r e n c e . A n e a r l y e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y g r a m m a r i a n d o e s

p r a g m a t i c s .

3 2 The debate about rhetoric

M o v i n g o n t o rh e t o r i c - t e x t b o o k s o f w h i c h w e r e n o l e s s b o u n t i f u l in th o s e e r a s -

w e m u s t t r e a d m o r e w a r i l y , f o r r h e t o r ic i n v o l v e s p r a g m a t i c s a l m o s t b y d e f i n i t io n , a s

i t r e c o g n i z e s e x p l i c i t l y a n d e s s e n t i a l l y t h e s p e a k e r , t h e h e a r e r , a n d t h e c o n t e x t o f

( s p e c i f i c ) d i s c o u r s e s . I n d e e d , i t b e c o m e s m a n d a t o r y t o a s k o f t h e g a i n o b t a i n e d b y

t u r n i n g t o p r a g m a t i c i d e a s ( o r t e r m i n o l o g y , o r t h e o r y ) i n s t e a d o f t o ( m e r e l y ) r h e t o r i-

c a l o n e s . M y e x a m p l e w i l l b e u s e d to p r e s e n t o n e s u c h p r o f i t a b l e e n d e a v o r - t h e t u r n

t o p r a g m a t i c s a s t o u c h i n g o f f a d v a n c e s i n t h e t h e o r y o f i n te r p r e t at i o n .

T h e r e i s , in c u r r e n t l i t e ra t u r e, a b a s i c d i s s e n t a m o n g i n t e rp r e t e rs o f t h e r h e t o r ic o f

t h e E n g l i s h r e n a i s s a n c e , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e r e s p e c t i v e s i d e s o f t h e d e b a t e b e i n g

H ow e l l (1956 , 1971) and V ick e rs (1970 , 1981). T he d i spu te h inges on the re l a t ive

i m p o r t a n c e a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e c l a s s i c a l p a r ts o f r h e t o r ic . W h i l e H o w e l l i s i n t e n t

o n l o c a t i n g a ( p o s i t i v e) t r e n d , f r o m t h e c l a s s ic a l , s t y l i s t ic a l l y e x t r a v a g a n t r h e t o r i c s o f

~2 L i l y ' s G r a m m a r w a s a c t u a l ly t h e a c c u m u l a t e d w o r k o f m o r e t h a n o n e a u t h o r - m a i n l y C o l e t a n d

L i l y. O r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d i n 1 5 1 0, i t u n d e r w e n t v a r i o u s c h a n g e s a n d e d i t i o n s . I n 1 5 4 0 it w a s o f f i c i a ll y

a u t h o r i z e d a s t h e o f f ic i a l g r a m m a r i n th e s c h o o l s b y r o y a l i n d u c t i o n .


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A. B iletzki / Journal of Pragmatics 25 1996 ) 455--470 463

t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y t o t h e e m p i r i c a l a n d r a t i o n a l i s t i c o n e s o f t h e l a t e s e v e n t e e n t h

c e n t u r y , V i c k e r s i n s i s t s o n t h e c e n t r a l i t y o f th e t h e o r y o f s t y l e - e l ocu t i o - in a l l i t s

s u b t l e t y a n d f u n c t i o n a l i t y d u r i n g t h e s a m e c e n t u r i e s . T h e q u e s t i o n , t h e n , is : w a s

E n g l i s h r e n a i s s a n c e r h e t o r i c a v i e w o n ' f o r m a n d c o n t e n t ' b o r n o f q u e s t i o n s a b o u t

l a n g u a g e a n d i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e a p p r o a c h o f s c i e n c e a n d r a t io n a l i s m ( a s H o w e l l

w o u l d h a v e i t ) , o r w a s i t a l i te r a r y t h e o r y h a v i n g t o d o w i t h t h e i n t r i c a c i e s o f s t y l e as

t h e b e -a l l a n d e n d - a l l o f t h e e f f i c a c y o f l a n g u a g e ( as V i c k e r s c l a i m s ) ?

M y p r o p o s a l i s t o v i e w t h e s e t w o o p p o s i n g r h e t o r i c a l s t r a n d s a s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n a

p r a g m a t i c v i e w o f l a n g u a g e . I t t h e n r e m a i n s t o s h o w t h a t E n g l i s h r e n a i s s a n c e

r h e t o r i c i a n s w e r e p r a g m a t i c i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y u p h e l d b o t h t h e s e v i e w s c o n s i s -

t e n t l y . C h e c k i n g t h e i s s u e t h r o u g h p r a g m a t i c l e n s e s t h u s l e a d s t o a n e n l i g h t e n i n g

s y n t h e s i s a t t e s t e d to b y t h e t e x t s o n r h e t o r i c t h e m s e l v e s : a t h e o r y o f r h e to r i c c o g -

n i z a n t o f r a t io n a l i ty a s m o t i v a t i n g t h e u s e o f l a n g u a g e ( ~ l a H o w e l l ) d o e s i n d e e d l ie

a t t h e b a s i s o f t h e i n t r i c a c i e s o f s t y l e s o p r e v a l e n t i n t h e t e x t s ( a s V i c k e r s i n s i s t s ) .

T w o p r a g m a t i c i n s i g h t s s t a n d o u t i n p a r t i c u l a r : s t y l e a n d s p e c i f i c f i g u r e s o f s p e e c h

a s a f u n c t i o n a l , p u r p o s i v e e n t e r p r i s e ( a s s e e n in t h e w o r k s o f P e a c h a m , 1 5 7 7 ;

H o s k i n s , 1 5 9 9, a n d P u t t e n h a m , 1 5 8 9 ) , m e s h i n g w e l l w i t h t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e p u r p o s e o r

g o a l a f f o r d e d t o s p e e c h a c t s ; a n d t h e f l e x i b i l i t y o f f i g u r e s o f s p e e c h a s i n t e g r a l t o a

v i e w o f l a n g u a g e w h i c h r e c o g n i z e s i t s i n h e r e n t c o n t e x t - d e p e n d e n c y . O n l y b y u s i n g

a p r a g m a t i c f r a m e w o r k c a n o n e o f f e r a n e x p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e e m i n g l y p a r a d o x i c a l

t e n s i o n b e t w e e n a g e n e r a l i z i n g , r u l e - g o v e r n e d b a s i s f o r r h e t o r i c a n d a v i e w p o i n t

l o c a t e d i n t h e s p e c i f i c i ti e s o f p a r t i c u l a r s t y l e s , b o t h o f w h i c h a r e e x p l i c i t l y p r e s e n t i n

t h e r h e t o r i c t e x t s . B u t i t i s, i n d e e d , t h e f o r t e o f p r a g m a t i c s t h a t i t c a n a c c o u n t f o r t h e

v a g a r i e s o f s p e c i f i c c o n t e x t s b y u s i n g r u l e s o f r a t io n a l s p e e c h - a c t i o n . T h o u g h u s u a l l y

n o t e x p l i c i t l y p r e s e n t e d b y r h e t o r i c i a n s o f t h e p a s t a s a t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k , t h e i r

r h e t o r i c a l ' t h e o r y ' i s d e s e r v i n g o f t h e l a b e l o f p r a g m a t i c s i n n o t r i v i al s e n s e . I t i s in

T h o m a s W i l s o n ' s v e r y e a r ly A r t o f R h e t o r iq u e ( 1 5 53 ) t h a t w e c o m e u p o n o n e o f th e

r a r e e x p l i c i t e x p o s i t i o n s o f t h e e s s e n t i a l i ty o f c o n t e x t : " N o t o n e l y i t i s n e c e s s a r i e t o

k n o w e , w h a t m a n e r o f c a u s e w e e h a v e t a k e n i n h a n d e , w h e n w e f i rs t e e n t e r u p o n a n y

m a t t e r, b u t a l s o i t i s w i s e d o n e t o c o n s i d e r th e t y m e , th e p l a c e, t h e m a n f o r w h o m w e

s p e a k e , t h e m a n a g a i n s t w h o m e w e s p e a k e , th e m a t t e r w h e r e o f w e s p e a k e , a n d th e

j u d g e s b e f o r e w h o m e w e s p e a k , t h e r e a so n s t h a t b e s t s e rv e t o f u r th e r o u r c au s e , a n d

t h o s e r e a s o n s a l so , t h a t m a i e s e in e s o m e w h a t to h y n d e r o u r c a u s e , a n d i n n o w i s e t o

u s e a n y s u c h a t a l l, o r e l s w a r e l y t o m i t i g a t e b y p r o t e s t a c i o n , t h e a i a l l th a t i s i n t h e m ,

a n d a l w a i e s t o u s e w h a t s o e v e r c a n b e s a ie d , to w y n n e t h e c h i e f h e a r e rs g o o d w i l le s ,

a n d p e r s w a d e t h e i m t o o u r p u r p o s e " ( i b i d . : 2 1 ) . N o w h e r e h a s a m o r e p r a g m a t i c a l

i n t r o d u c t i o n b e e n g i v e n t o r h e t o r i c .

3 . 3 . A p r a g m a t i c p h i l o s o p h e r o f la n g u a g e

S e a r c h i n g t h r o u g h t e x t b o o k s o f g r a m m a r a n d r h e t o r ic i s a d e c o d i n g e n t e r p r is e : w e

p r e t e n d t o d i s c o v e r t h e g r a m m a r i a n ' s o r r h e t o r i c i a n ' s t h o u g h t s o n l a n g u a g e t h r o u g h

h i s w o r d s o n g r a m m a r a n d r h e t o r i c . P h i l o s o p h y i s m o r e c o n d u c i v e t o o u r r e s e a r c h ,

f o r w e m a y a s k t h e ex p l i c it q u e s ti o n a b o u t a p h i lo s o p h e r : W h a t h a s h e t o s a y a b o u t

l a n g u a g e ? A f a s c i n a t in g c a s e i s t h at o f T h o m a s H o b b e s , f a t h e r o f p o l it ic a l s c ie n c e ,


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464 A. Biletzki / Journa l of Pragm atics 25 1996 ) 455--470

a n d a v i r u l e n t p h i l o s o p h e r w i t h p o s i t i o n s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e o n s e v e r a l o t h e r s u b j e c t s ,

a n d i n p a r ti c u l a r m a r k i n g o f f a p i v o t a l v i e w p o i n t o n s p e e c h . T h e s e c o n d a r y , i n t e r -

p r e t iv e w o r k u n d e r t a k e n b y a c a d e m i a o n H o b b e s ' s p h i l o s o p h y ( d a r e w e s a y th e o r y ? )

o f l a n g u a g e i s t a n t a li z i n g i n i ts e x t r e m e s , f o r i t m o v e s f r o m t h o s e w h o c h a r a c t e r i z e

h i m a s p r o v i d i n g a n o r i g i n a l s p e e c h t h e o r y t o t h o s e w h o c l a i m h e h a s n o c o n s i s t e n t

p o s i t i o n r e g a r d i n g l a n g u a g e . 13 A h i s t o ri c a l r e a d i n g o f H o b b e s , f r o m t h e e a r l y H u m a n

N a t u r e , t h r o u g h t h e L e v i a t h a n , a n d o n t o t h e " m o s t c o m p l e t e a n d d e f i n i t i v e s t a t e -

m e n t " ( H u n g e r l a n d a n d V i c k , 1 9 73 : 4 5 9 ) o f la n g u a g e , f o u n d in D e C o r p o r e , p r e -

s e n ts a p h i l o s o p h i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f th e c o n s t r u c t s o f la n g u a g e a n d s p e e c h . H i s

w r i t i n g s e x h i b i t a n a w a r e n e s s o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n s p e e c h , w h i c h i s a f u n c t io n

o f u se , a n d l a n g u a g e , w h i c h i s a s t r u c tu r e c o n s i s t i n g o f n a m e s a n d p r o p o s i t i o n s . A

n o m i n a l s e m a n t i c s ( t e r m e d b y o t h e rs ' r e f e r e n t i a l ' a n d ' i d e a t i o n a l ' ) , w h i l e e x h i b i t i n g

t h e s e e d s o f a f o r m a l a n d r i g o r o u s p r e s e n t a t i o n , w h e n r e a d i n a la r g e r c o n t e x t , i s s e e n

t o b e o n l y a p a r t o f h i s la n g u a g e t h e o ry , w h i c h e n c o m p a s s e s a fa r m o r e c o m p r e h e n -

s i v e v i e w o f l a n g u a g e a n d s p e e c h ( s h a r p l y d e l i n e a t e d ) t h a n h i t h e r to r e c o g n i z e d ) 4 I t

i s t h e f o c u s o n t h e l a t t e r ( r a r e l y p r e s e n t i n t h e s e c o n d a r y l i t e r a t u r e ) t h a t u n e a r t h e s a

p r a g m a t i c p h i l o s o p h y ; o n e w h i c h i s n o t o n l y n o t a t o d d s w i t h h is w e l l - r e c o g n i z e d

n o m i n a l i s m b u t i n d e e d g o e s w e l l b e y o n d i t . O n e m u s t t h e n r e f o r m u l a t e H o b b e s ' s

p h i l o s o p h y o f l a n g u a g e i n p r a g m a t i c t e r m s a n d , in f a ct , p o s i t th i s ' p r a g m a t i c s ' a s h i s

d e f i n i t iv e t h e o r y o f l a n g u a g e . A l t h o u g h i t a p p e a r s i n h is e a r l y w o r k s ( e s p . c h a p t e r 5

and 13 i n H u m a n N a t u r e ) , t h e s y s t e m a t i c p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a v i r t u a l ' t h e o r y o f u s e ' c a n

p r o v i d e a n o v e r a l l g r o u n d i n g f o r h is l a te r , m o r e s c i e n t if i c a ll y o r i e n te d , s e m a n t i c s .

A d i r e c t c o n s e q u e n c e o f s u c h a n o v e l a n a l y s i s o f H o b b e s ' s i n tr i c at e d i s c u s s i o n o n

s p e e c h a n d l a n g u a g e i s th e a s c r ip t io n t o H o b b e s o f a th e o r y o f m e a n i n g w h i c h

e n c o m p a s s e s t he m e a n i n g o f m o r a l a n d p o l i ti c al t e r m s ) 5 T h e s o m e w h a t e n i g m a t i c

p r o p o s a l , w e l l r e c o g n i z e d , b u t r a r e l y e x p l i c a t e d b e f o r e t h e a d v e n t o f p r a g m a t i c s , t h at

t he s o v e r e i g n f i x e s th e m e a n i n g o f w o r d s c a n n o w b e b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d b y u s e o f th e

p e r f o r m a t i v e i n tu i ti o n ; i .e . th a t t h e s o v e r e i g n , w h i l e l e g is l a ti n g , e n d o w s t e r m s w i t h

m e a n i n g . T h i s e l e g a n t a n a l y s i s n o w s u p p l i e s a l e v e r w i t h w h i c h t o n e w l y a p p r o a c h

H o b b e s ' s m o r a l a n d p o l it ic a l p h i l o s o p h y ) 6 O n e c a n , a n d s h o ul d , f u r t h e r m o r e d e a l

m o r e d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f p r a g m a t i c s f o r h i s w r i ti n g s o n r h e t o r i c ; t h e s e

a r i s e b o t h i n h is d i r e c t t r e a t m e n t o f r h e t o r i c a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t s u b j e c t, a n d i n h is

s t a n c e t o w a r d s , a n d u s e o f , r h e t o r i c i n h i s p o l i t i c a l w r i t i n g s . R h e t o r i c i s , i n f a c t , o n e

o f t h e s t e p p i n g s t o n e s w h i c h e n a b l e H o b b e s t o m a k e t h e e x p l i ci t m o v e t o p o li t ic s , a s

13 S ee , e.g., Hungerland and V ick (1973), Hacking (1975).

~4 Analysesof Hobbes's theory of language are rather sparse, but a representative list of the p ast few

decades would, conceivably, beg in with Martin (1953/54) and K roo k (1956) and advance up to De

Jong(1990).

J5 T hi s perspective on Hobbesian m oral concepts has b een with us for several years , see, e.g., Parry

(1967), W eiler (1970), Von L eyden (1973), Bertm an (1978).

16 On the d irect relationship betwee n Hobbe s's theory of languag e and his p olitics, see Bertm an (1988).

Also o f notice, concerning pragmatics in Hobbes's thought on language, is Isermann (1991). Isermann

sees pragmatics as one of the elements of Hobbes's philosophy (along w ith cognition, semantics, defin-

ition, truth, nom inalism, and others), and devotes entire chapters to the practical-political dimen sion of

language, to languag e and co mm unication, and to perform ative language in the state of nature.


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A. B iletzki / Journal of Pragm atics 25 1996 ) 455--470 465

a r e h i s i n t e r p r e t a t io n s o f r e l i g i o u s l a n g u a g e a n d h i s u s e o f t h e n a r r a t iv e o f th e s t a t e

o f n a t u r e . I n a l l t h e s e d i s c u s s i o n s , p r a g m a t i c s o p e n s u p o p t i o n s o f a f a s c i n a t i n g ,

m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e , a n a l y s i s o f H o b b e s ' s p h i l o s o p h y , fa r b e y o n d h i s ( s u p p o s e d ly )

d e l i m i t e d p h i l o s o p h y o f l a n g u a g e .

4 . W h y d o a h i st o r y o f p r a g m a t ic s ?

W h y i s i t a t a l l e n l i g h t e n i n g o r e x p l a n a t o r y o r i m p o r t a n t t o f i n d p r a g m a t i c s i n

t h o u g h t a b o u t l a n g u a g e i n p a s t c e n t u r i e s ? I w i l l ta c k l e th e s e t h r e e q u e s t i o n s - a b o u t

e n l i g h t e n m e n t , e x p l a n a t i o n a n d i m p o r t a n c e - i n s u c c e s s i o n .

4 . 1 . E n l i g h t e n m e n t o r : u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e p a s t )

T h r e e p o i n t s c o m e t o m i n d . F i r st , i f w e a re b e n t o n c o n v i n c i n g l y r e la t in g t h e c o n -

t e n t o f la n g u a g e s t u d y i n p a s t ce n t u r ie s - w h a t p e o p l e h a d t o s a y a b o u t l a n g u a g e -

t o m o d e m p r a g m a t i c s , t h e n i f t h e s e t h in k e r s d i d s a y s o m e t h i n g o f a p r a g m a t i c

n a t u r e , a n y a c c o u n t w h i c h d o e s n o t r e p o r t t h e s e e l e m e n t s a n d t u r n s i s m i s s i n g t h e

p o i n t . N o t i c e t h e t e rm s ' r e l a t i n g ' a n d ' a c c o u n t ' . I f w h a t is n e e d e d i s a h i s t o r ic a l

d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e t r e a t i s e s a b o u t l a n g u a g e i n t h e p a s t , a n d i f i t i s r e q u i r e d t h a t t h i s

d e s c r i p t i o n b e t r u e t o t h e te x t s , th e n t h e l a c k o f r e c o g n i t i o n o f p r a g m a t i c d e t a i l s m a y

s i m p l y ' m i s i n f o r m ' t h e h i s to r i a n . B u t w e a re d e a l i n g h e r e w i t h t h e h i s to r y o f i d ea s -

w h a t i s b e i n g r e c o u n t e d i s n o t j u s t a h i s to r i c a l ta l e - a n d a ' r e l a t i n g ' o f w h a t w a s s a i d

a b o u t l a n g u a g e m u s t b e c h e c k e d u n d e r t h e r u b r ic o f u n d e rs t a n d i n g . It th e n b e c o m e s

c r u c i a l t h a t a r e a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f l a n g u a g e s t u d y t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n , a n d

r e p o r t o n , p r a g m a t i c e l e m e n t s ( i f t h e s e i n d e e d a r e p r e s e n t) . A c a s e i n p o i n t i s t h a t o f

R i c h a r d J o h n s o n : u n d e r s t a n d i n g h i s ' a n i m a d v e r s i o n s ' i n v o l v e s , i n p r i n c i p l e , t a k i n g

a c c o u n t o f h is t h e o r y o f m o o d s a s a t h e o r y o f l a n g u a g e u s e.

S e c o n d , a n d f a r m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , i n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d h i s t o r i c a l v i e w s o n l a n -

g u a g e i n t h e i r t i m e s , o n e m a y p r o f i t a b l y t u r n to p r a g m a t i c s . T h a t i s , o n e w i l l b e b e t-

t e r e n a b l e d t o p o i n t t o c h a n g e s i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f l a n g u a g e , i n t h e c o n c e p t i o n s

o f t h e r e l at i o n s b e t w e e n t h o u g h t a n d l a n g u a g e , i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f m a n , i n t h e s t at u s

o f l a n g u a g e i n p h i l o s o p h y , e tc . T h e p r e s e n c e ( o r a b s e n c e ) o f p r a g m a t i c a w a r e n e s s, o r

t h e e x p l ic i t p r a g m a t i c a l r e n d e ri n g s o f t h e se t h o u g h t s , o r t h e w e a k n e s s o r s t r e n g t h o f

t h e p r a g m a t i c a l e l e m e n t i n s u c h d i s c u s s i o n s , c a n a l l b e u t i l i z e d i n t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f

h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s . T h i s p o i n t is i l lu s t r a t e d c o n v i n c i n g l y b y t h e s t o r y o f

r h e t o ri c i n p o s t -r e n a i s s an c e E n g l a n d , w h i c h i s g i v e n a d e v e l o p m e n t a l d i m e n s i o n ( in

t h e m o v e f r o m c l a s s i c a l

e l o c u t i o

t o a r a t i o n a l i s t i c s c i e n c e o f s p e e c h ) t h r o u g h a d o p -

t io n o f p r a g m a t i c a l t e r m i n o l o g y .

T h e t h i r d p o i n t w h i c h a r i s e s i s o u r u s e o f p r a g m a t i c s t o s o l v e o u r p r o b l e m s o f

u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n d e a l i n g w i t h o l d e r t e x t s , o r p r o b l e m s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h i c h w e

t h i n k t h e w r i te r s o f t h o s e t e x ts m a y h a v e h a d . T h e s e a re t h e q u e s t i o n m a r k s , c o n tr a -

d i c t i o n s , a n d e v e n d e a d e n d s w h i c h h a v e b e e n n u m e r o u s i n t h e a n a l y s e s o f p a s t

t h o u g h t a n d o l d e r t r e a t i s e s . S u c h e x i s t i n g q u e s t i o n m a r k s a n d d e a d e n d s a r e a r r i v e d

a t e it h e r b e c a u s e t h e p h i l o s o p h e r i n q u e s t i o n f o u n d h i m s e l f u p a g a i n s t i n s u r m o u n t -


12/16


a b l e p h i l o s o p h i c a l o r l in g u i s ti c p r o b l e m s , o r b e c a u s e o u r t o o l s o f a n a l y s is t h u s f a r

h a v e n o t a l l o w e d u s to a c c o u n t f o r w h a t a p p e a r e d t o b e h is s o l u t i o n s to t h e p r o b l e m s .

I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e d e a d e n d m a y b e h i s a s w e l l a s o u r o w n . B o t h s i t u a t i o n s a r e

a m e n a b l e t o a n a t t e m p t a t a r e n e w e d d e c i p h e r i n g , u s i n g p r a g m a t i c s , a n d t h e r e s u l t s

m a y b e m a n i f o l d . W e m a y f i n d t h a t f o r m e r i g n o r a n c e o f , o r i n a t te n t i o n t o , t h a t

w r i t e r ' s p r a g m a t i c e m p h a s i s w a s t he c a u s e o f o u r q u es t io n m a r k ; w e m a y d i s c o v e r

t h a t u s i n g p r a g m a t i c t o o ls , w e c a n b e t t e r e x p l a i n t h e r e a s o n f o r h is q u e s t i o n m a r k ; o r

w e m a y h y p o t h e s i z e t h a t , p e r h a p s , t h r o u g h l a c k o f s u c h t o o l s h e d i d i n d e e d c o m e t o

a d e a d e n d . O r a g a i n , w e m a y r e a l i z e t h a t f u l l r e c o g n i t i o n o f p r a g m a t i c e l e m e n t s i n

t h o s e w r i t i n g s ( e v e n i f t h e o r i g in a l w r i t e r d i d n o t r e c o g n i z e t h e m a s s u c h ) l e a d s t h e

w a y t o a d if f e r e n t, p e r c h a n c e b e t t e r , u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f w h a t h e h a d b e e n s a y i n g . ( T h i s

i s a c t u a l ly a p o i n t o f c o n v e r g e n c e w i t h th e f i rs t p o i n t m a d e a b o v e . ) P r a g m a t i c s , t h e n ,

c a n b e p e r c e i v e d a s a r e c o u r s e t o b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d p r o b l e m s o l v i n g w i t h

r e g a r d t o t h e s e t e x t s . N o w h e r e i s s u c h a d d e d v a l u e m o r e p r o m i n e n t t h a n i n t h e c a s e

o f H o b b e s i a n s c h o la r s hi p . T h e a p p a r e n t d o u b l e - e d g e d a n a l y si s o f h i s w o r k s , m o v i n g

i n t h e s e e m i n g l y o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s o f s c i e n c e a n d p o l i t i c s , c a n b e s y n t h e s i z e d

m e d i a t i n g h i s v i e w s o n l a n g u a g e . T h e s e m a k e s e n s e , c o n c e r n i n g b o t h H o b b e s t h e

s c i e n t i s t a n d H o b b e s t h e p o l i t i c i a n , w h e n s e e n t h r o u g h p r a g m a t i c a l , l i n g u i s t i c

g l a s s e s .

4.2. Pragmat ic explanation ?

W h a t c a n t h e d i s c o v e r y o f p r a g m a t i c s ( o r t h e d i s c o v e r y o f i t s a b s e n c e ) c o n t r i b u t e

t o th e c u r r e n t d e b a t e s s u r r o u n d i n g p r a g m a t i c t h e o r i e s a n d c o n s t r u c t s ? 17 W h e n u s i n g

p r a g m a t i c s f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f t e x ts w e a r e a c t u a l l y p u t ti n g o u r m o d e m t h e o r i e s a n d

c o n c e p t s o f p r a g m a t i c s t o t h e t e s t. I t is , h o w e v e r , q u i t e d i f fi c u lt , i f n o t i m p o s s i b l e , t o

d e t e r m i n e t h e c r i t e r i a f o r f a i l i n g o r p a s s i n g t h e t e s t . O u r t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k a i m s

a t b e t t e r e x p l a i n i n g t h o s e t e x t s , a n d i t i s h a r d t o s e e a t w h a t p o i n t w e m a y s a y t h a t

o u r e x p l a n a t i o n i s in d e e d b e t t e r . I f w e h a v e u s e d p r a g m a t i c s t o p u l l u s o u t o f a d e a d

e n d a n d h a v e s u c c e e d e d i n o u r e n d e a v o r , t h e n w e m a y s u r el y c l a i m s o m e p r a c ti c a l

v a l u e ( o f p r a g m a t i c t e r m s ) f o r e x p l a n a t o r y p u r p o s e s . B u t m o s t c a s e s a r e n o t s o c le a r -

c u t - a n d so w e l a n d a g a i n a t t h e q u e s t io n o f ' b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g ' . T h e f r u it f u l

r e - e x a m i n a t i o n o f o l d e r t e x ts i n a n e w l i g h t i s o f v a l u e p e r s e , a n d o u r a b i l it y t o m a k e

p r a g m a t i c t e r m s r e l e v a n t t o t h e s t u d y o f la n g u a g e i n o t h e r t im e s i s s u f f ic i e n t j u s t i f i-

c a t i o n a n d e x o n e r a t i o n . T h e r e i s a n i n tr i ns i c v a l u e i n a f r e sh a n a l y s i s o f s o m e t e x t

( w h i c h w a s h i t h e r t o u n c l e a r , o r w h o s e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p e r h a p s e v e n s e e m e d m i s -

g u i d e d ) , i n t h a t s u c h a n a n a l y s i s y i e l d s r e su l t s o f a p r o d u c t i v e n a t u r e w h e n q u e s t i o n s

a s k e d i n t h a t s a m e t e x t a re a p p r e h e n d e d a s p r a g m a t i c q u e s t io n s . Q u i t e c l e a r ly , t h is i s

a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e h i s t o r y o f i d e a s, o r t h e h i s t o r y o f l i n g u i st i cs o r p h i l o s o p h y . O u r

~7 A ga in, here is the purely historical interest one m ay hav e - especially in som ething that is currently

popular. Just as books are sp routing up in the history of sem iotics, sem antics, linguistics - so it is rea-

sonable to expect that, on reaching the heyday of pragmatics, we should be engaged in the history of

pragm atics. The question is one o f value rather than of interest - and in th at sense it deserves an honest,

deeper - not just an ad hoc - answer.


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A. Biletzki / Journal of Pragmatics 25 1996) 455-470 67

p r e s e n t c h a l l e n g e , h o w e v e r , i s d i r e c t e d a t t h e p r o p o s a l o f ' p r a g m a t i c s a s a t r u e t h e -

o r y ' a n d t o t h e c l a i m t h a t d e l v i n g i n to t e x ts , u s i n g p r a g m a t ic s , c a n d o s o m e t h i n g f o r

t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e ( r a t h e r t h a n s t a t u s ) o f t h e a r t ( o f p r a g m a t i c s ) . M y a n s w e r , a t t h i s

p o i n t , c a n b e n o m o r e t h a n a n i n t u i t i v e h i n t .

E m p h a s e s , c o n t e x t s , a n d s t y l i s t ic d i s c i p l i n e s a re n o m e a n m a t t e r. W e t u r n t o o l d e r

t h i n k e r s ' w e a k n e s s e s i n o r d e r t o s t r e n g t h e n o u r o w n . B u t w e c a n t u m t o t h e i r

s t r e n g t h s fo r th e s a m e p u r p o s e . I n p l a c e s w h e r e t h e i r e m p h a s e s w e r e d i f f e r e n t f r o m

o u r s , i n d i s c i p l i n e s w h e r e t h e y d w e l l e d w h i l e w e h a v e d a w d l e d , i n c o n t e x t s w h i c h

t h e y r ev e r e d a n d w h i c h w e v i r t u a ll y ig n o r e - w e c a n b e g i n t h e s e a rc h f o r n e w t h i n g s

t o s a y a b o u t p r a g m a t i c s . T h u s , f o r i n s t a n c e , o u r t h e o r i e s o f p e r s u a s i o n ( n o w

a d d r e s s e d b y m o d e r n p r a g m a t i c i s ts ) s t a n d t o l e a rn f r o m t h e f u l l - b l o w n r h e t o r i c a l t h e -

o r i e s o f o t h e r t i m e s ; o u r e f f o r t s a t e x p l a i n i n g l i n g u i s t i c c a t e g o r i e s s u c h a s m o o d

( n o w i n f l u e n c e d b y p r a g m a t i c t h e o ri e s ) m a y b e e n r i c h e d b y t h e i n t ri c ac i e s o f p a st

g r a m m a t i c a l e f f o r t s .

F i n a l l y , t h e d i s c o v e r y o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f p r a g m a t i c c o n t e n t i n p a s t t h i n k e r s m u s t

l e a d t o q u e r i e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e o v e r a l l s t a tu s o f p r a g m a t i c s i n l i n g u i s t ic a n d p h i l o -

s o p h i c a l s t u d y . B u t t h i s b e c o m e s t h e q u e s t i o n o f i m p o r t a n c e , a c t u a l l y a m e t a - q u e s -

t i o n , a s p r e s e n t e d a b o v e .

4 .3 . H i s tory as me ta pragmat ic s

E x t r e m e p o s i t i o n s o n t h e i s s u e o f l a n g u a g e ( t a l k in g a n i m a l s a n d t a lk i n g m a c h i n e s )

n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , i t i s a s a f e p h i l o s o p h i c a l b e t t o a s s u m e t h a t o n e e s s e n t i a l t r a i t o f

m a n i s h i s p o s s e s s i o n o f l a n g u a g e ; t h u s t h e q u e s t i o n o f l a n g u a g e i s le n t a l e g i t i m a t e ,

p e r e n n i a l n a t u r e .

S a y i n g ' t h e q u e s t i o n o f l a n g u a g e ' a m o u n t s , i n t h is c o n t e x t , t o m o r e t h a n t h e l e a d -

i n g q u e s ti o n ' W h a t i s l a n g u a g e ? ' ; t h e a d d it io n s b e i n g q u e s ti o n s o f th o u g h t , o f m e a n -

i n g , o f t r u t h , o f l a n g u a g e u s e , o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n , o f m u t u a l h u m a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g .

P r a g m a t i c s c l a i m s t h a t s u f f i c i e n t a n s w e r s , o r e s s e n t i a l a n s w e r s , t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s

c a n n o t b e s e c u r e d u n l e s s o n e t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t p r a g m a t i c f a c t o r s . S o t h i s i s r e a l l y

t h e m e t a - t h e o r y o f p r a g m a t i c s . I t is t h e s a m e m e t a - q u e s t i o n t h a t a n y p h i l o s o p h e r o f

l a n g u a g e m u s t a n s w e r i f h e i s to b e r e g a r d e d a s a d d r e s s i n g a p e r e n n i a l q u e s t i o n .

C o n s e q u e n t l y , h e w h o u n d e r t a k e s t o p o i n t o u t p r a g m a t i c a l c o n s i d e ra t io n s i n t e x t s

o f a l l t i m e s - w h e t h e r s u c h c o n s i d e r a t i o n s b e e x p l i c i t o r i m p l i c i t, c o n s c i o u s o r

u n c o n s c i o u s , o f a t h e o r e t i c a l o r p r a c t i c al n a t u r e - i s re p h r a s i n g t h e p e r e n n i a l q u e s -

t i o n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g w a y : I s p r a g m a t i c s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e e s s e n t i a l a n a l y s i s o f l a n -

g u a g e ? C a n i t p r o v i d e s a t i s fa c t o r y t o o l s f o r u n d o i n g t h e c o n u n d r u m s a n d u n t y i n g th e

p u z z l e s w h i c h t h e p h i l o s o p h e r o f l a n g u a g e f a c e s ? I s i t e x p l a n a t o r y i n t he s e n s e o f

s u p p l y i n g a t h e o r y o f l a n g u a g e u s e u n d e r w h i c h w e c a n s u b s u m e p h e n o m e n a h i t h -

e r t o u n e x p l a i n e d ? S e e n i n t h i s l i g h t , t h e s e a r c h f o r p r a g m a t i c s i n o t h e r t i m e s i s o f

v a l u e t o t h e p h i l o s o p h e r o f l a n g u a g e a n d i s j u s t i f i e d v i a t h e e x t e r n a l i s s u e o f l a n -

g u a g e a t l a r g e .

A n e w q u e s t i o n n o w c r o p s u p w h i c h h a s b e e n t h u s f a r ig n o r e d . D o t h e e v i d e n ti a l

r e s u l t s o f h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h c o n t r i b u t e t o t h i s m e t a - q u e s t i o n , o r a r e t h e y r e l e v a n t

o n l y o n t h e i r o w n r e s e a r c h l e v e l s ? T h a t i s , w h a t i s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l e f f e c t o f d i f f e r e n t


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468 A. Biletzki /Journal of Pragmatics 25 1996) 455-470

r e t u rn s t o t h e a b o v e q u e s t i o n s : d i s c o v e r y o f o b v i o u s p r a g m a t i c a l e l e m e n t s i n s o m e

w r i t in g v s . l a c k o f s u c h e l e m e n t s , a n d p r o d u c t i v e u s e o f p r a g m a t i c t o o l s f o r a n a l y -

s i s v s . t e x t s t h a t d o n o t l e n d t h e m s e l v e s t o s u c h a n a l y s i s ? M y a s s e r t i o n h e r e i s t h a t

e v e n t h o u g h , s u p e r f i c i a l l y s p e a k i n g , t h e d i f f e r e n t r e s u l t s w i l l l e a d t o v a r i e t ie s o f

y e s - n o a n s w e r s o n t h e r e s e a r c h l ev e l ( ' Y e s - H o b b e s w a s a p r a g m a t i c i s t ' , ' N o -

t h e re i s n o w a y o f a n a l y z i n g B a c o n i n a p r a g m a t i c l i g h t' ) , t h e y w i l l a ff e c t th e m e t a -

q u e s t i o n o f t h e s t a tu s o f p r a g m a t i c s i n a f a r m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d , i n t r ic a t e , a n d i n t e r -

e s t i n g m a n n e r .

I f p r a g m a t i c s c a n b e f o u n d i n f o r m e r t im e s , a n d i f te x ts o f o th e r c e n t u r ie s a r e a n a -

l y z e d p r o d u c t i v e l y w i t h t h e a i d o f p r a g m a t i c s , t h e n w e m a y t r i v ia l l y s ta t e th a t p r a g -

m a t i c s , a t l e a s t t h u s f a r , h a s b e e n u s e f u l b y p r o v i d i n g a n i l l u s t r a t i v e , e v e n e s s e n t i a l ,

v i e w p o i n t o n l a n g u a g e . H o w e v e r , t h e c o n v e r s e d o e s n o t h o l d . T h e f a c t t h a t p r a g -

m a t i c s i s a b s e n t i n t e x t s o f th e p a s t d o e s n o t u n d e r m i n e i ts u s e o r it s u s e f u l n e s s i n

l a n g u a g e a n a l y s i s . R a t h e r , w e m u s t a t t h is p o i n t tr y to e x p l a in t h is l a c k a n d p e r h a p s

e v e n s h o w t h at th e w a n t o f p r a g m a t i c t o o l s w a s t h e c a u s e o f th e l a c u n a e a n d s h o r t-

c o m i n g s t h a t w e o b s e r v e d o n t h e p a r t o f l a n g u a g e p h i l o s o p h e r s o f f o r m e r c e n t u ri e s.

T h i s s o r t o f c o n t e n t i o n i s n o t e a s i l y u p h e l d , a n d i ts d e f e n s e i s b e s e t w i t h t h e o r e t ic a l

d i f f ic u l t ie s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t d o e s p r o v i d e a p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e f o r d i s c u s s i o n s o n t h e

c u r r e n t s t a t u s o f p r a g m a t i c s .

I t h a s b e c o m e o b v i o u s , i n th e c o u r s e o f t h e l as t p a r a g r a p h , t h a t a n a n s w e r t o t h e

m e t a - q u e s t i o n o f t h e im p o r t a n c e o f p r a g m a t i c s i n t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f l a n g u a g e

d e p e n d s o n t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e r e s e a r c h o n p r a g m a t i c s i n o t h e r e r a s , e v e n t h o u g h i t i s

n o t s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d l y d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e m . S o , i n a n y c a s e , s u c h s u b s t a n t iv e r e s e a r c h

s h o u l d b e c a r r i e d o u t b e f o r e w e c a n a t t e m p t t o d ea l w i t h i ts p r e s u m e d p h i l o s o p h i c a l

r e p e r c u s s io n s . A n d , i f w e d o m e e t p r e d o m i n a n t l y n e g a t i v e e v i d e n c e , w e c a n th e n

p r o c e e d t o a d i ff e r en t , m o r e t r o u b l e s o m e , q u e s t i o n - w h y is th e r e n o ' r e a l ' h i s t o r y o f

p r a g m a t i c s ?

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is there a history of pragmatics

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