isme mangrove action plan for the sustainable ......isme mangrove action plan for the sustainable...

ISME MANGROVE ACTION PLAN for the sustainable management

of mangroves 2004-2009

Published under ITTO Project PPD17/01 Rev.1 (F)

International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems

International Tropical Timber Organization

ISME Action Plan on Sustainable Management of Mangroves: 2004 - 2009

ITTO/ISME Pre-Project Action Plan on Sustainable Mangrove Management PPD17/01 Rev. 1 (F)

International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) ITTO was established in 1986 under the International Tropical Timber Agreement (ITTA) following increasing worldwide concern about the fate of the tropical forests. ITTO battles as much for tropical forest conservation and development, as for trade of timber, now listed as a commodity by the UNCTAD (United Nations Conference for Trade and Development). ITTO is based at Yokohama, Japan. URL: http://www.itto.or.jp International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME) ISME is an international non-governmental, non-profit organization. It is a follow up of the UNDP/UNESCO Regional Mangrove Projects in Asia and the Pacific. The need to establish an international society arose from the research, training activities and studies commissioned by the UNDP/UNESCO Projects on the nature and management of mangrove ecosystems. Among other items, the Statutes of ISME say that “the Society shall collect, evaluate and disseminate information on mangrove ecosystems” and “Promote international cooperation.” URL: http://www.glomis.com, http://www.mangrove.or.jp/mangrove/

ISME Mangrove Action Plan for the Sustainable Management of Mangroves 2004 - 2009

ISME MANGROVE ACTION PLAN

for the sustainable management of mangroves 2004-2009

October 2004

International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems and

International Tropical Timber Organization


Coordinator: F. Blasco Contributed by: S. Aksornkoae, J. Aronson, S. Baba, N. Duke, C. Gordon, S. Johnson, M. Kainuma, N. Oshiro, P. Saenger, H. Sanchez, M. Spalding, M. Steyaert, M. Vannucci (names listed in alphabetical order of surname) Cover photo: mangrove playground for children. Kiribati. Photo by S. Baba Back cover photo: Kiribati. Photo by S. Baba Published in October 2004 by International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan, as the output of the ITTO/ISME Pre-Project PPD17/01 Rev.1(F), entitled “Action Plan on Sustainable Mangrove Management” ISBN: 4-906584-10-1 Printed on recycled paper


Table of contents

Foreword ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････1

Executive Summary ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････3

ISME Action Plan for the Sustainable Management of Mangroves 2004-2009････････････････5

1. Background and justification ･････････････････････････････････････････････････5

2. Origin of the International Society of Mangrove Ecosystems ････････････････････････6

3. Key Issues, Responses/ Activities ･････････････････････････････････････････････7

Over-use (forestry, fisheries) ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････8

Aquaculture ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････9

Pollution/sedimentation (including oil/gas) ････････････････････････････････････9

Hydrological modification (inland and coastal)････････････････････････････････10

Coastal land use changes – agriculture, infrastructure and buildings, reclamation, etc. ･10

Lack of appropriate legislation and enforcement of regulations ･･･････････････････11

Shortage of capacity, mangrove specialists, managers, technicians･････････････････11

Inadequate communication, education, public awareness and participation ･･････････12

Climate change/sea-level rise ･･････････････････････････････････････････････12

4. Activities at Global level ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････13

5. Conclusion ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････14

Reference ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････15

Appendix 1 ITTO Decision 9 (XXIX)･････････････････････････････････････････････17

Appendix 2 Charter for Mangroves ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････18


Acronyms

EABRN East Asian Biosphere Reserve Network ECOSOC United Nations Economic and Social Council EIA Environmental Impact Assessment GLOMIS Global Mangrove Database and Information System IABO International Association of Biological Oceanography ICUN International Council of Scientific Unions IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ISME International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems ITTC International Tropical Timber Council ITTO International Tropical Timber Organization IUBS International Union of Biological Sciences JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency NGO Non-governmental organization SeaBRnet Southeast Asia Biosphere Reserve Network


Foreword

In the ten years of existence of the International Society of Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME), with support from International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO), many international and national organizations, NGOs, and members of ISME, sufficient knowledge and understanding of mangrove ecosystems has been acquired to enable the development of a comprehensive, global Action Plan for the sustainable management of mangroves. The overall aim of the Society is to contribute to global efforts towards the conservation, rehabilitation and rational utilisation of mangrove ecosystems. All these activities are carried out taking into account the specific needs of the people who live within mangroves. The activities involve interdisciplinary works on interactions between mangrove flora and fauna and environmental conditions. They also involve a conceptual and practical understanding of essential links between natural and social systems, especially those leading to socially sensitive and equitable development in mangrove environments with special regard to women and children. ISME's activities include international programmes for information diffusion, especially through the Global Mangrove Database and Information System (GLOMIS) PD14/97 Rev.1(F), integrated multidisciplinary surveys (the World Mangrove Atlas, PD6/93 Rev.2(F)), mangrove training course funded by Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), and research and others. ISME operates in cooperation with a wide range of institutions including Universities, Research laboratories and International organizations, primarily ITTO, which recently published the “ITTO Mangrove Workplan 2002-2006.” The current widespread institutional interest in mangrove ecosystems and the recent surge in mangrove literature, clearly indicate that these ecosystems have increasingly received much attention during the last decades. This essentially implies that the economic roles of mangroves in tropical coastal environments, their efficiency in coastal protection, their biological and cultural diversity and their links with coastal fisheries, are currently better recognised and understood. Nevertheless, the incessant degradation, transformation and conversion to other uses of these vital ecosystems due to ignorance, mismanagement and poor law enforcement are a great source of worry globally. Envisioned in a workshop organized by ISME in Toulouse, France, from 1-4 April 2003, the present “ISME Action Plan for the Sustainable Management of Mangroves 2004-2009” was conceived from the perspective of salvaging the mangroves and putting them to rational use. This document therefore presents a concise overview of the key issues related to the sustainable management of mangrove ecosystems. The associated guidelines presented have been identified as imperative at the global level for the protection and sustainable management of mangroves.

Prof. Aprilani Soegiarto President of ISME

1


2


Executive Summary Since the publication of the first Global Status of Mangrove Ecosystems (Saenger et al., 1983), about twenty years ago, the causes and consequences of mangroves destruction have been clearly identified and most recommendations made at that time to international, regional and national organizations and Ministries still remain valid today. What has been progressively changing is: 1) the ability of the scientific community to explain and to demonstrate through formal

models, the exceptionally high productivity of these ecosystems and 2) the awareness of the fact that millions of people use mangrove products and mangrove

environments and that mangroves underpin social and economical welfare in numerous coastal areas.

For these reasons, most international organizations have paid a special attention to mangrove communities. In particular, the efforts and perseverance of ITTO and ISME, in promoting the sustainable management and utilization of mangroves, have brought very positive effects in many parts of the coastal tropical world. We are now entering a new era, that of practical knowledge, experience and action. This ISME Mangrove Action Plan focuses on key issues impeding the sustainable management of mangroves. It is presented in such a way that it should encourage the development of new projects by an array of institutions working either at a local or at a national level, avoiding the classical polarization opposing conservation and rational use of the resource. This approach is consistent with ITTO policy as given in ITTO Decision 9 (XXIX) Mangrove Conservation Programme (Appendix 1). The present ISME Mangrove Action Plan is conceived for practitioners, policy makers and all those responsible for the livelihood of mangrove dwellers and for the protection and rational use of mangrove ecosystems.

3


4


ISME Mangrove Action Plan for the Sustainable Management of Mangroves

2004-2009

1. Background and justification Mangroves have always been considered as exceptional ecosystems for at least three main reasons. First, the global mangrove area presently does not exceed 180,000 sq. km, which is a relatively modest area extent for a natural ecosystem. Second, their discontinuous distribution, at the land and sea interface of tropical and subtropical coastlines, is primarily characterised by tidal regimes, creating unique forest habitats. Third the generally wide fluctuations of environmental factors (dissolved oxygen, salinity, organic and inorganic suspended matter) have induced in mangrove flora, a complex range of adaptations, lacking in other woody species, unable to compete or to survive in these highly variable and adverse environmental conditions (low oxygen content in soils, sulphate toxicity, high NaCl in water and soils, exposure to hurricanes and surges, unconsolidated soils, etc.). Despite these conditions, these ecosystems are highly productive with an average primary productivity often higher than that of neighbouring terrestrial forest ecosystems. Although the mangroves of the world are known to consist of approximately 70 exclusive species of trees and shrubs belonging to nearly 20 families of Angiosperms, the floristic structure of mangroves vary from more than 30 species along the richest coasts of Southeast Asia and Australia, to only one species recorded today in most of the arid coastal world of the Middle East, West Africa and North Western America. In any case, mangrove forests create a wide diversity of niches, which serve as suitable habitats for feeding, breeding, spawning and hatching of sedentary and migratory species. In particular, they are an important nursery habitat, for fish and crustaceans of commercial value. The mangrove trees provide firewood, charcoal, timber and raw materials for paper and chipboard. The forest also provides other socially and economically important materials such as fodder for livestock, medicines, and dyes. Mangroves are also important for their role as biological filters and a sink for several pollutants. With the advent and current acceleration of climate change, mangroves are being increasingly seen as carbon sinks and carbon stores. Additionally, due to their strategic location, mangroves protect coastlines from wave energy, and offshore ecosystems from terrestrial sediments flowing downstream. Dense mangrove stands protect shorelines from storm and surges damage and increase coastal stability. In cyclone prone areas, they play a dominant role for the protection of human beings and property. The mangrove ecosystem therefore yields goods and services of high economic value and earns tremendous foreign exchange for the producing country without compromising its ecological and environmental integrity when properly managed. The complex, multi-faceted and often long-term nature of these benefits mean that they have sometimes been overlooked in simple economic models. For all these reasons, the need to establish a comprehensive Action Plan for the protection of mangroves and their sustainable management has to be urgently developed and implemented. The main objectives derive from the identification of key issues and activities listed below. In addition to these objectives, ISME will:

• proceed to publish a detailed Background Paper for wide distribution;

5


• consider future potential projects, notably those which focus on demonstration sites, taking into account the mitigation of shrimp farming within mangrove ecosystems, agriculture and forestry;

• compile success and failure stories within mangrove ecosystems on utilization and management of mangrove ecosystem;

• disseminate information on examples of biosphere reserves within the mangrove ecosystems in different regions;

• promote information exchange, and disseminate knowledge for public awareness and education towards the general public, local people and decision makers (e.g. making use of GLOMIS (PD14/97 Rev.1(F)), and Revised World Mangrove Atlas (PD276/04 Rev.1 (F));

• continue to investigate how to involve local people, taking into account their own interests in the framework of utilization, conservation, and rehabilitation of mangrove ecosystems.

2. Origin of the International Society of Mangrove Ecosystems ISME is an international non-profit and non-governmental scientific society, established in August 1990. ISME Headquarters is in Okinawa, Japan (Box 1). ISME took over various initiatives and followed the lead given by earlier UNDP/UNESCO Regional Mangrove projects. Among other items, the Statutes of ISME indicates that “the Society shall collect, evaluate and disseminate information on mangrove ecosystems” and “promote international cooperation.” Since its inauguration in 1990, ISME has been carrying out its activities at global level in the following three pathways, these are, in brief:

a) application of knowledge to particular situations; b) training and education; and c) exchange of necessary information.

ISME’s activities have been supported with collaboration and links by a number of other organizations, universities, research institutes and local communities. As of December 2003, ISME’s membership stood at 890 individual members and 38 institutional members from over 80 countries and regions. ISME aims to create a well-organized network of scientists, managers, planners and decision makers and all persons interested in all aspects of mangrove studies and management. ISME has been working at a quick pace because destruction of mangrove ecosystems is a worldwide phenomenon that has now reached alarming proportions. ISME concentrates on three lines of action:

- To promote research and surveys with scientists and organisations for the conservation, rational management, and sustainable utilisation of mangrove and their ecosystems;

- To serve as an international data-bank on mangrove ecosystems; - To enhance public awareness on the importance of mangrove ecosystems.

The Executive Committee of ISME at its first meeting decided to draft a Charter for Mangroves that complements a World Charter for Nature of the United Nations. ISME’s Charter for Mangroves was first drafted in 1991, and finalized in 1992. The importance of the Charter for Mangroves lies in setting forth principles for the utilisation of mangrove ecosystems, to be reflected in the laws and practices, at local, national and international levels (Appendix 2).

6


Box 1: ISME Mission Statement The ISME Statutes, Art.III, amended in 1993, state that: “the Society shall collect, evaluate and disseminate information on mangrove ecosystems” and “promote international cooperation”. ISME is affiliated to the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) and is part of the International Union of Biological Sciences (IUBS) through the International Association of Biological Oceanography (IABO). As an NGO, it is also associated with the United Nations Department of Public Information with a Roster status and is included in the list of NGOs in consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). ISME has been working in close collaboration with the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) in the implementation of the Organization's objectives relating mangrove ecosystems conservation, sustainable management and rehabilitation. ITTO is one of the main organizations concerned with the sustainable management of mangrove forests and their conservation. ITTO further recognizes the importance of mangroves as explicitly stated in the overall ITTO Workplan for 2002-2006, which calls on the Organisation to, "promote the conservation, rehabilitation and sustainable utilization of mangroves in collaboration with relevant organisations". In synergy with these objectives, ISME aims at creating a world wide operational network of people interested in all aspects of mangrove ecosystems, by promoting research and surveys for their conservation, rational management and sustainable utilization. It's current major activities are: building of a Global database (GLOMIS - GLObal Mangrove database and Information System), restoration and rehabilitation of degraded mangroves worldwide, organizing international workshops, symposiums and training courses for the ‘Sustainable management of mangrove ecosystems’.

3. Key Issues, Responses/Activities The key issues identified below are those considered the major impediments to Sustainable Management of mangroves and their associated resources. Each of the key issues arises primarily from increasing human population density in the coastal zone, and the associated phenomena of poverty, rapid "development" and the lack of good governance. In many areas there is a lack of awareness of the importance of mangrove and a failure to connect the various goods and services that they provide (such as supporting offshore fisheries or coastline stabilization) with the resource itself. This is compounded by the lack of ecological data for many regions, and the absence of sound monitoring programs, which in turn, constrain appropriate management on a reliable ecological basis. While the key issues have been discussed individually below, it is clear that many of them act in synergy. For example, the problem of mangrove overuse is likely to be more intense in the absence of appropriate legislation in mangrove areas where public awareness and law enforcement are minimal. Similarly, changes in coastal land-use are generally the consequence of increase in local population.

7


All of the key issues result in losses of mangroves or in an impairment of mangrove functioning and productivity. Most importantly, the benefits derived from such induced mangrove losses rarely go to the local communities, causing localized hardships and often contribute to increasing poverty. Sustainable mangrove ecosystem management is essential to break this cycle. The magnitude of impacts varies from one region to another. However, the common denominator to most policy decisions relating to economic development in tropical coastal environments is that they are made without a sound knowledge of the value of the mangrove resources and placing higher value to the alternative land use. Based on this present situation, the following key issues are considered of prime importance. They are not arranged in order of priority or urgency since these vary from place to place.

Over-use (forestry, fisheries) This is the most widespread problem although varied in intensity (particularly intense in Latin America, Africa and Asia). It includes timber and non-timber forest products extraction, fisheries and wildlife utilisation. Human population pressure and eagerness for development are the major driver. The most drastic human effect is the degradation of the ecosystem and the change of mangrove forest and their environmental conditions to the extent that subsequent natural re-establishment is prevented or becomes very difficult and costly.

Responses/activities:

• Recognizing that mangroves can be utilised in a sustainable manner, we need to evaluate the effectiveness and support the application of controlling use through zoning with a range of reserved areas, alongside sustainable use areas e.g. commercial mangrove forest operations such as those already established in Indonesia, India, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Colombia, Kenya and others.

• Support a network of strict no-use zones (e.g. Southeast Asia Biosphere Reserve Network (SeaBRnet), East Asian Biosphere Reserve Network (EABRN), etc.), including ecological and cultural sites such as sacred forests, and encouraging community involvement with the view to enhancing local benefits such as fisheries, coastal protection and biological filtering.

• Encourage the planning and use of localised management plans. We need to control use by supporting community stewardship and management. In some countries, (e.g. Fiji and Samoa) there is strong evidence that traditional resource stewardship has led to considerable levels of protection. Such a form of traditional stewardship may greatly help toward protection (e.g. Philippines and Vietnam) where central governments are limited in terms of appropriate management.

• Encourage, where appropriate, development schemes that support replacement of mangrove fuel wood with alternate fuel sources.

• Enforce the principle of “no-use without replacement,” to have the situation where every time a tree is harvested other are planted.

• Encourage monitoring, on a regular basis, of the state and health of mangrove ecosystems.

• Encourage laws or policies that prevent the total clearance of new areas of mangroves and match local socio economic requirements with environmental realities of the local mangroves.

8


Aquaculture The conversion of former mangrove areas to aquaculture is a widespread activity, particularly in Southeast Asia, East Africa and Latin America. Mangrove soils are not suitable for most types of aquaculture. When sited on mangrove soils, most aquaculture ponds tend to become uneconomic and are abandoned within a few years because the soil becomes logged with acid sulphates. The application of inappropriate technologies exacerbates these environmental problems and contributes to pollution, eutrophication and sedimentation. Quite apart from these problems, of being unsustainable, there are much wider effects on the local communities. Such developments often displace local communities or disrupt patterns of local usage of mangrove resources. There are well known and quantified examples of extensive mangrove conversion to aquaculture ponds, which have led to drastic reductions of adjacent fisheries yields.


• Encourage the promulgation and enforcement of laws or policies that prohibit the

clearance of new mangroves areas for aquaculture ponds. • Support adherence to EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment) policy. • Support restoration of abandoned ponds, making this a legal requirement in all new

or ongoing developments and establishing a financial framework to ensure compliance.

• Encourage changeover to mixed silviculture/aquaculture practices. • Investigate value of (and verify regularly) certification schemes. • In existing areas of shrimp ponds, install sedimentation ponds to remove suspended

sediment from effluents and nutrient removal via constructed wetlands. • Promote alternatives to the use of antibiotics and growth hormones in aquaculture.

Pollution/sedimentation (including oil/gas)

Substances including solid waste, toxic chemicals, hydrocarbons, persistent organic pollutants, nutrients, particulate matter affect mangrove communities. They may be derived from single or multiple sources including industry, sewage, dredging, pond effluent, agricultural and urban runoff. Their effects range from complete destruction to disruption of ecosystem functioning leading to chronic poisoning of mangroves and associated fauna and to the loss of biodiversity and productivity. In some cases, tidal flushing and biological processes of mangrove components may have the capability to assimilate and to transform pollutants (wastes treatment), providing a natural biological filter. However, there are clear limits beyond which levels of pollution rapidly become harmful. Similarly, mangroves are highly adapted to survive in areas of relatively high levels of sedimentation. When levels of sedimentation impede drainage, the newly created anaerobic conditions in the soil lead to the death of mature trees.

Responses/activities: • Support programmes that reduce waste and runoff. • Promote the creation of artificial wetlands for the treatment of wastes containing

nutrients and other organic wastes. Support programmes that reduce waste and runoff • Encourage the enforcement of existing legislation and apply recognised methods for

ensuring purification. • Encourage the “polluter pays” approaches to deter pollution and to finance

restoration. • Identify relevant trigger values for a range of pollutants and ecosystem parameters

and describe management responses to these.

9


Hydrological modification (inland and coastal) Upstream activities in the catchment area of mangrove ecosystems can change the quantity, the quality and timing of fresh water flow arriving at the mangrove ecosystems, especially in seasonally arid environments. The prime causes of hydrological modifications are damming, water extraction (including groundwater), land-use changes and deforestation in the mangrove and upstream. They lead to changes such as salinity build-up in water and soils, changes in sedimentation patterns which affect coastal configuration, and the structure of navigational channels. They may alter physiological processes, and can lead to mangrove loss or the substitution of mangrove species by other communities. When most part of the dry season freshwater supply is diverted, the impact on mangrove species is dramatic. This can have severe consequences on local and national economies. Coastal modification such as the construction of sea walls, ports and dredging, will alter tidal circulation patterns, which in turn will lead to structural and functional changes.


• Encourage the maintenance of environmental flows upstream of mangrove areas,

notably through the control of water diversion, impoundment and release. • Evaluate the effectiveness of mangroves for coastal protection in preference to sea

walls. • Enforce the application of EIAs (Environmental Impact Assessments) and make it

mandatory for all activities, which would affect fresh water discharge to mangrove areas, and for activities that could alter the tidal amplitude and regime or patterns of coastal circulation.

Coastal land use changes – agriculture, infrastructure and buildings, reclamation, etc. This includes the direct irreversible physical loss of mangrove dominated areas as a result of the development of infrastructure residential areas and conversion for agriculture (especially rice paddies and sugar cane), cattle breeding and the building of salt-pans. These activities lead not only to direct losses, but also to the rapid and often uncontrolled degradation and elimination in adjacent mangrove systems. The opposition between developers or private economic interests and the protection of the public domain in tropical coastal ecosystems, is almost permanent in many countries, due to and the need to install industrial plants, airports nuclear reactors for power generation, etc. near large population centres.


• Support the use of integrated coastal planning with all the involvement of all stakeholders, particularly local communities.

• Support good engineering designs (e.g. culverts and trestle bridges) which would have minimal impact on the tidal hydrology of coastal ecosystems.

• Rehabilitate areas degraded by poorly planned coastal developments through re-engineering and/or mangrove restoration projects.

• Encourage the application of EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment) mandatory for all activities which would affect coastal land use change.

10


Lack of appropriate legislation and enforcement of regulations Where a National Government has not developed any legislation for mangrove sustainable utilisation or conservation, it is particularly vulnerable to trans-national pressures and the allocation of the resources are not in the interest of local communities. This is particularly well illustrated in the case of oil extraction and industrial shrimp pond construction in mangroves. For many countries there are few or no legislation or policies related to mangrove management. Where they exist, they are widely dispersed between institutions (such as those dealing with fisheries, forestry, planning, agriculture and environment). There is also little or no co-ordination between countries in respect of mangrove management approaches. In addition, existing legislation is either rarely enforced or often inappropriate, with little or no consideration for social and economic needs of the population.


• Support the integration and co-ordination of legal and managerial regimes between

institutions and agencies. • Raise awareness on the existing and desirable legal systems, particularly of success

stories and encourage exchange of experience. • Support the appropriate mechanisms to strengthen enforcement. • Encourage the establishment of new legal and administrative systems where they do

not exist, or the periodical revision of existing systems where these are considered inadequate or obsolete. It should be recognised that legislation may need to be adapted and updated to the specific requirements of individual sites or countries.

• Consider and incorporate the use of traditional tenure or stewardship practices within wider management frameworks.

• Consider the application of bilateral or multilateral approaches to the management of trans-boundary systems.

• Enforce the application of EIA for all activities that would affect mangrove areas.

Shortage of capacity, mangrove specialists, managers, technicians There is a shortage of professionals to work in the field, in scientific and management institutions, law enforcement agencies and local communities. There is also a lack of exchange of knowledge and experience between professionals and between these and coastal dwellers.


• Encourage training programmes and transfer/exchange of expertise between

communities and countries. These should be adapted to particular or local needs. • Encourage targeted training programmes for specific groups including fishers,

women and children, teachers, enforcement officers, women clubs/associations, eco-tourism operators, others.

• Consider re-training of local people to provide alternative livelihoods where mangrove areas are over-utilised.

• Support the provision of a full range of training materials. • Expand and maintain the activity of GLOMIS for compilation and dissemination of

information.

11


Inadequate communication, education, public awareness and participation In most countries there is considerable scope to improve public understanding and appreciation of the value of mangrove resources and of the benefits to be obtained from their sustainable management. The explanation of sustainable management systems needs to be undertaken within the formal educational systems, but must also be offered to the general public and to particular sectors within the population such as decision makers and local people. There is a need to improve the communication and flow of knowledge between scientists, managers, holders of traditional knowledge and the wider public.


• Support and strengthen GLOMIS and the distribution of print-outs and other ISME publications to distant places where there are no communication facilities or access to libraries.

• Include mangrove ecology as a subject in schools and university curricula. • Provide materials (books, posters, pamphlets, interpretative materials) in local

languages and circulate to communities, and other relevant places (public spaces, mass media).

• Raise public awareness through establishment of demonstration sites, pilot management areas, boardwalks, and others.

• Encourage active local community involvement in eco-tourism, restoring and management programmes.

• Encourage education on laws and regulations, and approaches for recommended practices.

• Consider the development of “Codes of Conduct” for sustaining mangrove ecosystems (e.g. “Code of conduct for management and sustainable use of mangrove ecosystems”).

• Improve living conditions for people living in areas adjacent to mangroves (sanitation, health, education, entertainment, etc.)

• Training materials should be made available to all mangrove users. • The revision of the World Mangrove Atlas constitutes a step forward to amplify

communications and the flow of knowledge.

Climate change/sea-level rise All models predict considerable future rises in temperature and sea-level (i.e. 9cm to 88cm over the next 100 years (IPCC, 2000), as well as changes in precipitation and fresh water supply. The migration landwards of mangrove systems in adapting to these changes is likely to be interrupted by human land-use. Their diminution or loss will be felt more seriously in low-lying countries and small islands, states/countries. In addition to sea-level rise, predicted by all available models, several short-term climate abnormalities such as the El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) related drought, have been described. They lead to recurrent severe perturbations and consequently to increased soil and water salinity which have already affected coastal ecosystems, especially in Maldives and Micronesian islands, in the Caribbean islands, etc.

12


Not all changes affect the biology of mangrove species in the same manner and the impact at global level is unclear. The magnitude of these impacts is strongly site dependent. There are likely to be varied responses from one species to another, in different places. It is clear that mangroves will be particularly impacted by sea-level rise as they lie on the interface between land and ocean.


• Encourage mangrove ecosystem rehabilitation. Because mangroves generally receive massive inputs of terrestrial organic matter and nutrients, they are amongst the most geochemically and biologically active parts of the biosphere and constitute very important carbon sinks and may help to mitigate the global impacts of climate change (high primary production, carbon accumulation and exchange with adjacent ecosystems).

• Minimize fragmentation, which weakens the whole ecosystem especially in cyclone prone areas, where mangroves play a dominant role in the protection of life and property. Dense mangrove stands protect shorelines from storms and surges damage and increase coastal stability. Fragmentation also impedes the genetic exchanges between populations of a given species.

• Establish landward buffer areas to allow retreat of mangrove ecosystems. • Establish monitoring programmes of sea-level rise especially in mangrove forests

where some changes are already occurring.

4. Activities at Global Level ISME would be capable of supporting Regional Action Plans (R.A.P.) as well as National Action Plan (N.A.P) in an advisory capacity and could also undertake such projects with financial support from Donor Agencies. ISME's fields of activities are in the mentioned below; In each area, the "key issues" should be considered, problems must be defined and solutions should be formulated.

1)- Area under mangrove cover, closed or open canopy. Support survey and monitoring based on remote sensing, field work as well as national reports.

2)- Role and performance of mangrove ecosystems. Monitoring of indicators to assess

heath, evolution changes, both progressive and regressive, etc. 3)- Value of mangroves both as ecosystems and from a socio-economical point of view. 4)- Scientific research. Collaboration with universities, research institutions, foresters,

fisheries, technicians and above all GLOMIS. 5)- Training and publications at International and National levels. Exchange of expertise

among professionals, technicians and specialists.

13


5. Conclusion The expertise acquired by ISME over the years, since its establishment in 1990, the pool of expertise which exists in its vast membership, the collaboration with many interested individuals and organisations as well as the conceptual support by Governments backed by the conscious intention of coastal dwellers to advance along a "hands on" phase of activities world wide, is the hope that sustains the uphill task of salvaging mangroves and enter into an age of rational development and mangrove ecosystems nurturing, all over the world. ISME will remain committed to its core purpose i.e., the Society shall collect, evaluate and disseminate information on mangrove ecosystems” and “promote international cooperation” and to the implementation of the Charter for Mangroves as well as the ITTO Mangrove Workplan 2002-2006.

14


References Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2000. Third Assessment Report. Climate Change

2001: Synthesis Report. Summary for Policy Makers. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 34 pp. (http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc/spmpdf/srl-e.pdf)

International Tropical Timber Organization. 2002. ITTO Mangrove Workplan 2002-2006.

Yokohama. 6 pp. Saenger, P., E.J. Hegerl, and J.D. Davie (eds). 1983. Global Status of Mangrove Ecosystems.

Gland. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). 88 pp.

Tomlinson, B.P. 1986. The Botany of Mangroves. London. 419 pp. Cambridge University

Press. World Bank/ISME/CenTER. 2004. Principles for a Code of Conduct for the Management and

Sustainable Use of Mangrove Ecosystems. (http://www.biology.au.dk/cenTER/MCB_Files/Mangrove_CoC_V01July2004.pdf)

15


16


Appendix 1

ITTO Decision 9 (XXIX)

MANGROVE CONSERVATION PROGRAMME

ITTC Twenty-Ninth Session 30 October – 4 November 2000, Yokohama, Japan

The International Tropical Timber Council, Recognizing the importance of the role played by mangroves in the conservation of ecosystems

as well as in the economy of developing countries with sea coasts; Noting the leading role of ITTO in the conservation of mangrove ecosystems, including its

collaborative activities with The International Tropical Timber Council, Reiterating the benefits to be gained from the conservation of mangroves to individual

Members, in promoting activities of the Organization and in assisting the achievement of the objectives of the ITTA, 1994;

Noting the continuing need for urgent international efforts on this issue; Also noting that the ITTO’s contribution through its work underway to protect mangroves to

sustainable forest management has been highlighted by the recently concluded G8 Foreign Ministers’ Meeting (13 July 2000, Miyazaki), endorsed by G8 Leaders;

Further noting comments made by Members during the Twenty-ninth Session of the Council on

the importance of mangrove conservation and rehabilitation; Decides to: 1. Request the Executive Director to develop a work plan, including the identification of

funding requirements, to assist Members in the conservation, rehabilitation and utilization of mangroves, in particular to:

• Increase awareness among Members to promote the conservation of mangroves; • Encourage cooperation among Members to intensify ITTO activities to conserve

existing mangroves and rehabilitate degraded mangroves; • Promote the sustainable management and utilization of mangroves;

for consideration at its Thirty-first Session;

2. Encourage Members to prepare pre-project and project proposals related to conservation,

rehabilitation and utilization of mangroves for consideration by the Council at future sessions;

3. Authorize the Executive Director to arrange for financing from Sub-Account B of the Bali

Partnership Fund of the above work plan, and of approved pre-project and project proposals; and

4. Invite Members and other donors to contribute the necessary resources to meet the

financial requirements of this decision.

17


Appendix 2

Charter for Mangroves

The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME) has adopted a Charter for Mangroves that complements a World Charter for Nature that the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed on 28th October 1982 affirming that nature shall be respected, genetic viability on earth shall not be compromised, conservation shall be practiced, sustainable management shall be utilized by man, and nature shall be secured against degradation. ISME being aware that: a) Mangrove forests are unique inter-tidal ecosystems that occur primarily in tropical regions

of the world; b) The total world-wide mangrove area is estimated at not less than 170,000 km2 and that

there are some sixty species of trees and shrubs that are exclusive to the mangrove habitat; c) Mangroves support genetically diverse communities of terrestrial and aquatic fauna and

flora that are of direct and indirect environmental, economic and social value to human societies throughout the world;

d) Sustainable development of mangrove ecosystems implies the maintenance and rational use of the natural resource to ensure ecological resilience and economic opportunities for present and future generations;

e) Mangroves must be conserved in various parts of the world to prevent the occurrence of degraded coastal lands;

Convinced that: a) Destruction and degradation of mangrove forests are world-wide phenomena, as a result of

activities related to the non-sustainable use and over-exploitation; b) The value of mangrove lands is consistently underestimated when the areas are converted

for non-sustainable purposes; c) The sustainable use of mangrove ecosystems would provide a better use of the resource; d) There is an urgent need to restore degraded mangrove ecosystems for economic, social and

conservation reasons; Persuaded that:

a) Mangroves are a valuable natural resource with distinctive genetic diversity, high intrinsic natural productivity and unique habitat value;

b) Mangroves sustain important economic and ecological values in adjacent terrestrial and marine systems;

c) Mangroves play an important role in the economic and social resources available to subsistence coastal dwellers in the tropics;

d) Mangroves play an important role in coastal protection and in the reduction of coastal erosion;

e) Mangroves buffer coastal waters from undesirable land-based influences, such as sediment, contaminant or nutrient runoff;

Reaffirming that people must acquire the knowledge to use natural resources in a manner which ensures the protection and enhancement of species and ecosystems for their intrinsic values and for the benefit of present and future generations. Convinced of the need for appropriate measures at individual, collective and national levels to manage, conserve and promote understanding of the mangrove ecosystem.

18


Convinced also of the need to foster the sharing of information and understanding at an international level, and co-operation in all aspects of management and study of mangrove ecosystems. Adopts, to these ends, a Charter which proclaims the following principles for the utilisation of mangrove ecosystems by which all human conduct affecting mangrove ecosystems is to be judged. I GENERAL PRINCIPLES 1. Mangrove ecosystems shall be respected and their intrinsic characteristics shall be

preserved wherever possible. 2. The genetic diversity inherent in mangrove ecosystems shall be safeguarded to this end the

necessary habitats must be preserved. 3. Mangrove ecosystems that are utilised by people shall be managed to achieve and maintain

sustainable productivity without degrading the integrity of other ecosystems with which they coexist.

4. Mangrove ecosystems shall be secured against indiscriminate destruction, natural hazards,

pollution and damage resulting from disturbance of surrounding areas. 5. The sustainable utilisation of mangrove ecosystems by traditional users shall be recognized

and provided for to improve the welfare of the indigenous people. 6. The acquisition and dissemination of knowledge with respect to structure, function and

management of pristine and disturbed mangrove ecosystems shall be encouraged by all possible means, including international research and technical cooperation.

II FUNCTIONS 7. The decisions affecting the management of mangrove ecosystems shall be made only in the

light of best existing knowledge and an understanding of the specific location. 8. Decisions on how to manage a mangrove ecosystem shall be informed by definition of the

following parameters:

(i) the biological components and the physical characteristics of the area under consideration, by means of inventories, maps and the collection of physical and biological data;

(ii) the needs of people in relation to sustainable uses of the resource while ensuring adequate reserves for preservation purposes;

(iii) the national and international significance of the resource as habitat and as a genetic reservoir;

(iv) the national and international significance of the site for coastal stability and fisheries production;

(v) the local requirements for education, recreation and aesthetic values; (vi) the requirements that must be satisfied for non-sustainable uses of the resource; (vii) the extent to which rehabilitation and compensation mechanisms can be used to

mitigate the impact of non-sustainable use.

19


9. The information collected in (8) shall be used to define the areas necessary for

preservation, to define strategies for the management, restoration and preservation of the resource, or to define areas necessary for sustainable use.

10. Decisions on the use of mangrove ecosystems shall include consideration of the need:

(i) to utilise the mangrove resources so that their natural productivity is preserved; (ii) to avoid degradation of the mangrove ecosystems; (iii) to rehabilitate degraded mangrove areas; (iv) to avoid over exploitation of the natural resources produced by the mangrove

ecosystems; (v) to avoid negative impacts on neighbouring ecosystems; (vi) to recognise the social and economic welfare of indigenous mangrove dwellers; (vii) to control and restrict non-sustainable uses so that long term productivity and

benefits of the mangrove ecosystems are not lost; (viii) to introduce regulatory measures for the wise use of mangrove ecosystems.

11. Activities which might impact on mangrove ecosystems shall be controlled by appropriate

national, regional and international laws and agreements. 12. Activities which are likely to pose a risk to a mangrove ecosystem shall be subjected to an

exhaustive examination prior to decisions being made. Only after it has been publicly demonstrated that the potential advantages outweigh the potential damage should the activity be allowed to commence.

13. Mangrove ecosystems degraded by human activities shall be rehabilitated for purposes in

accord with their natural potential and compatible with the well-being of the affected people.

III IMPLEMENTATION 14. The principles set forth in the present Charter should where possible be reflected in the law

and practice of each state, as well as at the international level. 15. Knowledge of the structure, function and importance of mangrove ecosystems should be

communicated by all possible means at local, national and international levels. 16. Knowledge of the structure, function and management of pristine and disturbed mangrove

ecosystems should be enhanced. 17. Educational programmes and regional centres should be provided to train scientists,

planners, managers and the general public and to encourage an awareness of the importance of mangrove ecosystems.

18. All planning should include the establishment of biological, physical and socio-economic

inventories of the mangrove ecosystems under consideration and assessments of the effects on the systems and their surrounds of the proposed activities. All such considerations should be open to public scrutiny and comment prior to any decision.

19. Resources, programmes and administrative structures necessary to achieve the sustainable

use of mangrove ecosystems should be provided.

20


20. The status of mangrove ecosystems should be monitored nationally and internationally to

ensure evaluation of current practices and to enable early detection of adverse effects. 21. States should establish specific statutory provisions or regulations for the protection and

management of mangroves and mangrove ecosystems. 22. States, other public authorities, international organisations, non-government organisations,

individuals, groups and corporations, to the extent that they are able, should:

(i) co-operate in the task of managing mangrove ecosystems for sustainable purposes; (ii) establish procedures and methodologies for assessing the status of mangrove

ecosystems and for managing them; (iii) ensure that activities within their jurisdiction do not cause unnecessary damage to

mangrove ecosystems within or beyond their jurisdiction; (iv) implement national and international legal provisions for the protection and

conservation of mangrove ecosystems. 23. Each state should where possible give effect to the provisions of the present Charter

through its competent organs and in cooperation with other states. 24. All persons, in accordance with their national legislation should have the opportunity to

participate, individually or collectively, in the formation of decisions of direct concern to the conservation and sustainable use of mangrove ecosystems.

25. Affected people should have means of redress when their mangrove ecosystems have

suffered damage. 26. Each member of ISME has the duty to act in accordance with the provisions of the present

Charter, acting individually, in association with others, or through participation in a political process. Each member shall strive to ensure that the objectives and requirements of the Charter are met.

International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems

November 1991, Bangkok

21

isme mangrove action plan for the sustainable ......isme mangrove action plan for the sustainable...

Documents