iwm ait zoebisch 2005

7/22/2019 IWM AIT Zoebisch 2005

1/350

ii

INTEGRATED WATERSHED

MANAGEMENT

Studies and Experiences from Asia

Edited by

Michael Zoebisch, Khin Mar Cho, San Hein and Runia Mowla

Language and Production Editor

Robin N. Leslie

On-line eBook

All parts of this book may be downloaded for personal and scientific use.

Produced and published with funding from Danida Danish International

Development Assistance under Programme Support to the Integrated

Watershed Development and Management Area of Study at the Asian Institute

of Technology

Published by

Asian Institute of Technology AIT

P.O.Box 4, Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand

www.ait.ac.th

Asian Institute of Technology

All rights reserved

August 2005
http://www.ait.ac.th/http://www.ait.ac.th/


2/350

iii

CONTENTS

Preface ................................................................................................................... vii

1. Institutions and Rural Development

Community Development Groups and Watershed Management Activities

in Dhading District, Nepal .............................................................................. 1Arjun Kumar Thapa

Institutional Analysis of Watersheds With and Without External Assistancein the Hills of Nepal .................................................................................... 17

Shrutidhar Tripathi

Community Development Groups and Farm Conservation in Chhabdi Watershed, Nepal 39

Gehendra Keshari Upadhyaya

Institutional Coordination for Watershed Management in Dhading District, Nepal ......... 57Puspa Ram Thapa

Linkages among Land, Water and Forest Resources and Their Institutional Dynamismin Chitwan District, Nepal .................................................................................. 75

Kanchan Thapa

Differentiating Active and Passive User Groups for Watershed Management

in the Western Hills of Nepal .......................................................................... 95Basan Shrestha

Participation of Disadvantaged People in Watershed Management

in Makawanpur District, Nepal .......................................................................... 113

Dandi Ram Bishwakarma

Integrated Natural Resource Conservation: Peoples Perceptions and Participationin Nepal ......................................................................................................... 131

Shiva Kumar Wagle

Forest Land-use Dynamics and Community-based Institutions in a Mountain Watershedin Nepal: Implications for Forest Governance and Management. ........................ 151Ambika Prasad Gautam

Institutional Development for Community-based Natural Resource Managementin Upland Areas of Thailand ............................................................................. 197

Nitaya Kijtewachakul
http://08-syn2-arjunkumarthapa.pdf/http://09-syn2-tripat.pdf/http://16-syn2-pusparamthapa.pdf/http://18-syn2-kanchathapa.pdf/http://21-syn2-basanshrestha.pdf/http://23-syn2-dandir.pdf/http://42-syn2-shivak.pdf/http://42-syn2-shivak.pdf/http://phd02-syn2-gau.pdf/http://phd02-syn2-gau.pdf/http://phd03-syn01-nitaya.pdf/http://phd03-syn01-nitaya.pdf/http://phd03-syn01-nitaya.pdf/http://phd02-syn2-gau.pdf/http://42-syn2-shivak.pdf/http://23-syn2-dandir.pdf/http://21-syn2-basanshrestha.pdf/http://18-syn2-kanchathapa.pdf/http://16-syn2-pusparamthapa.pdf/http://13-syn2-gehandra%20keshari%20upadhyaya.pdf/http://09-syn2-tripat.pdf/http://08-syn2-arjunkumarthapa.pdf/


3/350

iv

2. Managing Forest Resources

Impact of Community Forestry in the Middle Hills of Nepal:A Case Study of Tinau Watershed .................................................................... 219Vijay Singh Shrestha

The Impacts of a Community Forestry Project in a Northwest Watershed of Cambodia 245Chan Danith

Institutionalizing Forest User Groups Via Community Forestry in Tanahun District, Nepal 263

Rameshwar Pandit

Evaluation of the Initial Results of Natural Forest Allocation to Thuy Yen Thuong Village,

Central Vietnam ................................................................................................ 281Ngo Tri Dung

Prospects for Institutional Sustainability in Community Forestry in Nepal ................... 299Narendra Prasad Shah

Community Forestry and Its Impact on Watershed Condition and Productivity in Nepal 313

Krishna Prasad Ghimire

Prospects for Commercial Production of Non-timber Forest Products in Nepal .......... 331

Shree Bhagwan Prasad Gupta

Participation in Natural Forest Resource Management in Pursat Province, Cambodia ... 351Ouk Kunka

Market Analysis of Major Products from Community-managed Forestsin the Foothill Watersheds of Nepal ................................................................ 371

Bhim Nath Acharya

Capacity Assessment of the Development Planning Process for Community Forestry

in Nepal ........................................................................................................... 391Bhoj Raj Khanal

Prospects for Promoting Non-timber Forest Products in the Mountains of Nepal ....... 413Bishnu Hari Pandit

3. Water Resources Management

Local Irrigation Institutions in Changing Watershed Conditions:

A Study of Jhikhu Khola Watershed ................................................................. 425Kanchana Upadhyay

Performance Indicators for Irrigation Management in Indonesia ................................. 445

Murtiningrum
http://06-syn2-vijays.pdf/http://06-syn2-vijays.pdf/http://17-syn2-r%20pand.pdf/http://19-syn2-ngotri.pdf/http://19-syn2-ngotri.pdf/http://32-syn2-np_sha.pdf/http://41-syn2-gupta.pdf/http://43-syn2-oukkun.pdf/http://45-syn2-bhimn.pdf/http://46-syn2-bhojra.pdf/http://46-syn2-bhojra.pdf/http://46-syn2-bhojra.pdf/http://phd01-syn01-pandit.pdf/http://01-syn2-kanchana.pdf/http://01-syn2-kanchana.pdf/http://14-syn2-murtin.pdf/http://14-syn2-murtin.pdf/http://01-syn2-kanchana.pdf/http://phd01-syn01-pandit.pdf/http://46-syn2-bhojra.pdf/http://45-syn2-bhimn.pdf/http://43-syn2-oukkun.pdf/http://41-syn2-gupta.pdf/http://36-syn2-kp_ghi.pdf/http://32-syn2-np_sha.pdf/http://19-syn2-ngotri.pdf/http://17-syn2-r%20pand.pdf/http://15-syn2-%20chan%20.pdf/http://06-syn2-vijays.pdf/


4/350

v

Strengthening Water User Communities to Improve Irrigation Management in Cambodia 459

Keang Ngy

Flood Control and WaterResource Management of the Day River Basin, Red River Delta,Vietnam ................................................................................................. 477

Ngo Van Sinh

Water Demand Forecast and Management Modelling in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal ...... 497

Pratistha Pradhan

Assessment of Groundwater Potential for Irrigation in Bangladesh ............................. 515

Shahriar Md. Wahid

Application of the AnnAGNPS Model for Watershed Quality Assessmentin the Siwalik Hills of Nepal ............................................................................... 531

Sangam Shrestha

Water Balance Analysis in Ea Knir Catchment, Daklak, Vietnam ............................... 557

Tran Thi Trieu

Farmers Participation in Irrigation Management in Vietnam ....... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 581

Pham Phu Ngoc

4. Understanding Watershed and Land-use Dynamics

Land-use Adjustment Based on Watershed Classification Using Remote Sensing and GIS 601Aye Thiha

Land Suitability Assessment and Participatory Land-use Planning and Management

in a Microwatershed of Orissa, India ............................................................... 615

Sharmistha Swain

Determinants of Soil Erosion in Tropical Steeplands: A Case Study of Kim NoiSub-watershed, Vietnam .................................................................................. 637

Le Thi Thu Huong

Impact of the Land Allocation Programme on Land Use and Land Management in Laos 657

Phonesane Vilaymeng

GIS-assisted Erosion Risk Assessment in the Chittagong Hill Tract, Bangladesh ........... 677

Md. Moqbul Hossain

Gender Analysis for Land Management and Conservation in Central Vietnam ............. 703Tran Thi Hai

Development of a Location-specific Soil Resistance to Erosion (SRE) Index:

A Case Study from Northeast Thailand ........................................................... 719Binaya R. Shivakoti
http://24-syn2-k_ngy.pdf/http://26-syn2-nv_sin.pdf/http://26-syn2-nv_sin.pdf/http://27-syn2-pratisthapradhan.pdf/http://28-syn2-sm_wah.pdf/http://37-syn2-s_shre.pdf/http://37-syn2-s_shre.pdf/http://38-syn2-tt_tri.pdf/http://44-syn2-phamng.pdf/http://03-syn2-sharmistha%20.pdf/http://03-syn2-sharmistha%20.pdf/http://12-syn2-lethithuhuong.pdf/http://12-syn2-lethithuhuong.pdf/http://20-syn2-phonesvilaymeng.pdf/http://25-syn2-mm_hos.pdf/http://33-syn2-tt_hai.pdf/http://34-syn-2-binaya_s.pdf/http://34-syn-2-binaya_s.pdf/http://34-syn-2-binaya_s.pdf/http://33-syn2-tt_hai.pdf/http://25-syn2-mm_hos.pdf/http://20-syn2-phonesvilaymeng.pdf/http://12-syn2-lethithuhuong.pdf/http://03-syn2-sharmistha%20.pdf/http://02-syn2-ayethiha.pdf/http://44-syn2-phamng.pdf/http://38-syn2-tt_tri.pdf/http://37-syn2-s_shre.pdf/http://28-syn2-sm_wah.pdf/http://27-syn2-pratisthapradhan.pdf/http://26-syn2-nv_sin.pdf/http://24-syn2-k_ngy.pdf/


5/350

vi

Determination of a Location-specific Soil Hydraulic Quality (SHQ) Index:

A Case Study from Northeast Thailand ............................................................. 739

Mohammad Gausul Azam

Dynamics of the Physico-Chemical Erodibility Factors of Soil under Different

Management Scenarios in the Watersheds of Chiang Mai, Thailand ................... 761

Assefa Gizaw Meka

Land-use Changes and Their Driving Forces in Northeastern Thailand ..................... 777Khin Mar Cho

Factors Influencing Land-use Change in Areas with Shifting Cultivation in Bangladesh 797Golam Rasul

5. Integrated Land Management

The Sustainability of Traditional and Modern Agricultural Land Use in Vietnam .......... 813

Nguyen Dinh Thi

Farmers Approaches to Soil-fertility Management in the Hills of Nepal ................... 835

Basu Dev Regmi

Farming Systems in Northeastern Thailand: Characterization and Implicationsfor Sustainability ........................................................................................... 855

Md. Mainul Hasan

Community-based Fishery Management in Battambang Province, Cambodia ............... 867

Nom Sophearith.

Women in Land Management and Conservation: A Case Study from the Middle Hills

of Nepal .......................................................................................................... 885Shabnam Shivakoti Aryal

Traditional Cottage Industry Development in the Upper Andhikhola Watershed, Nepal:

Problems and Prospects .................................................................................. 911

Megh Bahadur Nepali

Effects of Poverty Alleviation and Sustainable Natural Resource Managementin Lao PDR ...................................................................................................... 929

Liengsone Somphathay

Contribution of Agroforestry to Livelihoods in Bara and Rautahat Districts, Nepal ....... 937

Lal Bahadur Prasad Kurmi

Impacts of the Upland Conversion Project in the Yangtze River Watershed on Farmers

Livelihoods ...................................................................................................... 945

Shao Wen
http://35-syn2-mg_a.pdf/http://35-syn2-mg_a.pdf/http://40-syn2-ag_meka.pdf/http://40-syn2-ag_meka.pdf/http://phd04-syn2-khi.pdf/http://phd05-syn01-ra.pdf/http://04-syn2-nguyen.pdf/http://05-syn2-basude.pdf/http://07-syn2-mainulhasan.pdf/http://07-syn2-mainulhasan.pdf/http://10-syn2-nomsopearith.pdf/http://11-syn2-sabnam.pdf/http://11-syn2-sabnam.pdf/http://11-syn2-sabnam.pdf/http://22-syn2-meghbahadur.pdf/http://22-syn2-meghbahadur.pdf/http://29-syn2-l_somp.pdf/http://29-syn2-l_somp.pdf/http://29-syn2-l_somp.pdf/http://30-syn2-lbp_ku.pdf/http://31-syn2-shao_w.pdf/http://31-syn2-shao_w.pdf/http://30-syn2-lbp_ku.pdf/http://29-syn2-l_somp.pdf/http://22-syn2-meghbahadur.pdf/http://11-syn2-sabnam.pdf/http://10-syn2-nomsopearith.pdf/http://07-syn2-mainulhasan.pdf/http://05-syn2-basude.pdf/http://04-syn2-nguyen.pdf/http://phd05-syn01-ra.pdf/http://phd04-syn2-khi.pdf/http://40-syn2-ag_meka.pdf/http://35-syn2-mg_a.pdf/


6/350

vii

Preface

Integrated watershed management is an effective means for the conservation and developmentof land and water resources. As an interdisciplinary approach, it integrates the socio-cultural and

economic as well as the biophysical and technological aspects of development. An over-riding concern

of integrated watershed development is the improvement of the livelihoods of local communities on asustainable basis. This requires balancing their economic needs and expectations with environmental

concerns so as to avert degradation of the natural resource base, in particular soil and water components.

Governments and development institutions are increasingly recognizing that full community

participation is essential for sustainable watershed development. With growing local participation,indigenous knowledge is now significantly influencing the planning, design, and implementation of

watershed development programmes. Long-term changes and development are more likely to be

adopted if communities have a say in the decision-making process. Sustainability also increases iflocal resources are more efficiently utilized and the use of or need for external inputs is minimized.

This book has been published in electronic format to target the vast audience that the world wide

web serves. It highlights different aspects of integrated watershed development for resource-poorsmallholders in Asia. The papers are syntheses of research projects, which were undertaken by

students of the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) in Bangkok between 2000 and 2004.

The contents provide an overview of a broad spectrum of current issues of significance and

concern for rural development in the higher altitudes of Asia. The studies exclusively deal with small-scale and community-level watershed development. The overall focus is on the peoples perspectives

of development and their roles and options in this process. Very different scenarios of typical smallholdermountain farming and forest-user communities are described and analysed from their socio-economic

and biophysical perspectives. Constraints to and options for development are discussed.

The book is structured into five thematic sections, which cover the institutional, socio-economic,

and biophysical aspects of watershed management.

1. Institutions and rural developmentexplores the roles of community-based institutions and

local watershed management.

2. Managing forest resourcesfocuses on different models of forest utilization, with emphasison community-forestry experiences from Cambodia, Nepal, and Vietnam.

3. Water resources managementdiscusses water use and water allocation for community-

managed small-scale irrigation schemes.

4. Understanding watershed and land-use dynamicsintroduces approaches for the evaluation

of watershed resources, the driving forces for land-use change, and the effects of land use onland quality.

5. Integrated land management gives examples of different watershed-managementapproaches and their effects on the livelihoods of local communities.

The book contributes to the wider discussion on people-centred and people-initiated integrated

development. It demonstrates that resource exploitation and the well being of the people are intrinsically

related. The contents reveal that sustainable development is not possible without the conservation ofnatural resources.


7/350

viii

Because of its broad scope and the wide range of original source material, this book is also a

reference manual on current issues and trends for researchers and development practitioners who

are concerned with participatory approaches in small-scale community-level watershed development,particularly in Asia.

The editors

The Integrated Watershed Management Programme at AIT

Since 2000, the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) has been implementing the interdisciplinarypostgraduate degree programmeIntegrated Watershed Development and Management (IWDM).

The programme was developed in cooperation with the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University

(KVL), Denmark, and DHI Water and Environment, Denmark, and has been funded by the DanishInternational Development Assistance (Danida).

The programme has adopted an interdisciplinary and integrated approach to education, research,

and development, combining on-campus with outreach activities aiming at enhancing education and

action-oriented research in the region.

The main disciplines and fields of studies contributing to the programme are regional and ruraldevelopment planning, agricultural systems, natural resources management, and water resources

management. Courses are offered at Master and PhD levels. Since 2000, more than 50 students havegraduated and are now disseminating the knowledge they have acquired throughout Asia.

The editors can be contacted via e-mail at:

Michael Zoebisch:[email protected]

Khin Mar Cho:[email protected]

San Hein:[email protected]

Runia Mowla:[email protected]

Robin N. Leslie, language and production editor: [email protected]
mailto:%[email protected]:%[email protected]:%[email protected]:%[email protected]:%[email protected]:%[email protected]:%[email protected]:%[email protected]:%[email protected]:%[email protected]:%[email protected]:%[email protected]:%[email protected]:%[email protected]:%[email protected]


8/350

1

Integrated Watershed Management: Studies and Experiences from Asia

Edited by Michael Zoebisch, Khin Mar Cho, San Hein & Runia Mowla. AIT, Bangkok, 2005

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT GROUPS AND WATERSHED MANAGEMENTACTIVITIES IN DHADING DISTRICT, NEPAL

Arjun Kumar Thapa1

Introduction

Nepal is situated in the central Himalayas and has several watersheds, which are drained through

three major river systems: the Sapta Koshi in the east, the Karnali in the west, and the Sapta Gandaki

in the middle. Of the total watershed area of the country, 0.4, 1.5, and 11.7 percent of the watershedsare in very poor, poor, and fair condition respectively. Land and water are the major natural resources

available in Nepal; more than 90 percent of the population depends on these resources for theirlivelihoods. The slopes of upland areas, which were once covered with forests and vegetation, have

been heavily degraded and converted to agricultural land. Soil erosion from these areas has not onlyreduced productivity, but also caused flooding, pollution, and loss of life and property downstream. A

recent estimate of such soil loss is 271 million m3/year. A typical hill watershed contributes total

sediment of 21 t/ha/year between 1-2 mm of soil depthr per year (APROSC, 1997).

The Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management (DSCWM) under the Ministryof Forest and Soil Conservation (MFSC), is mandated to conserve and manage watersheds using a

community-based approach with the broad objective of raising the income of rural families by

contributing to improvement of the ecological conditions of the watersheds. A major effort by theDSCWM over the last two decades has been themobilization of local people through the formation of

Community Development Groups (CDGs) and involvement of members in all stages of watershedmanagement activities. In 1996, HMG/DSCWM/DANIDA launched a pilot project to establish CDGs

as non-governmental organizations; as such, the strengthening of local institutions would lead to thesustainable use of scarce and dwindling natural resources in the watershed. The CDGs have carried

out various watershed management activities with the assistance of the District Soil Conservation

Office (DSCO) in the study area.

In the past DSCO implemented watershed management activities according to its policies andstrategies; these were mainly based on annual physical targets rather than programme sustainability.

According to Karki and Sharma (1999), the past approach to watershed management consisted of

top-down planning, implementation, and monitoring of watershed management activities. Targets werefixed based on the budget available and the programme was entirely guided by the government.

Finally programme personnel abandoned the users once programme support was withdrawn. Bogati,(1999) indicated that the institutional aspect, which plays a vital role not only for effective implementation

of programme activities but also for the sustainability of development activities, has been ignored.

Development activities frequently fail in the long run due to the lack of local viable institutions that areable to carry out both management and maintenance.

1

MSc. Thesis (Ref. No. NR-01-08), Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand. August 2001.Examination Committee - Dr. Ganesh P. Shivakoti (Chair), Dr.Gopal Bahadur Thapa, Dr. Michael A. Zoebisch
http://covercontents.pdf/http://covercontents.pdf/http://covercontents.pdf/


9/350

2

Therefore, there is a need to study organizational performance and its sustainability, as well as

factors influencing performance in terms of effectiveness, efficiency, and sustainability. So, the overall

objective of the study is to analyse the performance and organizational sustainability of selectedCDGs in the study area.

The study area

Adam Khola sub-watershed was selected for the study; it comes under the jurisdiction of two village

development committees, Kumpur and Kelleri (Figure 1) of Dhading District. Geographically the arealies between 27 47 and 27 50 latitude and 84 50 and 84 57 longitude with physical coverage of 1

907.8 ha (Hansen et al., 1995). The climate is mostly sub-tropical humid and warm temperate humid.

As the study area is in the Middle Mountain region of the country, hills and mountains dominate mostof the topography. The northern part of the study area has steeper gradients than the southern side.

There is also some small flat land area with gentle slopes to the northeast. The total forest area in thewatershed is 365.4 ha which is equivalent to 19.2 percent of the total study area. The types of

vegetation depend on slope gradient and other aspects.

Figure 1. The study area in Dhading District

The study area comprises agricultural land, forest land, shrubland, and grazing land. According to

Hansen et al. (1995), 36.2 percent (690.5 ha) of the watershed area is covered by irrigated land and

18.2 percent (347.8 ha) by non-irrigated land. Similarly 19.2 percent (365.4 ha) of the total area isoccupied by forest land, 16.2 percent (310 ha) by shrubland, and 10.2 percent (194.1 ha) by grazing

land. The condition of the sub-watershed is poor, mainly due to deforestation, overgrazing, cultivationon marginal land, stream bank cutting, gullies, and landslides. Occurrences of both natural and human-

induced erosion have been reported (Hansen et al., 1995).

There are 16 CDGs comprising 666 households within the study area. Among the 16 CDGs, four

groups, namely Amelichap, Chotetar, Janachetana, and Bungeshwori were selected using the followingcriteria: high demand by the local people; types and numbers of activities accomplished; accessibility

to the road and market facilities; and the number of households included in the organization. The


10/350

3

Amelichap and Janachetana groups were considered as accessible areas with higher numbers of

households (AAHNH). The Bungeshwori and Chotetar groups were considered as areas difficult to

access with lower numbers of households (ADALNH).DSCO/DANIDA has been assisting CDG watershed management since1996. The CDGs are

important local institutions for the welfare of the community and continuity of watershed managementactivities in the future. DANIDA has also supported different DSCOs that assist CDGs with watershed

management activities.

Demography of the study area

Family size has been correlated with labour contribution (Adhikari, 1996). Relatively large household

size means relatively more labour for farming. Therefore it was assumed that the rate of participation

differs among the family size. Based on the number of individuals in the households, Shrestha (1991)

has classified the household size into three different groups: Small = (1-4), Medium = (5-7), and Large= (> 8). Based on this classification the sampled households were categorized accordingly. Most ofthe families fall into the medium category.

The general assumption is that people of working age can contribute relatively more than peopleof non-working age. People of working age are more aware of development activities and their

potential contribution for development activities is higher. Therefore, the respondents age is an importantdeterminant of participation as it affects labour contribution and involvement in decision making

(Adhikari, 1996).

The law prohibits employment in any activity below the age of 16 (Paudel, 2000). However, in

practice, farming households use their children, even as young as 10, to collect fodder and fuelwood;

fetch water; carry manure to the farmyard; shepherd livestock; or look after their siblings while theparents conduct farming activities.

The age of the respondents ranges from 17 to 75 years. Most of the respondents interviewed in

each of the CDGs belonged to the economically active group (about half of the respondents wereyoung and adult). This group formed about 90 percent of the available human resources in each CDG.

In most cases the average age of the respondents was around 41 years.

There is a strong social caste system in Nepal. The ethnic groups prevalent in the study area are:

Brahman, Chettri, Gurung, Kami, Damai, Sarki, Magar, and Newar. Based on ethnic composition,Janachetana CDG is a heterogeneous community whereas Bungeshwori comprises three-fourths of

the Magar community. Of the total households sampled in Amelichap, nearly two-thirds of the communityis Brahman; this applies to Chotetar also. The Gurung community is the least prevalent comprising

only 3 percent of the sampled households in Janachetana CDG.

Ninety-five percent of the respondents are subsistence farmers who have fragmented parcels of

land averaging 1 ha. With no alternative off-farm activities, farming is the only option. Only a negligiblepercentage of the respondents are engaged in services and business. It is obvious that sources of

financial income for the local people are very scarce. Some family members in Bungeshwori CDG

work elsewhere.

Household earnings are a significant determinant of socio-economic status. Respondents wereasked about their household income from different sources. The mean annual income of Bungeswori

CDG was relatively higher, as household members work in services. Farmland is the most importantasset and a strong indicator for determining the socio-economic status of the households. The farmland


11/350

4

is divided into two types:Bari land (non-irrigated) andKhet land (irrigated). In the study area, most of

the farmers have rain-fed farmland.

Performance of Community Development Groups

The CDGs devise a community development plan that is supposed to reflect development perspectives

as perceived by the community, addressing natural resource management and other developmentneeds. The plan is the basis for approaching different line agencies for support. With technical assistance

from DSCO, CDGs directly implement programme activities via peoples participation.

Fundamentally, the community development committee (CDC) is responsible for coordinationamong CDG members and concerned offices for managing and accomplishing programme activities.

In this regard the performance of the CDGs was studied for conflict resolution, information sharing,

satisfaction derived from programme activity, benefit sharing, decision making, peoples participation,

and transparency. Efficiency, work accomplished according to the plan and available resources, technicalsoundness of the accomplished work, resource utilization, and use of cost-effective methods wereconsidered also.

Performance of the CDGs in the Water Source Protection Programme

Water sources are springs and kuwas (small irrigation ponds). Water source protection refers tovegetative and structural erosion control measures applied in the source and its catchments and all

distribution systems. The objective of this programme is to improve the quality and regime of water

through conservation of soil and water. Preventive as well as the rehabilitative measures have beentaken to avoid possible water-induced damage by integrating different watershed management activities.

Activities like tree and grass plantation, diversion canal and check dam construction, and gully pluggingare conducted. In some cases, potable drinking water facilities are also provided. The most tangible

benefit is the availability of drinking water.

Effectiveness

Conf l ic t resolut ion for resource al locat ion

CDGs with more households had lower levels of conflict than CDGs with fewer households because

they had more available resources. In this regard more than half of the respondents agreed that there

has never been dispute among the members for resource allocation. However,in Bungeshwori disputesoccur due to the scattered distribution of the households and allocation of resources to areas where

most people live, disregarding remoter inhabited areas.

Informat ion shar ing

Effective communication is as much a basic prerequisite to the attainment of organizational goals as

effective application of group dynamic techniques (Dwivedi, 1979), while lack of information andcommunication lead to passiveness, dissatisfaction, complaints, and low community participation. In

order to assess communication and sharing of information among community members, they wereasked how often they deliver (share) information with other members. This occurred most frequently

in Janachetana CDG. The site office situated at Bhaldanda (Janachetana CDG) and the local motivators


12/350

5

appointed by DSCO facilitated information dissemination and sharing among community members.

This was less effective in Amelichap.

Satisfaction

Satisfaction derived from the programme

There was a significant difference in satisfaction among the members regarding programme activity(Table 1). Respondents from Chotetar followed by Amelichap expressed comparatively higher levels

of satisfaction. The lowest level of satisfaction was found in Janachetana. These differences can beattributed to the variation in the number of households benefiting directly. The lower level of satisfaction

in Bungeshwori can also be attributed to the lower number of beneficiaries.

Table 1. Levels of satisfaction derived from the programme activity

Category

CDG Not satisfied Middling Satisfied Fully satisfied

No. % No. % No. % No. %

Amelichap (N=35) 2 5.7 2 5.7 17 48.6 14 40.0

Chotetar (N=14) - - 2 14.3 3 21.4 9 64.3

Janachetana (N=6) 3 4.5 28 41.8 27 40.3 9 13.4Bungeshwori (N= 24) 5 20.8 7 29.2 11 45.8 1 4.2

Source: Field Survey (2001)

Note: No. = number, % = corresponding percentage of the total number of respondents, N= number of sampled households

Benefi t sharing

Benefits (cash income savings from programme activities and drinking water facilities) derived from

programme activities are shared among members. This is decided by the CDC and the beneficiaries.They formulate acceptable norms and rules and assure equitable benefit sharing. Most of the

respondents were satisfied with benefit sharing. The lower level of satisfaction expressed in Janachetanacould be attributed to most of the households not having access to the drinking water system developed

with financial and technical assistance from DSCO. In Amelichap (satisfied with the drinking water

facility), a secondary benefit is the irrigation facility derived from the wastewater from the drinkingwater system. Conversely, in Bungeshwori the lowest level of satisfaction was recorded.

Decis ion m aking

The role of CDG members in decision making is an important aspect for smooth running of programmeactivities. There are two opposing schools of thought regarding the decision-making structure: one

asserts that local organizations need strong executive leadership to deal decisively with the environment;the other relies more on maximum consensus and widespread participation of individuals in decision

making. Heller (1973), cited in Joshi et al. (1997) suggests that the success of a local organization in

terms of decision-making structure is important. MacKenzie (1993) found that consensus is importantnot only for reaching an acceptable decision but also for building long-term trust and support for

outcomes (MacKenzie 1993 cited in Margerum 1999).


13/350

6

Decision making for implementing rules and regulations

Decision making was effective in AAHNH (Janachetana CDG) where more than half of the sampled

households agreed to make consensus decisions. This is attributable to the higher literacy rate, exposureto the external environment, frequent contact with outsiders, and cooperation of local leaders.

ADALNH had weaker decision making, (Chotetar CDG). Members who break rules are punished.Punishments are recorded in the CDG constitutions, developed by the CDG members. More punishment

was found in Janachetana and less punishment in Amelichap.

Decision making for resource allocation

Since the resources are scarce and peoples demands are higher, different CDGs have different

decision-making processes: by committee members, in the assembly, and by the elite (or their influence).

This was effective in Janachetana, followed by Amelichap. This is attributable to the higher literacy

rate and the positive attitude towards programme activities.

Part ic ipat ion in programm e act iv i t ies

Peoples participation is viewed as a dynamic group process in which all members of a group contributeto the attainment of common objectives, share the benefits accruing from group activities, exchange

information and experience for common interest, and follow the rules, regulations, and other decisionsmade by the groups (Mishra, 1996). Organizational reasons for participation in collaborative efforts

include efficiency, access to resources and reduction of uncertainty through the development of

collective rules (Wood and Gary, 1991 cited in Margerum, 1999). Furthermore, Colfer and Wadley(2001), specify that increased participation provides a means for conflict resolution and empowerment.

Peoples participation is the basic input that the people can provide. Poor local people can contribute

labour in lieu of cash. There was good participation in Amelichap but this was not so evident in

Janachetana. Lower levels of participation and interest are because the majority of the respondentsare getting benefits from the Nepal Water for Health (NEWAH) programme rather than the programme

assisted by DSCO.

Transparency m aintained in p rogramme act iv ity

Removal of mistrust, apprehension, and misunderstanding among the CDG members is essential not

only for smooth functioning of the programme but also for establishing effective and long-term

partnerships within the community. In order to maintain transparency about programme activities,especially financial aspects, provisions are made in the CDG constitution; for example, the treasurer

should disclose income and the expenditure of resources at the general (community) assembly.

In this context, an obligatory provision is made to open a joint account between the CDG chairpersonand treasurer or secretary in a nearby bank; all transactions are conducted through their joint signatures.

Proper documentation is also essential for transparency. Therefore training on record keeping has

also been given to CDG members for proper archiving. The higher level of satisfaction with transparencywas in Janachetana CDG (Table 2). This can be attributed to the higher frequency of meetings and

the higher numbers at the meetings, as well as the higher literacy rate. The respondents in Chotetarexpressed a lower level of satisfaction. Less than one-fourth of the respondents expressed their full

satisfaction (Table 2) for transparency maintained within the community. The majority were dissatisfied.

One-fourth of the sampled households, which is the highest figure among the studied CDGs, wasannoyed about auditing.


14/350

7

Table 2. Satisfaction regarding transparency

Category

CDG Not satisfied Somewhat satisfied Satisfied Fully satisfied

No. % No. % No. % No. %

Amelichap (N=35) 3 8.6 6 17.1 14 40.0 12 34.3

Chotetar (N=14) 2 14.3 4 28.6 5 37.7 3 21.4Janachetana (N=67) 1 1.5 11 16.4 25 37.3 30 44.8

Bungeshwori (N=24) 3 12.5 2 8.3 9 37.5 10 41.7



Efficiency

Efficiency comprises achieving existing objectives with acceptable use of resources (Carnall, 1995).

It was obvious from the study that financial resources are scarce and the resources made available

by the agency concerned as well as community contributions (financial) were not sufficient to meetthe needs of the local people.

Work accompl ishm ent according to the plan and budget

For each and every activity a budget and plan are prepared with the assistance of field technicians forprogramme implementation. While preparing the estimates, local people are informed about their

contributions in conducting programme activities and the cost to be borne by the concerned agency.Timely accomplishment of the activity with desirable use of resources is necessary. Respondents

from Bungeshwori CDG expressed the highest level of satisfaction for work accomplishment according

to the prepared plan and budget.

Technical efficiency

Technical soundness is important. Respondents were asked to judge the quality of accomplished

activity. In Chotetar, most of the respondents were very positive about programme activity becausethey regarded it as important. During a field visit it was also found that the system was functioning

well and delivering efficient services to the resource users.

Eff icient uti l izat ion of resou rces

Mishandling of physical and financial resources causes considerable damage to the people and

ultimately leads to economic loss. Respondents were asked if they thought resources were being usedefficiently. Most of the respondents in Bungeshwori believed that resources had been utilized efficiently

(Table 3). In Amelichap, respondents were not so confident about this.


15/350

8

Table 3. Accomplishment of work with efficient utilization of resources

Category

CDG Dont know Somewhat agree Agree Fully agree

No. % No. % No. % No. %

Amelichap (N=35) - - 2 5.7 16 45.7 17 48.6

Chotetar (N=14) - - 6 42.9 6 42.9 2 14.3Janachetana (N=67) - - 5 7.5 27 40.3 35 52.2

Bungeshwori (N=24) - - 1 4.2 8 33.3 15 62.5



Prior i ty to adopt co st ef fect ive methods

As financial resources are scarce, care needs to be exercised about choosing cost-effective methods

for constructing development activities. Choice of bioengineering techniques, alternatives for high

cost materials, use of locally available skilled human resources, and generation of maximum peoplesparticipation in programme activities are considered in this context.

Performance of CDGs in the trail improvement programme

According to Sthapit (1994), a trail refers to the existing trail (narrow path), which is susceptible togully formation that causes erosion upslope or downslope, thus inconveniencing human and livestock

traffic. Trail improvement refers to the vegetative and structural measures applied to protect the trailfrom erosion and to improve the trail for general traffic. The main objective of this programme is to

reduce erosion from unmanaged trails, protect them from erosion, and to improve the trail for general

traffic.

Effect iveness

Method for dispute resolution

Janachetana CDG had fewer conflicts among the members (Table 4). Most respondents agreed thatthere had never been conflict for resource allocation. In Amelichap and Bungeswori CDGs only one-

tenth of the respondents indicated no conflict. This indicates that they are relatively ineffective in

resolving problems compared to the other two CDGs. Some respondents were interested in otherprogrammes.


16/350

9

Table 4. Dispute for resource allocation

Category

CDG Frequently Sometimes Seldom Never

No. % No. % No. % No. %

Amelichap (N=35) - - 9 25.7 13 37.1 13 37.1

Chotetar (N=14) 2 14.3 7 50.0 4 28.6 1 7.1Janachetana (N=67) - - 9 13.4 21 31.3 37 55.2

Bungeshwori (N=24) 3 12.5 9 37.5 10 41.7 2 8.3



Information sharing among the members

Respondents were asked how often they reported programme activities. The best information sharing

was in Janachetana because members were interested in the programme and found it useful. In

Bungeshwori, information was reported by the katuwal(a local person appointed by the villagers todeliver messages). He is responsible for delivering messages that are of concern to the villagers.

Every household is obliged to provide cash or in-kind support for his services. However, despite thisarrangement, most messages were delivered mutually by fellow members at meetings and informally

during personal visits.

Satisfaction derived from programme activity

The trail improvement programme is in high demand by local people in the study area because everyone

benefits equally. The direct benefit being easy traffic for local people as well as livestock. Some

people have complained about soil-erosion problems due to the poor condition of trails. The 24respondents from Bungeshwori were mostly satisfied with implementation of the trail improvement

programme. (This CDG is quite distant from the highway and they need easy and frequent access toreach it.)

Benefit sharing

One of the direct benefits is savings. Usually not less than 10 percent of the total programme cost isdeposited in the CDG bank by each group. The rest is obtained from external assistance and distributed

among the beneficiaries who are involved in construction work. None of the respondents, except

Chotetar, was dissatisfied with benefit sharing in the programme. Chotetar members had a low levelof participation. Apart from cash income, it is difficult to quantify other benefits. It is assumed that the

major benefit is trafficable roads.


There was a significant difference in decision making in the CDGs. Relatively effective decision

making occurred in areas accessible to infrastructure facilities. Again, higher literacy rates and interestin the programme are reasons for better performance.


17/350

10

Level of participation

This was higher in Bungeshwori (Table 5). Higher satisfaction encourages higher participation and

greater interest. Local farmers were interested in cash income from the programme but in one case(Janachetana) respondents indicated pressure by other members households who did not participate

in the programme would not receive benefits from the CDG. In Chotetar participation was lower.

Table 5. Level of peoples participation in the trail improvement programme

Categories

CDG Not good Middling Good Excellent

No. % No. % No. % No. %

Amelichap (N=35) - - 2 5.7 23 65.7 10 28.6Chotetar (N=14) - - 2 14.3 11 78.6 1 7.1

Janachetana (N=67) - - 2 3.0 42 62.7 23 34.3Bungeshwori (N=24) 1 4.2 8 33.3 15 62.5


Note: No. = number, % = corresponding percentage of the total number of respondents, N= number of sampled household

Satisfaction with transparency

Janachetana CDG expressed highest satisfaction for transparency. Nobody was dissatisfied. About

one-tenth of the respondents in Bungeshwori and Amelichap were dissatisfied. The level of satisfactionwas also lower in Chotetar and Bungeshwori.

Efficiency

Work accomplishment according to the plan and budget

This programme is labour intensive and good management of human resources is crucial. For efficient

utilization of resources and time, local people arbitrarily divided the work among different sections.

Each ad hocgroup is responsible for the assigned management tasks. Most respondents in Bungeshworiand Janachetana agreed that the work had been accomplished according to the prepared plan and

budget. Janachetana and Bungeshwori CDGs were more efficient. This higher efficiency is attributedto the higher level of peoples participation (Table 6) and their self-generated interest.

Table 6. Work accomplishment according to the plan and budget

Category

CDG Never Sometimes Most often Always

No. % No. % No. % No. %

Amelichap (N=35) - - 5 14.3 26 74.3 4 11.4

Chotetar (N=14) 4 28.6 8 57.1 2 14.3

Janachetana (N=67) - - 3 4.5 30 44.8 34 50.7

Bungeshwori (N=24) 1 4.2 2 8.3 7 29.2 14 58.3




18/350

11

Technical efficiency

Work should be accomplished with an acceptable standard of quality. However, in the rural context

there is no hard and fast rule regarding the quality of work to be measured. Therefore it is difficult tojudge quality of work in the rural context especially where the work has been accomplished by local

people. In response to technical efficiency of the trail improvement programme, no one was dissatisfiedwith the quality of work.

Priority to adopt cost-effective methods

In order to minimize programme cost, discussions are held among beneficiaries about adopting cost-effective methods during surveying and preparing estimates with field technicians. Respondents were

asked how many precautionary measures had been taken to adopt cost-effective methods to reduce

programme cost. With the exception of Amelichap, more than two-thirds of the respondents in all of

the CDGs consented to prioritize cost-effective methods. A field visit revealed that all of the constructionwork had been done using locally available resources and in most of cases, bioengineering techniqueshad been used for plugging small gullies and diversion channels.

CDGs and conservation ponds

Ponds are hydrological lifelines in rural areas. In this study, conservation ponds refer to small pondsconstructed principally for trapping wastewater/runoff to reduce soil erosion and to enhance soil

moisture availability to the crops. The CDC, with CDG members, selects appropriate locations for

conservation pond construction. Twelve and eight ponds were constructed in Janachetana andAmelichap respectively; Chotetar and Bungeshwori had one conservation pond each. Since the

establishment of conservation ponds, beneficiaries have derived cash income by selling off-seasonvegetables like cauliflower, cucumber, beans, ladys fingers, chili, squash, and tomatoes. Mostly, the

vegetable products are sold directly to local middlemen and sometimes in Kathmandu Vegetable

Wholesale Market.

Effect iveness

Disputes in benefit sharing

The main benefit is irrigation facilities. Despite the lower number of households more disputes occurred

in ADALNH compared to AAHNH because no strict rules and regulations had been formulated. Thefewer disputes in AAHNH are attributable to the good relationships among the members and a goodconflict resolution mechanism within the community

Information sharing among the members

Sharing of information regarding programme activities was effective in AAHNH (Table 7). In thisregard, 52.2 percent of the respondents agreed to share information at meetings. Again, the good

relationships among the members was the primary factor. In ADALNH (Chotetar) only about one-fourth of the respondents communicated under the Always category; poorer relationships among

members were responsible for this low level.


19/350

12

Table 7. Information sharing among the members

Category

CDG Dont care Sometimes Most often Always

No. % No. % No. % No. %

Amelichap (N=35) - - 8 22.9 18 51.4 9 25.7

Chotetar (N=14) 3 21.4 - - 6 42.9 5 35.7Janachetana (N=67) - - 3 4.5 29 43.3 35 52.2

Bungeshwori (N=24) - - 7 29.2 9 37.5 8 33.3



Satisfaction derived from the programme

The respondents from AAHNH were more satisfied with the programme because of the cash benefits

derived from off-season farming practices. The ADALNH were less satisfied.

Benefit sharing among the members

Irrigation (the main benefit) enhanced cash income as beneficiaries sold their off-season farm produce

to the nearby market. In this regard the AAHNH were pleased with the programme, although benefitsharing is not relevant in this context; the respondents were satisfied because of higher income.


It was compulsory for every household to participate in maintenance of the system. No one wasallowed to use water out of turn. Better consensus decision making was prevalent in accessible areas

with higher populations. In areas where people had been deriving more benefits, better rules and

regulations were exercised compared to lower income-generating groups.

Peoples participation in programme activity

The AAHNH was effective in mobilizing peoples participation compared to the ADALNH, benefits

being the powerful motivation factor. Some sources of cash income were dubious.

Transparency maintained among the members

Good mutual understanding among the members, community decision making by consensus, frequent

meetings, and proper record keeping help to maintain good transparency among the members inAAHNH. This is not the case in ADALNH.

Efficiency

Work accomplishment according to the plan and budget

There was no significant difference between the CDGs regarding work accomplishment. This indicates

that all of the CDGs work efficiently in the conservation pond programme. Some of the respondents


20/350

13

in ADALNH complained about delay in budget release and untimely availability and delivery of

construction material which hampered programme activities.

Accomplishment of work with efficient utilization of resources

A more or less similar level of efficiency was observed in all of the CDGs (Table 8). Besides human

and financial resources, the important material resource in this activity was cement, which is expensiveand perishable.

Table 8. Accomplishment of work with efficient utilization of resources

Category

CDG Dont agree Somewhat agree Agree Fully agree

No. % No. % No. % No. %

Amelichap (N=35) 1 2.9 3 8.6 17 48.6 14 40.0

Chotetar (N=14) - - 3 21.4 4 28.6 7 50.0

Janachetana (N=67) 1 1.5 10 14.9 20 29.9 36 53.7

Bungeshwori (N=24) 1 4.2 5 20.8 6 25.0 12 50.0


Note: No. = number, % = corresponding percentage of the total number of respondents, N = number of sampled households

Technical efficiency of accomplished work

Most of the work was accomplished by the local users without the external assistance of skilled

human resources. The ponds constructed in the study area were in good condition and operating well.In Chotetar, service delivery (required quantity of water) was unavailable from the pond.

Priority to adopt cost-effective methods

Beneficiaries made maximum use of locally available resources in order to reduce the cost of the

programme. Nevertheless, the responses reveal that they are not very effective in adopting cost-effective methods, probably because of their dependency on external resources, especially cement,

which elevates the cost of construction as well as adding financial burden.

Sustainability of CDGsA legitimized and effective organization is essential to achieve goals. Therefore the CDGs were

formed to develop sustainable management of institutions for the continuation, maintenance, anddissemination of skills related to soil conservation and watershed management practices. The basic

objective underlying the formation of CDGs has been to search for alternatives that could be sustained

in the future (APROSC, 1997). Most donors report a strong correlation between the sustainability ofdevelopment outcomes and the effectiveness of institutional intervention (Morgan and Qualman, 1996).

Furthermore, they also clarify that achieving some sort of institutional sustainability is an ongoingprocess rather than an end state.


21/350

14

Peoples attitudes

When the funding and the implementing agencies withdraw support from the project area it is the

peoples attitude and participation that determines the future of the system. Therefore whether thesystem can be sustained or not depends mostly upon the households degree of responsibility, i.e. the

programmes have been implemented for their benefit and they themselves should take care of thesystem. Respondents revealed that they are more interested in direct benefits like water source

protection, income generation, and irrigation canal improvement rather than programmes with longer

gestation periods before benefit distribution.

ADALNH respondents expressed their reluctance to contribute to programme activities, Mainlybecause watershed management is dependent on external resources and resources allocated by DSCO

are insufficient to run the programme. Also local people are relatively poor at record keeping of

financial transactions.

Necessity of peoples part icipation in watershed management

The policy of the watershed management programme is to involve local people in every stage of the

programme so they can manage the resources by themselves and fulfill their basic needs by generatingincome.

Most of the respondents strongly expressed the need for peoples participation for watershed

management. No one disagreed.

Pol i tical suppo rt

The CDG as an institution is inevitably a part of village political life and political support to developmentwork; this enhances smooth and effective functioning of development programmes. Therefore the

stronger the political support the better the success of the particular programme activity will be.Overall political support for watershed management activities to CDGs was not encouraging. This is

attributable to lack of coordination with local leaders and their biases.

Human resource development

The development of local human resources has been the focus of DSCO for effective watershed

management and organizational sustainability. User group capacity building is crucial for the formationof viable user groups. Training is gradually increasing and extending to a wider audience of farmers.

The training includes adult literacy, account and record keeping, income generation, skills development,nursery techniques, bee keeping, horticulture, vegetable production, and mushroom production. If thetypes of training requested by the farmers differ from the regular training (e.g. agriculture, livestock,

cottage industries etc.) being conducted by DSCO, then DSCO coordinates with line agencies toprovide the requested training. Most of the respondents from Chotetar expressed their full support for

human resource development. However in Janachetana and Bungeshwori, respondents perceived

comparatively lower levels of human resource development.

Fund mob i l izat ion

The promotion of group savings as the basis for revolving credit facilities for group members has also

been an important factor in sustaining community-based groups. Presently the main sources of income


22/350

15

are savings from the programme activities, monthly savings, membership fees, and interest from

investment. However the user groups are accumulating funds in an impressive manner by pooling

individual resources. In this manner most of them are now saving money. User groups are found to belending money at a rate of 24 percent per month for CDG members. Despite the higher interest rate,farmers reported they are willing to accept the charge, promising to repay within the time frame fixed

by the CDGs. Community organizations with more households, especially Janachetana, invested saving

funds. Only nominal funds were mobilized for purchasing improved varieties of seeds, goats, urea,and household utilities.

Formal regist rat ion

The formal registration of the CDG affords the organizational status of NGO. However there aresome legal problems with the formally registered organizations (Karki and Sharma, 1999). A CDG

registered under the NGO framework is always a non-profit making corporate body. Thus the NGOframework is not helpful in promoting the individual profit-sharing expectations of CDG members.

Part icipation in maintenance work

Participation in water source protection was relatively better in areas where there is a scarcity ofdrinking water.In most cases, the respondents seemed to have reduced interest in participating in

maintenance work (Chotetar and Amelichap) compared to participation at the programme

implementation stage.Money is being extracted from saving funds (Chotetar and Amelichap) fordrinking water system maintenance. However most of the work needs higher labour contribution.

The highest rating of more than one-third, for the water source protection programme, belonged to

Janachetana; percentage-wise, Bungeswori had the highest rating of 58.3 percent for the trailimprovement programme; a more or less similar rating was found in all of the CDGs for the

conservation pond programme. This difference in the level of peoples participation indicates thatparticipation in maintenance work depends on their needs.

External suppo rt

There has been some support in dissemination of technology and programme activities. Remarkably,Janachetana has been successful in drawing significant resources from NEWAH for the drinking

water system programme and Janachetana households are benefiting. This indicates that theJanachetana CDG is running its programme activities efficiently.

Conclusion

Most of the households depend on subsistence agriculture due to scant opportunity for off-farmactivities. This has a negative effect on land productivity, which ultimately leads to a decline in the

socio-economic condition of the watershed inhabitants. In this regard the CDGs are playing an important

role in the better management of watersheds and socio-economic improvement. The CDGs nearestto infrastructure facilities with higher numbers of households were better at watershed management

activities. Democratic decision making for resource allocation and benefit sharing as well astransparency and communication is essential to reduce disputes and maintain good relationships among

the members. Positive attitudes, higher participation in programme activities, sufficient funding and its

mobilization, external assistance, and favourable political support (coordination) are fundamental forthe better performance and sustainability of the community organization.


23/350

16

Literature cited

Adhikari, R. 1996.Participatory Rural Development in Nepal: Comparative Study of GO, NGO

and Locally Initiated Projects in Syangja District. Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand.APROSC.1997. Socioeconomic Studies of Selected Sub-Watersheds in the Districts of Rasuwa,

Nuwakot and Dhading, (Vol. IV), Base Line Survey and Institutional Development Modalities

of Kumpur Sub-Watershed Dhading.Nepal/Denmark Watershed Management Project, ProjectSupport Office, Kathmandu. Nepal.

Bogati, R.1999.DANIDA Supported Soil Conservation and Watershed Management Programin Nepal.Proceedings of DANIDAs Third International Workshop on Watershed Development,

Kathmandu, Nepal.

Carnall, C.A.1995.Managing Change in Organizations.Prentice Hall, London.

Colfer, C.J.P. & Wadley R.L.1999. Scoring and Analysis Guide for Assessing Human WellBeing.Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Indonesia.

Dwivedi, R.S.1979.Human Relation and Organizational Behavior. Mohan Primlani, Oxford andIBH Publishing Co., India.

Hansen, J.M.; Shrestha, B.D. & Pudasaini, B.1995.Biophysical Survey of Dhading, Rasuwaand Nuwakot Districts and Selected Sub-Watersheds.Department of Soil Conservation, Ministry

of Forest and Soil Conservation (MOFS) and Danish International Development Assistance(DANIDA), Kathmandu, Nepal.

Joshi, N.; Jali, N.M. & Hamid, A.H.1997. Organizational structure, performance and participation:forest user groups in the Nepal Hills.In G.Shivakoti, G. Varughese, E. Ostrom, A. Shukla and G.

Thapa (eds). People and Participation in Sustainable Development: Understanding the

Dynamics of Natural Resource System. Proceedings of an International Conference. Institute

of Agriculture and Animal Science /Tribhuvan University, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal.HMG/CBS.2000. Statistical Pocket Book, Nepal.National Planning Commission Secretariat, Central

Bureau of Statistics, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Karki, B.B. & Sharma, R.K.1999. Community Development Group Registration Study. DevelopmentVision, Nepal.

Margerum, R.D.1999.Integrated Environmental Management: The Foundation for SuccessfulPractice, Environmental Management.Springer Verlag, New York Inc., Vol. 24, No. 2, pp.158.

Mishra, B. 1996. A successful case of participatory watershed management at Ralegan Siddhivillage in District Ahmadnagar, Maharastra India.In P.M. Sharma and M.P. Wagle (eds).A Case

Study of Peoples Participation in Watershed Management in Asia, part 1: Nepal, Chinaand India . PWMTA-WMTUH-FARM, Field Document No. 4, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Morgan, P. & Qualman, A.1996. Institutional and Capacity Development, Result BasedManagement and Organizational Performance.Canadian International Development Agency

(CIDA).

Paudel, G.S.2000. Farmer Led Management Practices in the Hills of Nepal: A Comparative Study

of Watersheds With and Without External Intervention. Doctoral Thesis. AIT, Bangkok,

Thailand.

Shrestha, M. 1991. Parental Attitude towards Education: Gender Analysis in the Context of an

Urban Fringe Community, Nepal. AIT Masters Thesis. Bangkok, Thailand.

Sthapit, K.1994. Concept of Soil and Watershed Conservation in Hilly and Plain Areas.

Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management, Kathmandu, Nepal.


24/350

17

Integrated Watershed Management: Studies and Experiences from Asia

Edited by Michael Zoebisch, Khin Mar Cho, San Hein & Runia Mowla. AIT, Bangkok, 2005

INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS OF WATERSHEDS WITH AND WITHOUTEXTERNAL ASSISTANCE IN THE HILLS OF NEPAL

Shrutidhar Tripathi1

Introduction

Mountain and upland watersheds constitute 25 percent of the earths land surface. However, little

understanding of mountain specificity by planners and policy-makers and the inability of development

efforts to harness local niches have aggravated economic woes and threatened prospects for mountaindevelopment. The Hindu Kush-Himalaya is one of the youngest mountain systems in the world and

thus subject to high rates of natural erosion. Rivers originating in the region carry much more silt thanthose originating elsewhere. Furthermore, prevailing socio-economic conditions contribute to serious

erosion and watershed instability.

The Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal is experiencing environmental and ecological degradationwhich increases soil erosion thereby reducing farm productivity. Cultivation on the mountainous terrain

has raised questions about the suitability of intensive land-use practices that threaten the condition of

watersheds where soil-erosion rates are already high owing to the fragile ecosystem.

The ever-increasing population in the hills of Nepal has increased pressure on natural resources.

With no access to better quality lands and no off-farm employment opportunities, local people haveremoved forest and grass cover to fulfill their basic needs for food, fodder, fuelwood, and timber.

Nepal is reported to have the highest livestock density per unit of cultivated land in the world. Assortedspecies of livestock are sources of draught power, dairy products, meat, and manure. Therefore,

reducing the number of livestock directly impacts farm productivity as most of the farming activitiesare carried out with livestock. Hill farming requires the net transfer of nutrients from the forest and

rangeland, through fodder and leaf litter, to animals. Fodder and grasses are used to make up the feed

deficit and leaf litter is mixed with dung to fertilize the farmland. Due to limited arable land with highlyfragmented and small land-holdings; low productivity; extension of cultivation to less productive marginal

and steeply sloping land; decline in the use of organic manure; and lack of improved agricultural inputsand off-farm employment opportunities, poor farming households have to rely on the forests and

public land for livestock rearing.

The watershed management programme was initiated by the Department of Forest in July 1966

through the project Survey and Demonstration for the Development and Management of the TrisuliWatershed A Pilot Project. In most cases, policies and programmes for mountain watersheds had

been designed and implemented using a centralized top-down approach, which allows little scope for

adjusting to situations at the local level. This type of compartmental approach often proved to beunsustainable in the context of Nepalese mountain watershed management.

1

MSc. Thesis (Ref. No. RD-01-11), Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand. August 2001.Examination Committee - Dr. Gopal B. Thapa (Chair), Prof. Karl E. Weber, Dr. Michael A. Zoebisch
http://covercontents.pdf/http://covercontents.pdf/http://covercontents.pdf/


25/350

18

The top-down approach has numerous pitfalls, especially the non-involvement of watershed

inhabitants in management planning, which questions the success and validity of the programmes

(Chambers, 1993; Brooks, 1993).Currently, bottom-up planning has been encouraged to muster farmers participation for the

sustainability of watershed management projects, with emphasis on increasing productivity whileconserving the resource base. The concept of integrated watershed management planning has been

institutionalized and a participatory group approach has become mandatory as a means to plan,

implement, and maintain programmes while sharing benefits. Developing sense of ownership, generatingself-help attitudes among local people, reducing the cost of project implementation, and sustaining the

achievements of the project are some reasons to motivate people to participate in watershedmanagement. An integrated watershed management project needs to address all the problems in the

watershed area be they socio-economically related or natural resources related. A number of watershed

management projects have been completed and are running in the hills of Nepal. A successful watershed

management project is expected to have positive spillover effect in adjacent watersheds with similarsocio-economic and biophysical conditions.

In mountain watersheds, the level of community development, including the socio-economic

condition, influences the extent of natural resource management (NRM) and the knowledge andcapacity of the community. One of the major indicators to assess the level of community development

is the presence and functionality of community level institutions. High public participation in resourcemanagement activities can be expected only in those communities where local institutions are functioning

well because these institutions act as a binding force among otherwise scattered people. Community

forest groups, irrigation groups, and drinking water management groups are working in the field ofNRM, whereas agricultural groups, cooperatives, and savings/credit groups are associated with natural

resource conservation for improving social cohesion and enhancing the economic condition of the

local people. Therefore, institutional analysis has become a useful tool in the field of community-based NRM for understanding how local communities manage resources and how improvements in

management can be initiated. The Begnas Tal-Rupa Tal (BTRT) Watershed Management Projecthad applied a participatory approach to watershed management. Involvement of existing local institutions

and the formation of new local institutions was mandatory to get the local people involved in projectactivities. This project was initiated in 1985, completed its first phase in 1989, and a second phase in

1994. Various reports and papers on the BTRT Project have claimed that the institutional building of

local organizations like the Community Development Conservation Committee (CDCC), user groups,cooperatives, and local NGOs are some outstanding examples of the achievements of the BTRT

project.

This research has studied the impact of the functioning of all kinds of local institutions in relation

to the management status of natural resources. The common approach/technique for impact evaluationis to compare before and after situations, which heavily relies on baseline data and/or the memories

of the settlers. As far as this researcher knows, so far, no one has conducted any research to appraiseinstitutional aspects in relation to watershed management by comparing two watersheds with and

without incentives.

Soil-erosion rates vary significantly according to location, slope gradient, and land-use type but

the estimated rates 60 t/ha/year of average soil loss in the upper Andhikhola Watershed of thewestern region; and 33 t/ha/year in the Tinau Watershed of the central region provide sufficient clues

that resources are being degraded at a considerable rate. Increasing cropping intensity has beensought as an alternative to declining crop yields and food deficits. Cropping intensification demands

higher amounts of inputs including farmyard manure (FYM) and chemical fertilizers (Schreier et al.,

1995). But, declining resources required to produce FYM and farmers inability to purchase chemical


26/350

19

fertilizers have impeded increases in farm productivity. The hill farmers have traditionally followed

integrated soil-management practices based on their indigenous knowledge.

Local organizations are being mobilized by a number of watershed management projects. Viablelocal institutions enable peoples participation in planning, implementation, and maintenance of project

activities (Jensen, 1995). The main thrust of institutional building in watershed management is toexamine management procedures that secure better performances from local organizations. Institutional

capacity, which guides the institutional performance, can be strengthened to improve the work

performance of local organizations. In the past, grassroot institutions have managed forest, rangeland,and water resources successfully in the hills of Nepal (Gurung, 1995; Poudel, 1997; ICIMOD, 1986).

Mountain watershed plans are targeted at the more marginalized groups in the watershed, such

as women, the landless, and marginal farmers. Any watershed management activities should serve to

address equity in the watershed where most investment is taking place on the land. Until recently,programmes and projects aimed at improving the socio-economic conditions of the people tended to

be initiated, designed, and implemented by top level agencies and institutions without systematicconsultation and involvement of the intended beneficiaries.

Participation in watershed management is an area that has failed to capture the needs andaspirations of watershed inhabitants. The social, economic, institutional, and biophysical conditions in

the watershed are expected to be better than areas without any projects. Accomplishment of objectivesis better with a high degree of peoples participation. The specific objectives are: to assess the status

of farmland, forest, and grazing land resources from watershed settlers perspectives; to assess the

structural and functional systems of local organizations and their role in the management of naturalresources; to evaluate the efficiency of local institutions in mustering public participation in natural

resource conservation and management; and to suggest policies for strengthening local institutionalcapacity for watershed management.

The study area

Two watersheds, namely, Begnas Tal-Rupa Tal Watershed, hereafter referred to as the ProjectWatershed and Kali Khola Watershed, hereafter referred to as the Non-project Watershed were

selected (Figure 1). The Bijayapur Khola River separates these two watersheds.

The Non-project Watershed was selected because its biophysical and social structure is sufficiently

similar and comparable with the Project Watershed. In addition, it is accessible and close to theProject Watershed. Therefore, it was easy to collect data from both watersheds in a given period of

time.

Biophysical and socio-economic conditions of the study area

Biophysical condi t ion

Project Watershed

The Project Watershed is located 10 km northeast of Pokhara City. It covers an area of about173 km2including two major lakes Begnas Tal and Rupa Tal. The watershed is characterized by a

complex and heterogeneous topography with mazes of irregular ridges and spurs, and gentle to very

steep slopes. It has steep north- and south-facing slopes of 40-65

and 35-40

respectively. The elevation


27/350

20

Study Area in

Kaski District

Pokhara

Figure 1. The study area in Kaski District


28/350

21

ranges from 600 m at the valley bottom to 1 417 m at Thulakot. The valley bottom is characterized by

relatively low relief, gentler slopes, and a lower dissection index (


29/350

22

The climate is sub-tropical and sub-humid; the monsoon rainfall is characterized by hot and wet

summers, and cold and dry winters. In the forests of higher altitudes, the predominant species of trees

areArundinaria intermedia (Nigalo). In the middle region, Fratrinus floribundas(Langri), andQuercus lanuginosa(Baajh) are predominant whereas in the lower section Shorea robusta(Sal),Schima wallichii (Chilaune), Castanopsis indica (Katus),Myrica esculenta (Kafal),Debregesia

salicifolia (Dar), andAlnus nepalensis(Utis) are predominant tree species. The general types of

soil in the watershed are alluvial on the valley bottom and laterite soil on the hill slopes.

Social co ndi t ions

Watershed settlers live in heterogeneous social conditions in terms of household structure, available

labour force, occupations, and employment patterns. These factors determine the overall economiccondition of households. The farm household is the fundamental unit of the farming systems. It has its

own scope within which household members interact to satisfy their requirements. Household size,age structure, gender, educational level, occupations, farm size, land types, and other farm resources

are the major variables influencing the farm households income and ultimately the level of their

participation in resource management activities.

Table 2. Gender composition in the two watersheds

Gender Project watershed(n=103) Non-project watershed(n=109)

f % Mean f % Mean

Male 249 47 2.42 289 49 2.65Female 281 53 2.73 308 51 2.85

Total 530 5.15 594 5.5

Gender ratio 0.89 0.96

Source: Household survey (2001)

f= Frequency

The gender ratio in the Project Watershed was slightly lower than the Non-project Watershed,i.e. there were more women than men in both the study watersheds (Table 2). But 96 percent of the

households in the Project Watershed and nearly 84 percent of the households in the Non-projectWatershed were headed by men. Most of the population in the Project Watershed had primary level

education while nearly one-fourth of the population had secondary level education in the Non-project

Watershed. Up to primary level, the percentage of women was higher but above primary level, men

dominated.

Economic condition

Household income came from crop farming and livestock raising, and from non-agricultural sources.The economic status of the household depended largely on the land-holding size, total production, and

number of livestock.

Agricu l tural systems

In an agrarian society, as in the study area, land-holding size has significant importance in determining

the overall economic condition of the household. The average land-holding in the Project Watershed


30/350

23

was nearly 13.5 ropaniper household (1 ropani= 0.05 ha), which was slightly higher than the Non-

project Watershed. However, the average size of Phantkhet, which is considered the best quality

land, was nearly double in the Non-project Watershed. Tarikhetshared the largest proportion of thetotal land size in both watersheds. The average number of parcels per household was about three inboth watersheds; however, land fragmentation in the Non-project Watershed was slightly higher due

to relatively lower average land-holding size. The size of average land cultivated per household was

smaller than the average land-holding size. This was because farmers did not farm in Kharbari orjungle land (Table 3).

Table 3. Area cultivated by land type

Type of land Project Watershed(n = 103) Non-project Watershed(n = 109)

Average area Percent of Average area Percent of

per hh in ropani total land per hh in ropani total land

Phantkhet 1.7 (2.9) 13.4 1.9 (2.9) 20.9

Tarikhet 5.2 (6.9) 42.4 4.4 (4.0) 47.6Gharbari 3.5 (3.0)** 28.0 2.0 (1.6)** 21.0

Bari 2.0 (2.9)** 16.3 1.0 (1.6)** 10.5

Average 12.3 100.0 9.3 100.0

Source: Household survey 2001

NB: * Significantly different at 0.05 confidence level (two tailed t-test)

** Significantly different at 0.01 confidence level (two tailed test)

Figures in parentheses are standard deviations in the respective category

1 ha = 20 ropani

Three percent of the households in the Project Watershed were landless. Small farmers whoconstituted 44 percent of the total households in the Project Watershed and 37 percent in the Non-project Watershed owned only 17 percent of the total land. Medium farmers, who represented 30

percent in the Project Watershed and more than 50 percent in the Non-project Watershed, owned 50

percent of the total farmland per household.

Millet occupied third position in terms of production per unit of land in the Project Watershedwhile this applied to maize in the Non-project Watershed. The average income from fruit farming per

household in the Project Watershed was significantly higher than the average income from fruit

farming in the Non-project Watershed. About 68 percent of the total households in the Project Watershedand 80 percent of the total households in the Non-project Watershed had food deficits from their own

production. The average number of large ruminants per household in the Project Watershed was

significantly higher than the Non-project Watershed but in contrast, the average income from largeruminants in the Non-project Watershed was significantly higher than the Project Watershed. In the

Non-project Watershed, medium farmers dominated livestock raising.

Cropping systems

Altogether 19 types of cropping pattern in the Project Watershed and 16 types of cropping pattern in

the Non-project Watershed were observed. In the Project Watershed, more farmers practised fruitcultivation and coffee farming than in the Non-project watershed. Normally, farmers choice over

specific types of cropping pattern depends upon land types, irrigation facilities, access to technology,access to market, and farmers preference over certain crops. Adoption of agroforestry was also

observed more in the Project Watershed. According to farmers of the Project Watershed, coffee


31/350

24

farming, in this area, was introduced by the BTRT project. In the Project Watershed, cropping intensity

was highest in the Gharbarifollowed byBari, whereas in the Non-project Watershed, the highest

cropping intensity was observed in theBariland followed by Gharbari. The average cropping intensitywas higher in the Non-project Watershed than the average cropping intensity in the Project Watershed.Three agricultural cooperatives were operating in the Non-project Watershed. In a subsistence economy

with small land-holdings, crop diversification ensures farmers food supply.

Role of local institutions in agricultural systems

The types of local institutions operating in the Project and in the Non-project Watersheds and their

objectives differed; thus differences in watershed agricultural systems were observed. In the Project

Watershed, the BTRT project had promoted conservation farming during project implementation viathe CDCC. According to local farmers, the BTRT project informed farmers of the importance of

farmland management and techniques to manage farmlands. The effect was reflected by highercropping diversification in the Project Watershed. Cooperatives play a significant role in enabling

local farmers by providing technical as well as credit support. Local institutions can motivate farmers

to adopt innovations. The main focus of the BTRT project was resource conservation; hence thefarmers in the project area were more concerned with resource conservation than farmers in the non-

project area. Contrariwise, cooperatives were promoting intensive use of farmland resources to increaseproduction in the Non-project Watershed; hence farmers were using their farmland more intensively

than farmers in the project area.

Major problems in the farming systems

Lack of quality inputs was a constraint perceived by farmers in both watersheds. For many farmersin the Non-project Watershed lack of farm labour was another constraint, but this was not the case in

the Project Watershed. Inadequate access to extension services plagued both watersheds (Table 4).

Table 4. Major problems in farming

Major problems Project Watershed Non-project Watershed

(n=103) (n=109)

f % f %

Lack of water for irrigation 83 38.2 75 40.8Lack of quality agricultural inputs 66 30.0 36 19.6

Insufficient farm labour 10 4.6 37 20.1

Inadequate access to the extension service 28 13.4 26 14.1and disease problemsNatural disaster 30 13.8 10 5.4

Total 217 174

Source: Household survey (2001)

f= Frequency of response

For livestock raising, insufficiency of water, feed, fodder and grazing space hindered farmers in

both watersheds. Disease too was noted by both groups but rated higher in the Non-project Watershed.


32/350

25

Household cash incom e from non -agr icul tural sources

Of the total number of people involved, 70 percent in the Project Watershed and 80 percent in the

Non-project Watershed were male. In the Non-project Watershed, more women worked as wagedlabourers. In terms of the total average income from the non-agriculture sector, the highest average

income came from petty business followed by the service sector in the Project Watershed. These twosectors shared more than three-fourths of the total average non-farm income per household. Average

income per household from the service sector, from pensions, and from remittances in the Non-

project Watershed was higher (most people being involved in the service sector inside and outside thecountry).

Status of farmland, forest, and grazing land

In an agrarian society land is the major means of sustenance for the people. The amount of farm

produce entirely depends upon the quality of land especially in those areas where farmers are not ableto supp

iwm ait zoebisch 2005

Documents