jans and natural science
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JA
NS Journal of Applied
and Natural Science(An International Research Journal)
journals.ansfoundation.org
ISSN 0974-9411 (Print) ISSN 2231-5209 (Online)Volume 13 Special Issue (SI) 2021
Special issue : Multi-dimensional Approaches in Transforming Agriculture
Editorial Board
Prof. Sadanand M. Yamakanamard
Mysore University, Mysore, Karnataka,
India
E-mail: [email protected]
Prof. A. K. Sharma
Lucknow University, Lucknow, Uttar
Pradesh, India
E-mail: [email protected]
Prof. Anil. K. Raina
Jammu University, Jammu (J&K),
India
E-mail: [email protected]
Prof. B. S. Sharma
Dr Bhimrao Ambedkar University Agra,
Uttar Pradesh, India
E-mail:[email protected]
Dr. R. K. Negi
Delhi University, Delhi, India
E-mail: [email protected]
Prof. Anita Bhatnagar
Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra,
Haryana, India
E-mail: [email protected]
Dr. Sarita Kumar
Acharya Narendra Dev College
University of Delhi, Delhi, India
E-mail: [email protected]
Dr. M. Suresh Kumar
National Environmental Engineering
Research Institute, Nagpur, India
E-mail: [email protected]
Dr. Richa Kothari
Central University of Jammu, Jammu,
India
E-mail: [email protected]
Dr. Rakesh K. Bhutiani
Gurukula Kangri University, Haridwar,
Uttarakhand, India
E-mail: [email protected]
Dr. Ajendra Kumar
Gurukula Kangri University, Haridwar,
Uttarakhand, India
E-mail: [email protected]
Dr. Chakresh Pathak
India Glycols Limited, Kashipur,
India
E-mail: [email protected]
Prof. E. R Orhue
University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria
E-mail: [email protected]
Prof. S. B. Zade
RTM Nagpur University, Nagpur,
India
E-mail: [email protected]
Prof. Jaswant Singh
Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Awadh
University Faizabad, India
E-mail: [email protected]
Dr. Neeraj Vij
Vij Biotech LLC, Baltimore,
USA
E-mail: [email protected]
Dr. T. K. Ghosh
Ultra-Tech (Environmental Consultancy & Laboratory), Pune, Maharashtra,
India E-mail: [email protected]
Prof. A. M. Saxena
Lucknow University, Lucknow, India E-mail: [email protected]
Prof. Rajkumar Rampal
Jammu University, Jammu (J&K), India E-mail: [email protected]
Dr. Mohammad Firoz Alam
Jazan University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
E-mail: [email protected]
Prof. A. K. Dobriyal H N B Garhwal University, Srinagar-
Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India
E-mail: [email protected]
Dr. Vinay Kumar Tyagi
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India
E-mail: [email protected]
Dr. Vinod Kumar Gurukula Kangri University, Haridwar,
Uttarakhand, India
E-mail: [email protected] Dr. Arun Sharma
Enviro Analytical Laboratories,
Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India
E-mail: [email protected]
Editor-in-Chief
Prof. A. K. Chopra (Retd.) Department of Zoology and Environmental Science
Gurukula Kangri University, Haridwar-249404 (Uttarakhand), India
E-mail: [email protected]
Journal of Applied and Natural Science (An International Research Journal) (Abbreviation: J. Appl. & Nat. Sci.) Special issue : Multi-dimensional Approaches in Transforming Agriculture
Aims & Objectives: The journal is an official publication of Applied and Natural Science Foundation. Its goal is to publish scientific research views in the field of agriculture, biological and environmental sciences to pro-mote speedy propagation of quality research information.
Periodicity: Four issues in a year (March, June, September and December)
Volume 13 Special Issue (SI) July 2021 ISSN 0974-9411 (Print) ISSN 2231-5209 (Online)
Online Publication: An online publication of this journal is available at journal.ansfoundation.org
Guest Editor
Dr. J. S. Kennedy
Dean, School of Post Graduate Studies
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
Coimbatore – 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
E-mail: [email protected]
*Disclaimer: Though we try our best to get indexed/abstracted/enlisted in the above repositories, we cannot guarantee the inclusion of every published paper in the journal on respective websites. It is the author/
institute/subscriber's responsibility to check and verify with the respective databases for the latest inclusion status and their policies before submission. Thank you for your understanding.
All rights reserved © 2021 Applied and Natural Science Foundation
We follow the open access policy and license our content under Creative Commons license: Attribution- Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY– NC 4.0)
An official publication of Applied and Natural Science Foundation
Haridwar-249407 (Uttarakhand), India ansfoundation.org
Prachi Chopra Collin College
, U.S.A. E-mail: [email protected]
Scopus, Netherlands,
UGC-CARE List Group II, India
Google Scholar
NAAS Rating: 4.84
Chemical Abstract Services, USA
J Gate, India
Indian Science Abstracts, India
Ulrichs - Web Serial Solutions, USA
EBSCO: Academic Research
Ultimate Database, USA
Centre for Agriculture and Biosciences International (CABI) Abstracts/Global Health, UK
Open Archives: OAI-PMH Registered Data Provider, USA
PKP Index, Canada
World Cat, USA
Microsoft Academic
Dimensions- Digitial Science, UK
CORE, UK
BASE (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine)
AGRIS Database, FAO (United Nations)
Scilit, Switzerland
Index Copernicus (ICV: 100), Poland
Crossref
Indexed/Abstracted/Enlisted*
Note I) The payments would be accepted online. For details, please refer to: journals.ansfoundation.org II) All correspondence should be addressed to [email protected]
Information of MS processing fee/Subscription fee
Processing fee/Membership/Subscription Within India Outside India
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Administrative fee R 6000.00 US $ 175.00
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Dr. Pushpendra Pal Singh Academy for Educational and Sustainable Development Society, Bareilly, India E-mail: [email protected] Dr. Tushar Arora Applied and Natural Science foundation, Haridwar, India E-mail: [email protected]
Dr. Anand Mishra Integral University, Lucknow, India E-mail: [email protected] Dr. Jogendra Singh Gurukula Kangri University, Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India E-mail: [email protected]
Editorial Secretaries
Publication Manager/Managing Editor
*Fellow of Applied and Natural Science Foundation (FANSF): We consider for the award/conferment of the highly prestigious FANSF to scientists, researchers and academicians who are life members and have shown significant zeal and enthusiasm; and have made remarkable contribution to the scientific community.
19th July, 2021
EDITOR’S MESSAGE
Indian agriculture always provides lot of interwoven challenges to the growing farming community. Farmers
today face a complicated host of environmental, social and economic pressures: protecting water and air re-
sources, mitigating greenhouse gases, conserving biodiversity and limiting soil erosion, all while trying to
make a living. These challenges are linked, yet most agricultural research of the last 80 years has approached
them from a reductionist standpoint. To build truly sustainable farming systems, agricultural research must
embrace through multidimensional approaches. Multidimensional approaches for Agriculture outlines both the
theory and practice of agricultural systems research, helping agricultural professionals to study, understand
and develop economically, socially and environmentally sustainable production systems.
The School of Post Graduate Studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India organized the 6th
Agricultural Graduate Students Conference (AGSC) 2020 during May 28-29, 2020 by online mode for the first
time on "Multi-dimensional Approaches in Transforming Agriculture", with a key focus essentially on eight in-
terdisciplinary themes such as Crop Productivity Enhancement: Integrating Breeding and Crop Management,
Environmental Impacts on Food Security, Preserving and Protecting Natural Resources, Social Dimensions in
Improving Crop Productivity, Innovations in Agricultural and Biosystem Engineering, Approaches in Agricultur-
al Biotechnology and Nanotechnology, Protective Cultivation and Vertical Farming and Nutraceuticals in Rural
Health Improvement to offer solutions for transforming Agriculture.
The corona pandemic did not deter the students and faculties to organize this mega event in which 258 ex-
tended abstracts were accepted for oral and poster presentations under 8 theme areas, and further they were
also published in Conference Proceedings with ISBN. This conference served as a unique platform and of-
fered a stimulating venue for student research exchange and provided opportunity to broaden their social and
scientific network. Considering its importance, Dr. N. Kumar, Vice-Chancellor, TNAU Coimbatore presided
over the inaugural session and Dr. R.C. Agrawal, DDG (Education), ICAR provided his special keynote ad-
dress. Seventeen invited speakers remotely participated from different parts of the world like USA, Italy, Cana-
da, Australia and West Indies.
The technical committee comprising of subject experts identified 30 original research articles in Agricultural
Sciences as exceptionally sound and suggested publishing them in a journal of good standings so as to en-
courage the students who have undertaken outstanding research work. Consequently, the Applied and Natu-
ral Science Foundation, Uttarakhand, India, publisher of Journal of Applied and Natural Science indexed in
various databases accepted the proposal and expressed interest to publish the selected articles in JANS as a
Special Issue.
As a Guest Editor of this Special Issue, I profusely wish to thank and appreciate our Editorial Team Members
Dr. N.O. Gopal, Dr. M. Raveendran, Er. G. Vanitha, Dr. S.K. Rajkishore and Dr. R. Prabhu for their meticulous
efforts in bringing out this publication. We the editors feel that this compendium of student research articles
will enlighten the young farm minds for better tomorrow in Indian Agriculture.
Dr. J. S. Kennedy
Guest Editor
About the Journal i
Guidelines for Authors ii
Policies
Policy of Submission and/or Publication iv
Peer Review Policy v
Policy of Assured Publication on Submission v
Policy of Ethics vi
Policy to Check Plagiarism x
Post Publication Retraction Policy x
Research papers/Review articles/Short communications
Assessment of variability and association for seed yield and yield attributing traits 1 among the interspecific derivatives of greengram x blackgram cross S. Ragul, N. Manivannan and A. Mahalingam
Relationship between physiological traits and yield of rice (Oryza sativa L.) under modified 9
system of rice intensification
S. Mohan Kumar and N. Thavaprakaash
Standardization of seed ball media for fodder sorghum to increase green cover and fodder 18
availability in degraded lands
C. Tamilarasan, R. Jerlin and K. Raja
Influence of elevated carbon dioxide concentrations on methane emission and 26
its associated soil microflora in rice ecosystem
S. K. Rajkishore, M. Maheswari, K. S. Subramanian, R. Prabhu and G. Vanitha Characterization of substrates of growing media by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) 35
spectroscopy for containerized crop production
N. Elakiya and K. Arulmozhiselvan
India rice export and virtual water trade 43
Uma Gowri M. and Shivakumar K. M.
Development of a picking and dropping mechanism for protray grown vegetable seedlings 47
Vivek Periasamy, Duraisamy and Kavitha
Fabrication and performance evaluation of vertical farming structures 55
Shaheemath Suhara K K and Priya G Nair
Effect of okra plant resistance on transmission rate of okra enation leaf curl virus by its 63
vector whitefly, Bemisia tabaci
E. Pasupathi, M. Murugan, C. Chinniah, J. Ramalingam, G. Karthikeyan and S. Harish
Evaluation of physiochemical characteristics of fresh and osmotic dehydrated fig 69
(Ficus carica L.)
Pandidurai G., Vennila P. and Amutha S.
Draft measurement of five tyne duck foot plough in clay soil 73 G. Manikandan, B. Shridar and D. Manohar Jesudas
G. Tamil Amutham, R. Karthikeyan, N. Thavaprakaash and C. Bharathi
Radicle emergence test as a quick vigour test to predict field emergence 86
performance in rice (Oryza sativa L.) seed lots
Chinnasamy G P, Sundareswaran S, Renganayaki P R and Vetrivel M
Content
Volume 13 Special Issue (SI) July 2021 ISSN 0974-9411 (Print) ISSN 2231-5209 (Online)
Journal of Applied and Natural Science
Special issue : Multi-dimensional Approaches in Transforming Agriculture
Yield and quality improvement in Bt cotton through foliar application of trifloxystrobin 94
and tebuconazole
G. Karuppusamy, C. N. Chandrasekhar, P. Jeyakumar and M. Gunasekaran
Life cycle and morphometry of Rugose spiraling whitefly, Aleyrodicus rugioperculatus 100
Martin (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) on coconut
Saranya M., Kennedy J.S., Jeyarani S., Anandham R. and Bharathi N.
Analysis on knowledge level of recommended plant protection technologies in areca 105
nut (Areca catechu) cultivation in Salem district of Tamil Nadu
V. Mohanraj, R. Velusamy, K. Prabakaran and A. Beaulah Determination of active ingredients in commercial insecticides using spectral 110
characteristics of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
B. Asan Mohamed and P. Janaki
Phytochemicals characterization of nutraceutical enriched fruits and nuts spread 124
C. Rohini, P. S. Geetha, R. Vijayalakshmi and M. L. Mini
Performance of cotton genotype TCH 1819 to high density planting system under winter 130
irrigated condition at the Western agroclimatic zone of Tamil Nadu
R. Sowmiya and N. Sakthivel Trained neural network to predict paddy yield for various input parameters in 135
Tamil Nadu, India
G. Vanitha, J. S. Kennedy, R. Prabhu and S. K. Rajkishore
Runoff assessment by Storm water management model (SWMM)- A new approach 142
Vidya K. N.
Synthesis of iron chelates for remediation of iron deficiency in an alkaline and 149
calcareous soil
Murali Subramani, Jawahar Durairaj, Chitdeshwari Thiyagarajan and
Jagadesh Muthumani
Role and performance of Agri-input dealers in extension services in Coimbatore 156
district of Tamil Nadu, India
S. Elakkiya and M. Asokhan
case study of an organic Agripreneur adopting integrated farming system model 162
at Kullagoundenpudur village of Erode district in Tamil Nadu, India
Institutional support for tribal farmer interest groups in Erode district of Tamil Nadu, India 167
Mathuabirami V and Kalaivani S
Development and evaluation of a sesame thresher as influenced by crop, machine 172
and operational parameters
B. Kailashkumar
Development of technology for modified starch incorporated grains and pulse blended 179
bakery and pasta products
M. Ilamaran, R. Sarojinibharathi and J. Selvi A case study of organic protected cultivation at Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu, India 188
Foumy N Rafeeq and Karthikeyan. C
Standardization of protein-enriched cookies made from Tamarind seed flour 194
Farhat Sultana, Vijayalakshmi, Geetha and Mini
Pedogenic characteristics of soil in Melur block, Madurai district, Tamil Nadu in 198
India: A case study
P. Ramamoorthy and P. Christy Nirmala Mary
i
About the Journal ISSN No. 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online) Name: Journal of Applied and Natural Science Periodicity: Four issues in a year (March, June, September and December) Publication: Applied and Natural Science Foundation, Haridwar - 249407 (Uttarakhand), INDIA
Journal of Applied and Natural Science is a quarterly journal with issues in March, June, September and
December. JANS is a peer-reviewed international research journal for publication of original research papers/
reviews/short communications in the field of agriculture, biological, environmental sciences and any other re-
lated field. The journal is Scopus Indexed and in UGC CARE List Group II, at parity with
other International Journals. The aim of the journal is to provide a medium for speedy propagation of quality
research information.
The original research papers/reviews/short communications related to the field of Applied and Natural
Sciences would be submitted online on www.journals.ansfoundation.org
The research papers should be in English in Arial (font size 12, space 1.5). Authors should provide the names
of three referees along with the manuscript. Submission of the paper implies that the paper/review article has
not been submitted for publication and has not been published elsewhere. The
research papers/review articles/short communications would be accepted after proper reviewing and on the
final recommendation of the Editor-in-Chief. The authors should go through the Guidelines for
Authors and make sure that their submission is in the correct format.
The author shall submit the processing fee once the manuscript number is allotted. On the receipt of
processing fee, MS will come under the review process. On completion of the review process and
depending on the quality of MS, it would be accepted for publication. The decision of Editor-in-Chief would be
final for the acceptance of MS for publication in the journal. On acceptance of the MS,
administrative fee would be charged for publication. It may be noted that the processing fee does not guaran-
tee acceptance of the MS. It will be non-refundable, even if MS is not accepted. The processing fee for Annual
Members will be waived for one MS in the membership year. For any subsequent MS, separate processing
and administrative fee would be charged.
As part of our Go Green initiative, ANSF does not provide hard copies. This helps us fulfil our
environmental commitment to care of the earth for ourselves and generations to come. The charges are to
cover publication and administrative costs. A secured pdf file of the published research paper/review article
would be provided free of cost by e-mail to the corresponding author. Authors will be able to view the manu-
script of the journal on the website.
A. K. Chopra
Editor-In-Chief
ii
Guidelines for Authors
Title page: The Title page of the manuscript (MS) should contain short, specific and informative Title, Authors
names and their full addresses, Name of the corresponding author, E-mail id, Abstract of not more than 250
words, Keywords of not more than five words.
Consecutive pages: The title page should be followed by the page containing Title, Abstract, Keywords
followed by Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion or Results and Discussion
combined, Conclusion, Acknowledgements (if any), Conflict of interest and References. DOI no. of all the
References (wherever possible/available) should also be mentioned. All the tables/figures/histograms/ photo-
graphs should be consecutively numbered with a brief caption below and should be in separate files or on
separate pages. The illustrations should be of good quality. All references cited in the text should be listed at
the end of the manuscript alphabetically in the following style:
REFERENCE CITATIONS IN TEXT
For single author
Cite last name every time the reference appears in the text. For example: (Chopra, 2019) or Chopra (2019)
For two authors
Cite both names every time the reference appears in the text. For example: (Chopra and Sharma, 2019) or
Chopra and Sharma (2019)
For more than two authors
Cite the last name followed by et al. in italic. For example: (Chopra et al., 2019) or Chopra et al. (2019)
No author
If there is a title of a book, periodical, brochure or report, it should be italicised. For example: (A guide to
citation, 2017).
Citing authors with multiple works from one year
Cite the multiple works with a, b, c and so on. Assign these letters within the reference list also, which is
sorted alphabetically by the surname of the first author. For example: (Chopra, 2017a,b,c) or Chopra,
(2017a,b,c)
If these works are by the same author, cite the surname once followed by the years in chronological order.
For example: (Sharma, 2007, 2013, 2017) or Sharma (2007, 2013, 2017)
Citing a group or organisation
Cite the full name of the group. For example: (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2017) or Food and
Agriculture Organization (2017)
REFERENCES IN THE REFERENCE LIST
For paper
Dagar, V. & Kumar, S. (2018). Emamectin benzoate: Potential larvicide and antifeedant agent against cotton
Boll worm Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Journal of Applied and Natural
Science, 10(2), 564-571. doi.org/10.31018/jans.v10i2.1738
For book
Srivastava, M., Srivastava, N. & Singh, R. (2021). Bioenergy Research: Revisiting Latest Development.
Springer, Singapore
Society, association, or institution as author and publisher
American Public Health Association (2017). Standard methods for examination of water and waste water.23th
Ed.Washington DC, USA.
Chapter, essay, or article by author in a book or encyclopedia edited by another
Kumar, Vinod & Chopra, A.K. (2013). Contamination of heavy metals in vegetables irrigated with textile
effluent at Haridwar (Uttarakhand) In: Climate Change Effects on Agriculture and Economy (pp 73-80).
iii
Biotech Books, New Delhi
For webpage
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2021). Water treatment .Centers for Disease Control and Pre-
vention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases (NCEZID), Division of Foodborne,
Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases (DFWED). Retrieved March 3, 2021, https://www.cdc.gov/
healthywater/drinking/public/water_treatment.html
Annual report
United States Department of Agriculture (2016). World Rice Production, Consumption, and Stocks. United
States Department of Agriculture. Foreign Agricultural Service. Retrieved from http://apps.fas.usda.gov/
psdonline/psdHome.aspx)
Submission and publication
Manuscripts should be submitted online as a Microsoft Word file in a Single-column format at
journals.ansfoundation.org. The research papers should be in English in Arial (font size 12, space 1.5).
Authors should provide the names of three referees along with the manuscript.
Submission of the paper implies that the paper/review article/short communication has not been submitted for
publication and has not been published elsewhere. The research papers/review articles/short communications
would be accepted after proper reviewing and on the final recommendation of the Editor-in-Chief.
The author shall submit the processing fee once the manuscript number is allotted. On the receipt of
processing fee of Rs. 1500/- (From India) / US $ 25 (Outside India), MS will come under the review
process. On completion of the review process and depending on the quality of MS, it would be accepted for
publication. The decision of Editor-in-Chief would be final for the acceptance of MS for publication in the
journal. On acceptance of the MS, administrative fee would be charged for publication. It may be
noted that the processing fee does not guarantee acceptance of the MS. It will be non-refundable, even if MS
is not accepted. There would be an administrative fee of Rs. 6000 (From India) / US $ 150 (Outside India) up
to 10 print pages of the journal and there-after Rs. 500/- (From India)/ US $ 20 (Outside India) for additional
each print page, will be charged for publication of the MS For any subsequent MS, separate processing and
an administrative fee would be charged.
Proofs : Galley proofs will be sent to the corresponding author and should be returned within five days of
receipt by e-mail. However, on non-receipt of the proof, the care would be taken by the publisher to get the
papers corrected and published at the earliest possible.
As part of our Go Green initiative, ANSF does not provide hard copies. This helps us fulfil our
environmental commitment to care of the earth for ourselves and generations to come. A secured pdf file of
the published research paper/review article would be provided free of cost by e-mail to the
corresponding author. Authors will be able to view the manuscript on the journal’s website.
Other contributions
The book reviews/announcements of forthcoming seminars/conferences and their reports/ book reviews/
letters to the editors would also be considered by the Editors for publication with the approval of
Editor-in -Chief.
Fellow of Applied and Natural Science Foundation (FANSF) We consider for the award/conferment of the highly prestigious FANSF to scientists, researchers and
academicians who are life members and have shown significant zeal and enthusiasm; and have made
remarkable contribution to the scientific community. The fellow retains the title once conferred. Please see that
we only consider our life members for the fellow. Therefore, the life members who are interested, are request-
ed to send their resume to [email protected] for consideration.
iv
Policy of submission and/or publication
As part of the submission process, authors are required to check off their submission's compliance
with all of the following items, and submissions may be returned to authors that do not adhere to
these guidelines.
• The corresponding author, has read and followed the author(s) guidelines and publication ethics and best
practice guidelines of the Journal of Applied and Natural Science (JANS).
• The author ensures that the content of Manuscript is original. The Manuscript, or substantial part of it, is
not under consideration by any other journal. It implies that the work described has not been published
previously (except in the form of an abstract or as part of a published lecture or academic thesis) and its
publication is approved by all authors. The text, illustrations, and any other materials included in the
Manuscript do not violate upon any existing copyright or the other rights of anyone.
• The corresponding author certifies the accuracy of content given to the journal, in particular, the names of
coauthors present and correctly spelled, and that addresses and affiliations are up to date. The
corresponding author ensures that all the coauthors have agreed to all of the contents and will notify all the
authors when the Manuscript is accepted. The corresponding author is answerable to all the inquiries on
behalf of all the co-authors. The corresponding author ensures that all authors have seen and approved
the final version of the paper and all are aware of the submission of the paper.
• The corresponding author is solely responsible for maintaining proper communication with the journal and
between co-authors, before and after publication. The corresponding author ensures that all authors have
seen and approved the final version of the paper and all are aware of the submission of the paper.
• The corresponding authors certify that the authors of the Manuscript have no commercial associations
(e.g., consultancies, stock ownership, equity interests, patent licensing arrangements, etc.) that might pose
a conflict of interest in connection with the submitted Manuscript, except as disclosed on a separate
attachment. All funding sources supporting the work and all institutional or corporate affiliations of mine/
ours are acknowledged in a footnote.
• The corresponding author has taken the permission of concerned Animal Ethics Committee for the conduct
of the research using animals and/or involving human participants (if applicable).
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review and revision process, if the paper is accepted for publication then administrative charges are requested
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v
Peer Review Policy
Peer Review Procedure
Journal of Applied and Natural Science follows the Double-Blind peer review policy starting from March 2019.
All articles reviewed earlier were done under the Single-Blind policy.
As per the double-blind policy, the identity of authors is not known to the reviewers and vice-versa. To ensure
that no author information is shared with the reviewer’s, our editorial team does an initial assessment of the
manuscript to make sure that all the author details are removed from the manuscript before sending the same
to reviewers.
We believe this will further help the peer-review process by reducing the chances of bias. We expect our
reviewers not to discriminate and make decisions that may be based on the origins of the manuscript,
including the nationality, ethnicity, political beliefs, race, or religion of the authors. The review should also not
be affected by a potential conflict of interest with the authors.
Total anonymity, (though not guaranteed) encourages non-discriminatory and healthy peer-review.
Policy of Assured publication on submission
We do not assure publication. The manuscript is not published unless the author has revised and addressed
all the concerns and suggestions given by reviewers and editorial board.
vi
Ethics Policy
Publication Ethics and Best Practices For Authors
The authors should review the Author Guidelines and adhere to the following publication ethics and best
practices. Authors need to register with the journal prior to submitting or, if already registered, can simply log
in and begin the five-step process. The format of a sample paper can be downloaded from this link:
Sample Paper
Journal of Applied and Natural Sciences (JANS) publishes high quality, innovative, original and significant
works. The journal tries its best to reinforce transparency, confidentiality and help scientists to fulfill their
responsibilities as authors and reviewers.
Note: The ethics statement of the Journal of Applied and Natural Sciences is based on the Committee on
Publication Ethics (COPE) and US Copyright Law: Title 17.
Authorship:
The authorship credit should be limited to those who have made a significant contribution to the conception,
and design, or acquisition, execution, and interpretation of data; drafting the article or revising it critically for
the important intellectual content of the reported study. All those who have made significant contributions like
above should be recognized as co-authors.
Corresponding author- The “corresponding author” means the person who handles correspondence regarding
a paper. The corresponding/submitting author is solely responsible for maintaining proper communication with
the journal and between co-authors, before and after publication.
Before submission, it is the liability of the corresponding author that he/she should ensure that all authors are
included in the author list and that all authors have seen and approved the final version of the paper and all
are aware of the submission of the paper.
The corresponding author is responsible for the accuracy of content given to the journal, in particular, the
names of coauthors are present and correctly spelled, and that addresses and affiliations are up to date. This
author is answerable to all the inquiries and also to ensure that those are answered promptly on behalf of all
the co-authors. The name and e-mail address of this author (corresponding authors may be more than one
considering the case of large collaborations) is published in the paper.
Submission to the JANS is taken by the journal to mean that all the listed authors have agreed on all of the
contents. Corresponding authors are expected to have notified all authors when the manuscript is accepted.
They are the point of contact with the editor and they must communicate any matters that arise after
publication to their coauthors and to ensure such matters are dealt with promptly keeping consent from all the
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Assessment of variability and association for seed yield and yield
attributing traits among the interspecific derivatives of greengram x
blackgram cross
S. Ragul
National Pulses Research Centre, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Vamban - 622303
(Tamil Nadu), India
N. Manivannan*
National Pulses Research Centre, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Vamban - 622303
(Tamil Nadu), India
A. Mahalingam
Regional Research Station, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Virudhachalam - 606001
(Tamil Nadu), India
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2770
Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: April 17, 2021
Accepted: May 8, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
Pulses are the principal source of dietary protein
among vegetarians. It is an integral part of a human’s
daily diet because of its high protein content and good
amino-acid balance. The combined balanced amino
acid composition of cereals and protein blend match
with the milk protein. Hence the pulses are often called
lifeline of human beings. Among the pulses greengram
[Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek] is one of the most important
pulse crops of South East Asian countries where is
grown under varying climatic conditions extensively and
it is consumed as dry seed and fresh green pods
(Karuppanapandian et al., 2006). It is rich in essential
amino acids especially lysine, which is deficient in most
of the cereal grains. In India, greengram is being culti-
vated in an area of 4.26 million hectares with an annual
production and productivity of 2.01 million tones and
472 kg/ha respectively (Anonymous, 2019). Both biotic
and abiotic stresses constraints the legume production.
Among them diseases due to viruses are one of the
major biotic causes of losses to production in the
Southern Asia (Ilyas et al., 2009). It causes severe
yield loss and a reduction in seed quality as well. A
Abstract
The present investigation was carried out with 24 progenies in F4 generation of interspecific cross derivatives of Vigna radiata
cv. VBN(Gg)2 x Vigna mungo cv. Mash 114 to study the variability and association among the yield and the yield component
traits. A set of 24 F4 progenies from the interspecific cross between greengram (VBN(Gg)2) and blackgram (Mash 114) formed
the basic genetic material for the present investigation. Variability studies recorded high Phenotypic Coefficient of Variation
(PCV) and Genotypic Coefficient of Variation (GCV) for the traits viz., number of branches/ plant, number of clusters/ plant,
number of pods/ plant and seed yield /plant. High heritability (h2) along with high genetic advance as per cent of mean (GAM)
were recorded for the traits, plant height, number of clusters/ plant, number of pods/ plant and seed yield/ plant. Association
studies revealed that the trait number of pods/ plant alone recorded high direct positive effect on seed yield/ plant. The results
indicated that high magnitude of variability was present among the interspecific progenies for these traits. The high heritability
and genetic advance might be due to presence of additive gene action. Hence selection based on these traits might be effective
for genetic improvement among the interspecific progenies of Vigna radiata x Vigna mungo. The study indicates that the trait,
number of pods / plant should be given due importance in selection programme for seed yield improvement in the interspecific
progenies of greengram and blackgram.
Keywords: Association, Interspecific hybridization, Variability, Vigna, Yield traits
How to Cite
Ragul, S. et al. (2021). Assessment of variability and association for seed yield and yield attributing traits among the
interspecific derivatives of greengram x blackgram cross. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 13 (SI), 1 - 8. https://
doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2770
2
Ragul, S. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 1 - 8 (2021)
large number of improved varieties have been devel-
oped through different breeding methods viz., pure line
selection and hybridization utilizing intraspecific diversi-
ty. This has inadvertently led to narrow down the genet-
ic base of released varieties. This indicates that imme-
diate steps should be taken up for broadening the ge-
netic base of greengram and to meet the future needs
of the growing population. This could be achieved by
reorientation of breeding strategies, coupled with thrust
on interspecific hybridization.
Interspecific hybridization is one of the important tools
for genetic enhancement and improvement of the crop
plants. Also, to develop any interspecific lines, variabil-
ity is very essential for the utilization and to critically
evaluate them for better exploitation. The interspecific
material obtained can be an genetic reservoir for novel
genes to widen the genetic base of any crop apart from
contributing to yield and its components (Pandiyan et
al., 2010; Ragul et al., 2021). Various reports indicate
that many related species of Vigna has desirable traits
that can be utilized for greengram improvement pro-
gramme. However, most of these related species re-
main un-utilized due to complications such as crossing
barriers and linkage drag. Black gram possess non-
shattering pods with synchronous maturity, more num-
ber of clusters / plant, pods with bold seeds and com-
paratively more resistance to Mung bean Yellow Mosaic
Virus (MYMV) disease, which can be transferred to
greengram via. wide hybridization.
An estimate of extent of variability available in segregat-
ing population could be of immense value to the breed-
er to design efficient breeding procedure for crop im-
provement. Hence, the success of any breeding pro-
gram depends on the nature, magnitude of genetic vari-
ability and the extent of association between various
yield-contributing characters. Further, genetic improve-
ment of quantitative traits can be achieved through a
clear understanding of nature and amount of variability
present in the breeding material and the extent to which
desirable traits are heritable. Therefore, information on
genetic parameters such as variance, coefficient of vari-
ation and heritability of desirable traits will help the
breeder to evolve superior cultivars (Bello et al., 2012).
Yield is the most important and complex trait governed
by polygenes and influenced by many physiological
processes within the plant as well as by the environ-
mental factors. Selection based on yield performance
may provide biased conclusions. The extent and nature
of association between yield and its components traits
assume special significance and help breeders to as-
certain the real components of yield and effective basis
of phenotypic selection (Rao et al., 2006). The path
coefficient analysis elucidates nature of association
prevailed between yield and its attributes. It also re-
veals the magnitude of contribution made by different
plant traits towards yield, thereby imparting confidence
in selection of important yield attributes (Singh and
Singh, 1998). Path coefficient analysis provides an ef-
fective means of finding out direct and indirect causes
of association. So, correlation coefficient aided by path
coefficient is a powerful tool to study the character as-
sociation. Hence the present study was focused on
assessing the extent of variation and association for the
yield and yield attributing traits among the interspecific
derivatives of greengram and blackgram.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A set of 24 F4 progenies from the interspecific cross
between greengram (VBN(Gg)2) and black gram (Mash
114) formed the basic genetic material for the present
investigation. The experiment was conducted at Nation-
al Pulses Research center (NPRC), Tamil Nadu Agri-
cultural University, Vamban during Kharif 2017. All the
24 interspecific progenies were evaluated as per the
standard plant production procedures with standard
spacing of 10 cm (plant to plant) and 30 cm (row to
row) was adopted. Recommended package of practic-
es were followed. Nine quantitative traits viz. plant
height (cm), number of branches / plant, number of
clusters / plant, number of pods / cluster, number of
pods / plant, pod length (cm), number of seeds / pod,
100- seed weight (g) and seed yield / plant (g) were
recorded on each individual plants of 24 F4 progenies.
Various genetic parameters like Phenotypic Coefficient
of Variation (PCV), Genotypic Coefficient of Variation
(GCV), heritability and genetic advance as per cent of
mean (GAM) were evaluated by adopting the methods
given by Johnson et al. (1955). Simple correlation be-
tween seed yield as well as its component traits and
among themselves were worked out as per the proce-
dure suggested by Johnson et al. (1955). Path coeffi-
cient analysis was carried out based on the method
suggested by Dewey and Lu (1959). Data were sub-
jected to statistical analysis viz. correlation and path
analysis was performed as per standard procedures
using software TNAUSTAT statistical package
(Manivannan, 2014).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Variability studies
The progenies in F4 generation obtained from the inter-
specific cross between the parents VBN(Gg)2 and
Mash 114 recorded enormous variations for plant
height (cm), number of branches / plant, number of
clusters / plant, seed lusture and seed yield / plant (g).
The variations are shown in the Fig. 1 & 2. PCV and
GCV are very essential in understanding the nature
and magnitude of variability present in the population
that are due to the genetic and non-genetic cause. As
GCV provides the total amount of heritable portion in
3
Ragul, S. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 1 - 8 (2021)
the total variability, PCV includes the environmental
variability also. All the F4 generation progenies of the
interspecific cross Vigna radiata x Vigna mungo exhibit-
ed higher PCV than the GCV for all the traits under
study (Table 1).
High PCV and GCV values for the plant height were
recorded by the progenies 3-4, 3-5, 3-20, 3-21 and 3-
31. Remaining progenies recorded moderate to low
PCV and GCV. All the progenies in the F4 generation
recorded high PCV and GCV for the trait number of
branches / plant. Likewise, all the progenies recorded
high PCV and GCV for the trait number of clusters /
plant. High PCV and GCV values were recorded by all
the progenies except the progenies (viz., 3-1, 3-13, 3-
14, 3-24, 3-25 and 3-31) for number of pods / cluster.
High PCV along with high GCV values were recorded
by all the progenies for number of pods / plant. High
PCV and GCV values were recorded by the progenies
3-5, 3-22 and 3-31 for the trait pod length. The progeny
3-20 recorded for high PCV and moderate GCV values.
Remaining progenies recorded Low PCV and low GCV
for the trait pod length. High PCV and GCV were rec-
orded by 3-2, 3-4, 3-5, 3-7, 3-11, 3-12, 3-14, 3-19, 3-
20, 3-21, 3-22 and 3-30 for the trait number of seeds /
pod. Remaining progenies exhibited moderate to low
level of PCV and GCV values for the trait number of
seeds / pod. High PCV and GCV values were recorded
by 3-2, 3-3, 3-5, 3-7, 3-9, 3-10, 3-14, 3-19, 3-20, 3-21,
3-22, 3-24, 3-25, 3-28 and 3-31 for 100- seed weight.
High PCV along with moderate GCV were registered
by 3-1, 3-4, 3-12, 3-16 and 3-29 for this trait. High PCV
and GCV were recorded by all progenies for the trait
seed yield / plant, except the progeny 3-20. The proge-
ny 3-20 recorded high PCV and moderate GCV. Simi-
lar results were reported by Yimram et al. (2009).
Among the superior progenies viz., 3-2, 3-3, 3-12, 3-13
and 3-30, all of them recorded high PCV and GCV for
the trait number of branches / plant, number of clus-
ters / plant, number of pods / plant and seed yield /
plant. Progenies 3-2, 3-3, and 3-12 also showed high
to moderate PCV and GCV for plant height, number of
pods / cluster and pod length. Progenies 3-30 also had
high to moderate PCV and GCV for number of pods /
cluster, plant height, and seed yield / plant. The results
emphasis that the progenies of the interspecific cross
had high PCV and GCV values for all the traits studied.
Similar reports of high PCV and GCV among the vari-
ous populations of greengram for all the traits were
Fig. 1. Variation in branching pattern among F4 generation interspecific progenies of greengram and blackgram.
Fig. 2. Variation in seed lusture among F4 generation interspecific progenies of greengram and blackgram.
4
Ragul, S. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 1 - 8 (2021)
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3.2
3 -
12
17
.6
16
.6
10
5.1
9
9.1
6
1.4
5
9.5
4
5.8
3
9.3
8
7.4
8
3.5
1
4.2
1
4.2
2
2.7
2
0.7
2
3.5
1
9.5
9
8.7
9
5.6
3 -
13
17
.6
16
.6
27
.3
21
.1
64
.0
63
.8
20
.5
14
.4
65
.5
65
.2
7.3
7
.1
12
.9
9.0
1
4.0
8
.5
29
.6
29
.4
3 -
14
13
.9
13
.1
56
.0
51
.8
56
.4
55
.4
27
.1
11
.2
56
.3
52
.4
9.2
9
.1
25
.5
23
.5
25
.5
23
.5
96
.1
89
.7
3 -
16
16
.8
16
.0
52
.8
47
.5
63
.0
58
.3
40
.9
23
.1
79
.6
51
.3
12
.0
12
.0
20
.6
17
.9
20
.6
17
.9
89
.7
57
.6
3 -
19
11
.0
9.9
3
1.6
2
8.8
8
2.1
8
1.5
4
1.6
2
6.1
7
8.2
7
4.0
1
9.1
1
9.1
3
3.3
3
1.6
5
1.4
4
2.5
1
20
.7
79
.0
3 -
20
27
.2
26
.6
48
.5
42
.6
85
.7
84
.7
47
.5
33
.8
55
.5
14
.1
20
.0
20
.0
32
.5
30
.6
42
.1
29
.1
54
.6
11
.9
3 -
21
22
.1
21
.6
63
.1
54
.9
60
.0
54
.2
38
.9
23
.7
75
.7
32
.0
13
.5
13
.4
26
.3
23
.8
39
.8
31
.5
11
3.9
4
6.5
3 -
22
13
.1
12
.1
44
.7
36
.4
59
.8
38
.1
80
.0
71
.3
10
8.5
4
2.4
2
9.9
2
9.9
4
1.1
3
8.2
3
4.0
2
4.1
1
46
.3
97
.6
3 -
24
17
.8
17
.1
44
.8
32
.3
37
.7
23
.7
31
.6
16
.6
67
.4
27
.7
12
.7
12
.6
14
.9
8.8
4
7.4
4
0.8
7
8.6
2
8.4
3 -
25
12
.6
11
.3
41
.7
36
.4
60
.0
54
.2
35
.5
13
.8
85
.1
17
.0
6.2
6
.0
14
.1
7.6
3
9.5
3
5.5
8
1.6
4
5.5
3 -
28
13
.3
11
.9
55
.8
52
.3
43
.3
38
.0
40
.9
28
.7
59
.1
30
.3
17
.3
17
.3
15
.1
8.7
3
6.7
2
4.0
1
42
.1
42
.9
3 -
29
18
.9
18
.1
55
.9
45
.6
58
.1
54
.0
63
.4
56
.4
76
.2
60
.4
14
.0
14
.0
15
.9
12
.4
23
.8
18
.2
92
.5
81
.4
3 -
30
16
.1
15
.0
62
.3
53
.5
83
.8
82
.1
45
.1
31
.9
10
2.1
9
4.9
1
4.8
1
4.7
2
8.8
2
6.8
1
6.8
1
5.2
1
35
.3
13
1.1
3 -
31
31
.1
30
.3
44
.7
39
.6
82
.5
81
.7
35
.4
20
.0
11
2.2
1
09
.9
20
.8
20
.7
14
.9
8.8
3
9.8
3
6.0
1
24
.0
12
1.5
Ta
ble
1.
Ph
en
oty
pic
and
ge
noty
pic
co
effic
ien
t o
f va
riatio
n (
%)
for
va
riou
s t
raits a
mo
ng t
he F
4 g
en
era
tion
inte
rsp
ecific
pro
ge
nie
s.
PC
V: P
henoty
pic
Coeff
icie
nt of V
aria
tio
n; G
CV
: G
enoty
pic
Coeff
icie
nt
of V
ariatio
n
5
Ragul, S. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 1 - 8 (2021)
Tra
its
Pla
nt
he
igh
t (c
m)
No
. o
f b
ran
ch
-e
s /
pla
nt
No
. o
f c
lus
-te
rs /
pla
nt
No
. o
f p
od
s /
c
lus
ters
N
o.
of
po
ds
/
pla
nt
Po
d l
en
gth
(c
m)
No
. o
f s
ee
ds
/ p
od
1
00-
se
ed
w
eig
ht
(g)
Se
ed
yie
ld /
p
lan
t (g
)
Pro
ge
-n
y
h2
(%)
GA
M(%
) h
2 (%
) G
AM
(%)
h2
(%)
GA
M(%
) h
2
(%)
GA
M(%
) h
2
(%)
GA
M(%
) h
2
(%)
GA
M(%
) h
2
(%)
GA
M(%
) h
2(%
) G
AM
(%)
h2(%
) G
AM
(%)
3-1
9
0.8
3
0.1
9
4.4
8
8.1
9
9.2
1
67
.6
37
.0
22
.4
98
.2
19
0.3
9
8.9
2
5.1
4
0.0
9
.9
61
.3
30
.2
99
.6
39
8.6
3 -
2
88
.3
26
.1
67
.1
75
.4
92
.3
12
1.3
5
2.1
4
5.9
8
4.7
1
44
.1
98
.6
24
.4
82
.3
42
.1
81
.8
56
.4
92
.5
20
9.4
3 -
3
87
.4
26
.7
55
.7
67
.9
89
.3
11
9.5
7
0.7
7
1.3
8
0.1
1
43
.9
99
.2
31
.8
72
.5
28
.5
77
.4
58
.0
93
.4
24
9.0
3 -
4
94
.2
40
.8
62
.5
67
.0
95
.7
14
4.0
7
8.9
7
7.2
9
0.8
1
63
.4
99
.4
37
.6
82
.8
44
.5
64
.7
29
.2
94
.3
28
5.7
3 -
5
95
.6
51
.0
86
.5
10
7.7
9
4.4
1
61
.1
49
.3
49
.1
82
.6
18
2.5
9
9.6
5
0.0
8
9.4
6
3.7
7
3.9
5
3.2
6
6.7
2
31
.3
3 -
6
67
.8
13
.1
87
.3
67
.8
98
.2
11
4.2
6
5.3
4
6.6
9
4.6
1
22
.3
98
.7
26
.6
76
.4
32
.4
14
.3
5.8
4
6.0
6
8.5
3 -
7
88
.5
29
.4
74
.3
62
.7
93
.5
12
4.5
7
5.9
8
0.7
8
3.7
1
51
.5
99
.5
38
.2
82
.5
39
.1
78
.2
51
.9
96
.4
30
2.6
3 -
9
81
.6
24
.2
77
.9
53
.2
92
.3
11
4.1
3
9.3
3
6.3
4
0.8
5
6.6
9
9.3
3
5.2
5
7.1
2
1.1
8
0.3
5
3.2
5
5.6
1
34
.7
3 -
10
91
.3
32
.7
78
.7
73
.4
94
.5
14
3.2
7
2.8
7
5.2
8
3.0
1
42
.9
99
.0
29
.5
73
.8
28
.7
74
.5
49
.1
92
.0
24
4.2
3 -
11
79
.2
19
.9
89
.9
90
.9
95
.0
14
5.3
5
5.8
5
3.4
9
6.9
2
85
.5
98
.6
23
.6
81
.8
39
.4
14
.3
5.2
7
4.7
1
30
.2
3 -
12
89
.5
32
.4
89
.0
19
2.6
9
3.9
1
18
.8
73
.6
69
.5
91
.3
16
4.5
1
00
.0
29
.1
83
.7
39
.1
68
.4
33
.2
93
.9
19
0.8
3 -
13
89
.5
32
.4
59
.7
33
.6
99
.5
13
1.1
4
9.3
2
0.8
9
9.3
1
33
.9
94
.7
14
.2
48
.1
12
.8
36
.8
10
.6
98
.8
60
.3
3 -
14
88
.3
25
.3
85
.6
98
.7
96
.5
11
2.2
1
7.1
9
.5
86
.6
10
0.5
9
7.3
1
8.5
8
4.9
4
4.5
8
4.9
4
4.5
8
7.2
1
72
.5
3 -
16
91
.7
31
.6
80
.7
87
.8
85
.6
11
1.1
3
2.0
2
6.9
4
1.5
6
8.0
9
8.8
2
4.5
7
5.5
3
2.0
7
5.5
3
2.0
4
1.2
7
6.1
3 -
19
81
.9
18
.5
83
.1
54
.2
98
.5
16
6.6
3
9.3
3
3.7
8
9.6
1
44
.3
99
.3
39
.2
89
.7
61
.6
68
.4
72
.4
42
.9
10
6.6
3 -
20
95
.5
53
.5
77
.3
77
.2
97
.6
17
2.3
5
0.7
4
9.6
6
.4
7.3
9
9.3
4
1.0
8
8.7
5
9.4
4
7.8
4
1.5
4
.8
5.4
3 -
21
95
.6
43
.5
75
.7
98
.4
81
.5
10
0.7
3
7.0
2
9.7
1
7.8
2
7.8
9
8.5
2
7.3
8
2.2
4
4.5
6
2.5
5
1.3
1
6.7
3
9.1
3 -
22
85
.8
23
.1
66
.3
61
.0
40
.5
49
.9
79
.3
13
0.7
1
5.3
3
4.2
9
9.6
6
1.4
8
6.3
7
3.1
5
0.0
3
5.0
4
4.4
1
34
.0
3 -
24
92
.2
33
.9
51
.8
47
.8
39
.5
30
.7
27
.7
18
.0
16
.9
23
.4
98
.9
25
.9
35
.2
10
.8
73
.9
72
.2
13
.0
21
.1
3 -
25
81
.1
21
.0
76
.3
65
.6
81
.5
10
0.7
1
5.0
1
1.0
4
.0
7.0
9
5.7
1
2.1
2
9.0
8
.4
81
.0
65
.9
31
.0
52
.2
3 -
28
80
.3
21
.9
87
.8
10
1.0
7
7.0
6
8.7
4
9.3
4
1.5
2
6.3
3
2.0
9
9.2
3
5.4
3
3.6
1
0.4
4
2.9
3
2.4
9
.1
26
.6
3 -
29
92
.1
35
.9
66
.7
76
.8
86
.5
10
3.4
7
8.9
1
03
.1
62
.8
98
.6
99
.0
28
.6
60
.9
19
.9
58
.6
28
.8
77
.5
14
7.7
3 -
30
87
.0
28
.9
73
.8
94
.6
95
.8
16
5.5
5
0.0
4
6.4
8
6.5
1
81
.8
98
.9
30
.2
86
.7
51
.5
82
.1
28
.4
93
.8
26
1.6
3 -
31
94
.7
60
.7
78
.4
72
.2
98
.2
16
6.8
3
2.0
2
3.3
9
6.0
2
21
.8
99
.4
42
.6
35
.2
10
.8
81
.8
67
.1
95
.9
24
5.2
Ta
ble
2.
Herita
bili
ty a
nd
gen
etic a
dva
nce
as p
er
ce
nt o
f m
ean
fo
r va
rio
us tra
its a
mo
ng
the
F4 g
en
era
tion
in
ters
pecific
pro
ge
nie
s.
GA
M: G
en
etic a
dva
nce
as p
er
ce
nt
of
me
an
6
Ragul, S. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 1 - 8 (2021)
given by (Suresh et al., 2010; Begum et al., 2013;
Khaimichho et al., 2014 and Ramakrishnan et al., 2018).
High levels of variability were prevalent among the proge-
nies which might be due to interspecific hybridization.
Hence selection need to be carried out for all the traits
among the promising progenies.
Heritability and genetic advance as per cent of mean
are essential for any population to know the magni-
tude of inheritance of traits and helpful in formulating
the selection procedure. Selection based on these
parameters rewards good results in the improvement
for traits due to the presence of additive type of gene
action. High heritability and along with high genetic
advance as per cent of mean was recorded by the
progenies such as 3-6, 3-11 and 3-19 for the trait
plant height given in the Table 2. All the progenies
recorded with high heritability with high genetic ad-
vance as per cent of mean for the trait number of
branches / plant. High heritability with high genetic
advance as per cent of mean for the trait number of
clusters per plant was observed in all the progenies
in the F4 generation except 3-22 and 3-24 which
showed moderate heritability with moderate genetic
advance as per cent of mean.
High heritability along with high genetic advance as
per cent of mean for the trait number of pods / clus-
ter were recorded by the progenies 3-3, 3-4, 3-6, 3-
7, 3-10, 3-12, 3-22 and 3-29. High heritability along
with high genetic advance as per cent of mean for
the traits number of pods / plant were recorded by all
the progenies except 3-9, 3-16, 3-20, 3-21, 3-22, 3-
24, 3-25 and 3-28. High heritability with high genetic
advance as per cent of mean were recorded by all
the progenies for the trait pod length except 3-13, 3-
14 and 3-25. The trait number of seeds / pod record-
ed high heritability with high genetic advance as per
cent of mean for the progenies 3-2, 3-3, 3-4, 3-5, 3-
6, 3-7, 3-10, 3-11, 3-12, 3-14, 3-16, 3-19, 3-20, 3-21
and 3-22. The trait 100- seed weight recorded high
heritability along with high genetic advance as per
cent of mean for the progenies of 3-1, 3-2, 3-3, 3-4,
3-5, 3-7, 3-9, 3-10, 3-12, 3-14, 3-16, 3-19, 3-21, 3-
24, 3-25, 3-30 and 3-31. High heritability with high
genetic advance as per cent of mean for the trait
seed yield / plant were recorded by the all the proge-
nies, except the progenies 3-9, 3-20, 3-22, 3-24, 3-
25 and 3-28.
Among the superior yielding progenies 3-2, 3-3, 3-
12, 3-13 and 3-30, high heritability along with high
genetic advance as per cent of mean was recorded by
all the progenies for the traits plant height, number of
clusters / plant, number of pods / plant and seed yield /
plant. Similar results of high heritability and high genet-
ic advance as percent of mean was recorded in the
various populations of greengram was given by (Katiyar
et al., 2015; Jeberson et al., 2017 and Ramakrishnan
et al., 2018) The progenies 3-2, 3-12 and 3-30 had high
heritability and genetic advance as per cent of mean for
the trait number of branches / plant. Among the superi-
or yielding progenies 3-3 and 3-12 recorded high herit-
ability along with genetic advance as per cent of mean
for the trait number of pods / cluster. For the trait pod
length, number of seeds / pod and 100- seed weight
some of the progenies viz., 3-2, 3-3, 3-12 and 3-30
recorded high heritability along with high genetic ad-
vance as per cent of mean among the superior
Characters Plant height(cm)
No. of. branch-es/ plant
No. of. clusters / plant
No. of. pods /cluster
No. of. pods/ plant
Pod length (cm)
No. of. seeds / pod
100-seed weight (g)
Seed yield/ plant (g)
Plant Height(cm)
1 0.10** 0.19** 0.25** 0.21** 0.08* 0.22** 0.02 0.10*
No. of. Branches / Plant
1 0.44** 0.12** 0.39** 0.07 0.15** 0.00 0.29**
No. of. Clus-ters / Plant
1 0.35** 0.86** 0.05 0.37** 0.03 0.71**
No. of. Pods /Cluster
1 0.55** 0.03 0.34** -0.03 0.39**
No. of. Pods/ Plant
1 0.05 0.38** 0.01 0.81**
Pod Length (cm)
1 0.15** 0.00 0.05
No. of. Seeds / Pod
1 0.07 0.32**
100-seed weight (g)
1 0.02
Seed Yield/ plant (g)
1
Table 3. Simple correlation between single plant yield and yield component traits in the F4 progenies of interspecific
cross Vigna radiata x Vigna mungo.
*Significant at 5%; ** Significant at 1%
7
Ragul, S. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 1 - 8 (2021)
progenies. High heritability in the progenies indicates
that these traits were less influenced by the environ-
mental effects. High heritability with high genetic ad-
vance as per cent of mean showed the presence of
additive gene action. Hence selection can be carried
with greater efficiency in these promising progenies.
Correlation coefficient analysis
Simple correlations coefficients between seed yield /
plant and its component traits and inter relationships
among the different traits are presented in Table 3.
Seed yield / plant expressed significant and positive
association with the traits studied viz., plant height,
number of branches / plant, number of clusters / plant,
number of pods / cluster, number of pods / plant and
number of seeds / pod except pod length and 100-
seed weight. This result was in accordance with the
findings of Marappa (2008) and Kumar et al. (2013)
among various populations of greengram. In the pre-
sent investigation, number of branches / plant had sig-
nificant and positive correlation with number of clus-
ters / plant, number of pods / cluster, number of pods /
plant and number of seeds / pod. This was supported
by Rao et al. (2006). Number of clusters / plant ex-
pressed significant and positive relationship with num-
ber of pods / cluster, number of pods / plant and num-
ber of seeds / pod. Number of pods / cluster had signifi-
cant positive association with number of pods / plant
and number of seeds / pod as in the reports of Singh et
al. (2009). Number of pods / plant expressed significant
positive association with number of seeds / pod alone.
Pod length had significant and positive association with
number of seeds / pod. The estimates of correlation
coefficients revealed only the relationship between
yield components. The association among traits are
may be due to other components. In order to get direct
and indirect effect, path coefficient analysis on seed
yield / plant was carried out. The results are presented
in Table 4. The residual effect (0.37) indicated that
most of the characters were accounted for path
analysis on yield.
Path coefficient analysis
In the present study, path analysis revealed that num-
ber of pods / plant alone depicted high direct effect on
seed yield / plant. All other traits recorded minimum
direct effect on seed yield / plant. Present result is in
accordance with findings of Hakim (2016). These re-
sults clearly showed that major importance needed to
be given for number of pods / plant for the improvement
of greengram through interspecific hybridization. Fur-
ther number of pods / clusters recorded negative direct
effect on seed yield / plant. Based on the results of pre-
sent investigation, it can be concluded that number of
pods / plant alone recorded significant and positive as-
sociation with seed yield / plant. This trait alone record-
ed high direct effect on seed yield / plant. Hence num-
ber of pods / plant can be given top most priority while
framing a selection strategy for the seed yield improve-
ment of interspecific derivatives of Vigna radiata x
Vigna mungo.
Conclusion
The present results demonstrate that wide hybridization
is an important tool in crop improvement. In the present
Characters Plant height(cm)
No. of. branch-es/ plant
No. of. clusters / plant
No. of. pods /clus-ter
No. of. pods/ plant
Pod length (cm)
No. of. seeds / pod
100-seed weight (g)
Simple cor-relation on Seed yield/ plant (g)
Plant Height(cm)
-0.069 -0.005 0.005 -0.019 0.176 0.001 0.007 0.000 0.095*
No. of. Branches / Plant
-0.007 -0.048 0.012 -0.009 0.334 0.001 0.004 0.000 0.287**
No. of. Clus-ters / Plant
-0.013 -0.021 0.027 -0.026 0.734 0.001 0.011 0.000 0.712**
No. of. Pods /Cluster
-0.018 -0.006 0.009 -0.074 0.471 0.000 0.010 -0.000 0.393**
No. of. Pods/ Plant
-0.014 -0.019 0.023 -0.041 0.852 0.001 0.011 0.000 0.812**
Pod Length (cm)
-0.005 -0.003 0.001 -0.002 0.041 0.011 0.005 0.000 0.047
No. of. Seeds / Pod
-0.015 -0.007 0.010 -0.025 0.325 0.002 0.030 0.001 0.320**
100-seed weight (g)
-0.002 -0.000 0.001 0.002 0.008 0.00 0.002 0.008 0.019
Table 4. Path coefficients on seed yield in the F4 progenies of interspecific cross Vigna radiata x Vigna mungo.
Residual effect - 0.37; *Significant at 5%; ** Significant at 1%
8
Ragul, S. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 1 - 8 (2021)
investigation, among the interspecific progenies high
PCV and GCV was identified for all traits studied. And
also high heritability and high genetic advance as per-
cent of mean identified for all the traits studied. Based
on the association studies the most priority has to be
given for the number of pods / plant than the other
traits. Hence selection based on these traits might be
effective for genetic improvement among the interspe-
cific progenies of Vigna radiata x Vigna mungo. The
study indicates that the trait, number of pods/plant
should be given due importance in selection pro-
gramme for seed yield improvement in the interspecific
progenies of greengram and blackgram.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors are acknowledging the help rendered by Mr.
Arul Doss, Agricultural Supervisor, National Pulses
Research Centre, Vamban, Pudukottai, Tamil Nadu, in
the field trials.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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Relationship between physiological traits and yield of rice (Oryza sativa L.)
under modified system of rice intensification
S. Mohan Kumar*
Agro Climate Research Centre, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 641003
(Tamil Nadu), India
N. Thavaprakaash
Department of Agronomy, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 641003
(Tamil Nadu), India
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2771
Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: April 17, 2021
Accepted: May 8, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is India's pre-eminent crop and
the most important edible starchy grain. It is the second
largest cereal cultivated worldwide and staple food for
almost 60 per cent of the global population. Due to the
increased population, the demand for rice is expected
to rise by 38 per cent within 30 years (Satyanarayana,
2005). The per capita availability of paddy in Asia has
decreased from 54.7 kg in 2001 to 53.9 kg in 2019
(FAOSTAT, 2019).
The success of System of Rice Intensification (SRI)
cultivation practices has been shown in over 50 coun-
tries, including the major rice producers in the world
such as China, Vietnam, Cambodia and Philippines
(Katambara et al., 2013) as well as in India (Thakur et
al., 2013). However, due to wider spacing with lesser
plant population per square metre in the SRI method,
forcing the existing plants to produce more tillers.
Hence, Modified SRI (MSRI) is one option in which the
certain modifications are made in any of the principles
or in management practices of SRI using best scientific
knowledge for the benefit of farmers to get maximum
yield and to adapt the local agro-ecological climatic
condition (Thakur et al., 2016). Increasing of production
by way of reducing population, by following all SRI
practices is one such modification which may increase
the number of panicle/m2 and in turn yield of rice.
Physiological parameters like photosynthetic rate,
transpiration rate and stomatal conductance are highly
influenced by planting density and also by climatic fac-
tors. Grain yield in rice is influenced by balance
Abstract
A field experiment was conducted to study influence of high-density planting on physiological parameters and yield of rice dur-
ing late Samba (September-January) season of 2018-19. The treatments comprised of T1 - 25 × 25 cm with 100% Recommend-
ed Dose of Fertilizer (RDF) (SRI), T2 - 25 × 20 cm with 100% RDF, T3 - 25 × 15 cm with 100% RDF, T4 - 25 × 15 cm with 125%
RDF, T5 - 20 × 20 cm with 100% RDF, T6 - 20 × 15 cm with 100% RDF, T7 - 20 × 15 cm with 125% RDF and T8 - Conventional
cultivation with 100% RDF. Physiological parameters were recorded at four critical stages (active tillering, panicle initiation, flow-
ering and maturity stages) of rice. The results revealed that photosynthetic rate (µmol CO2/m2/s), transpiration rate (mmol H2O/
m2/s), stomatal conductance (mol H2O/m2/s) and chlorophyll index were increased in rice planted at a row spacing of 25 cm (T1,
T2 and T3) over other treatments in all the stages. Lower rates were noted in conventional method of planting (T8) followed by T6
and T7. During 0600 hrs and 1000 hrs, closer spacing levels (T5, T6, T7 and T8) had higher leaf temperature, while during later
at 1400 hrs and 1800 hrs, warmer leaf temperature (°C) was noted in wider spacing levels (T1 and T2) during all time of weekly
observation. The grain yield of rice was higher with 20 × 20 cm spacing level compared to other closer and wider spacing levels
with either 100% or 125% RDF. By correlation analysis, all parameter had a significant influence on yield.
Keywords: Chlorophyll index, High density planting, Leaf temperature, Photosynthetic rate, Rice, Stomatal conductance,
Transpiration rate
How to Cite
Mohan Kumar, S. and Thavaprakaash, N. (2021). Relationship between physiological traits and yield of rice (Oryza sativa L.)
under modified system of rice intensification. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 13 (SI), 9 - 17. https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2771
10
Mohan Kumar, S. and Thavaprakaash, N. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 9 - 17 2021)
between respiration and photosynthesis and a key
physiological parameter affected by the planting density
and microclimate (Centritto et al., 2009). Most of the
carbon stored in the mature rice grains originates from
CO2 assimilation during the grain filling period is deter-
mined by the process of CO2 assimilation in rice. Fac-
tors that lower the photosynthesis rate of the flag leaf
during this period could affect the grain yield in rice.
Lesser soil temperature affects the stomatal conduct-
ance and assimilation rate, which affects the plant
growth (Dingkuhn et al., 1989). The photosynthetic rate
is more in rice following SRI method while comparing
with the conventional method of cultivation (Hidayathi et
al., 2016). Since, in rice leaf appearance is controlled
by temperature near the apical meristem and the opti-
mum leaf temperature 2°C lower than the optimum air
temperature affects phenological development (Ellis et
al., 1993).
However, there are limited studies on physiological pa-
rameters under high density condition. Hence, this re-
search was conducted to evaluate the effects of high
density planting on the rice plant's physiological param-
eters, namely photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate,
stomatal conductance, chlorophyll index and leaf tem-
perature of rice in response to high density planting with
SRI principles, comparing these with conventional rice
cultivation methods.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Location
A field investigation was carried out during the late
Samba season of 2018-19 (September 2018 to January
2019) at Wetland farms of the Department of Agrono-
my, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
The experimental site was situated in Semi-arid tropics
of south India. Geographically, Coimbatore Western
Agroclimatic zone at 11°83' N latitude, 76°71' E longi-
tude is with an elevation of 426.7 m above mean sea
level (MSL).
Soil characteristics
The soil of the experimental field was clay loam in tex-
ture with pH and EC of 8.2 and 0.5 dS/m, respectively.
The nutrient status of the soil during the start of the ex-
periment was low in nitrogen (22.68 kg/ha), medium in
phosphorous (19.25 kg/ha) and high in potassium
(571.1 kg/ha) with an organic carbon content of about
12.12 g/kg of soil.
Experimental details
The study was conducted using randomized complete
block design having three replications. The treatments
viz., T1 - 25 × 25 cm + 100% RDF (Recommended dos-
age of fertilizer) (SRI), T2 - 25 × 20 cm + 100% RDF, T3
- 25 × 15 cm + 100% RDF, T4 - 25 × 15 cm + 125%
RDF, T5 - 20 × 20 cm + 100% RDF, T6 -20 × 15 cm +
100% RDF, T7 - 20 × 15 cm + 125% RDF) follows Sys-
tem of rice intensification (SRI) principles and T8 - Con-
ventional cultivation. Latest released rice variety from
TNAU, Rice CO-52 with the field duration of 130-135
days was used in this field experiment.
Crop cultivation practices
Mat nursery was prepared for raising seedlings for T1-
T7 treatments and conventional nursery for convention-
al method of planting (T8). The main field was prepared
by puddling and then, the buds were trimmed and plas-
tered. The layout was taken as per treatment schedule
after levelling the fields using a wooden leveller. The
bunds were formed and seedlings were transplanted at
14 DAS for T1-T7 treatments and 30 DAS for treatment.
Recommended dose of fertilizers (150: 50: 50 kg N:
P2O5: K2O/ha) were applied as urea, single super phos-
phate and muriate of potash to all the plots as per the
treatment. Nitrogen and potassium were given in four
equal split doses at basal, active tillering (50 DAT),
panicle initiation (70 DAT) and flowering stages (100
DAT). A full dosage of phosphorus, 25 per cent of nitro-
gen and potassium were applied as basal prior to trans-
planting. Top dressing of nitrogen was done based on
LCC observations in all plots. Excluding the conven-
tional cultivation plots, weeding operation was done on
15, 25, 35 and 45 DAT using hand operated rotary
weeder in both direction for square planted plots, while
in one direction in all other plots. All other practices
were followed as per Crop Production Guide (2012).
Measurement of physiological parameters
Physiological parameters like photosynthetic rate,
transpiration rate and stomatal conductance were
measured using Portable Photosynthetic System (PPS)
- Model LCi-SD of ADC BioScientific Ltd., Great Am-
well, Hertfordshire, UK. Rice leaf was inserted in a
broad leaf chamber (6.25 cm2) and the leaf area was
set at 3.26 cm2. Using the above PPS system, the ob-
servations were made at active tillering, panicle initia-
tion, flowering and at maturity stages of rice from the
third uppermost leaf at randomly selected five plants
and calculated the mean value for each parameter.
Leaf temperature (°C) was measured on top unfolded
leaves of rice in individual plots using infrared ther-
mometer (Foopro, Raytek, USA). The time of observa-
tions was 0600 hrs, 1000 hrs, 1400 hrs and 1800 hrs
and the observation were made at weekly interval viz.,
41 DAT, 48 DAT, 55 DAT, 62 DAT, 69 DAT, 76 DAT,
83 DAT¸ 90 DAT, 97 DAT, 104 DAT and 111 DAT.
Chlorophyll index was measured with SPAD meter
(Model 502, Spectrum Technologies, Inc.). The read-
ings were taken in the third uppermost leaf from ran-
domly selected five plants and calculated the mean
value at active tillering, panicle initiation, flowering and
11
Mohan Kumar, S. and Thavaprakaash, N. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 9 - 17 2021)
maturity stages.
Measurement of grain yield
The crop was harvested upon harvesting stage. The
border rows in the plots were removed from the field.
The net plot was then harvested, hand threshed, sun
dried and weighed and allowed to 14 per cent moisture
content. The grain yield was converted to kg/ha.
Statistical analysis
The data collected from field experiment at different
growth stages were statistically analysed for Least
Square Difference (LSD) at 5 per cent probability level
as described by Gomez and Gomez (2010). The corre-
lation analysis was done using R studio programming
with statistical packages (RStudio, 2015).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effect of high density planting on photosynthetic
rate of rice
The photosynthetic rate was altered significantly during
each growth stages of rice under high density planting
are presented in Table 1.
At the active tillering stage, significantly (at 5% level)
higher photosynthetic rate (24.6 µmol CO2/m2/s) was
noted in plant spacing level of 25 × 25 cm with 100%
RDF (T1) compared to all other treatments under test-
ing but, it was on par with planting spacing of 25 × 20
cm with 100% RDF (24.3 µmol CO2/m2/s). A significant-
ly lesser photosynthetic rate (21.8 µmol CO2/m2/s) was
recorded in the conventional method of planting (T8).
Similarly, at the panicle initiation stage, the plant with a
spacing of 25 × 25 cm with 100% RDF (T1) registered
significantly higher photosynthetic values (28.3 µmol
CO2/m2/s) compared to other treatments. The least
values on photosynthetic rate (23.6 µmol CO2/m2/s)
was recorded in conventional method of planting (T8).
At flowering and maturity stages also, the same trend
was noticed. By correlation analysis, photosynthetic
rate is positively correlated with yield but not signifi-
cantly. By regression fit analysis, a close relationship
was observed between photosynthetic rate and ob-
served chlorophyll index (Fig. 1). The photosynthetic
rate depends upon the plant canopy structure which
influences the amount of light profile absorbed by the
leaf (Weiss et al., 2004). Hence, higher photosynthetic
rate in lower planting density was due to wider canopy
structure and angle, broadly spreaded tillers and erect
leaves, which reduced the self-shading to bottom leaf
and mutual shading of leaves and enhanced better
light utilization by the canopy (Hidayati et al., 2016).
However, the photosynthetic rate is also depends on
light energy absorbed by the chlorophyll (Maxwell and
Johnson, 2000). Chlorophyll content is closely related
to photosynthetic rate, because it provides the photo-
synthetic apparatus which allows plants to absorb en-
ergy from light and transfer it to the chlorophyll (Porra
et al., 1993). With a higher amount of chlorophyll in the
leaves, a higher photosynthesis rate can be maintained
(Kura-Hotta et al., 1987). From this study also, higher
chlorophyll index was noticed in wider spacing
compared to denser plant spacing. Lower photosyn-
thetic rate was noted in denser plant spacing, was
mainly due to the production of narrow leaves that
reduces the sunlight absorption by leaves led to
Treatments
Photosynthetic rate (μmol CO2/m
2/s) Transpiration rate (mmol H2O/m2/s)
Stomatal conductance (mol H2O/m2/s)
AT PI FL MT AT PI FL MT AT PI FL MT
T1 24.63 28.30 34.73 18.33 7.55 7.90 9.64 6.37 0.173 0.192 0.307 0.143
T2 24.33 26.17 34.00 17.23 7.53 7.66 9.50 6.13 0.167 0.189 0.301 0.144
T3 23.10 25.63 32.53 16.90 7.49 7.56 9.45 5.63 0.165 0.187 0.294 0.137
T4 23.13 25.77 32.83 16.73 7.41 7.66 9.38 5.87 0.167 0.186 0.299 0.137
T5 22.17 25.13 32.57 16.47 6.63 7.59 9.28 5.60 0.150 0.173 0.289 0.130
T6 22.77 24.73 31.80 16.83 6.84 7.51 8.79 5.57 0.150 0.168 0.280 0.127
T7 22.57 23.80 32.03 16.50 6.66 7.59 8.78 5.57 0.157 0.166 0.264 0.130
T8 21.77 23.60 31.67 16.20 6.63 7.04 8.73 5.47 0.147 0.162 0.238 0.127
SEd 0.15 0.07 0.16 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.14 0.19 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.003
CD at 5% level
0.33 0.15 0.34 0.15 0.15 014 0.29 0.42 0.009 0.012 0.013 0.007
AT – Active tillering; PI – Panicle initiation; FL – Flowering stage; MT – Maturity stage; T1 - 25 × 25 cm with 100% RDF (SRI); T2 - 25 ×
20 cm with 100% RDF; T3 - 25 × 15 cm with 100% RDF; T4 - 25 × 15 cm with 125% RDF; T5 - 20 × 20 cm with 100% RDF; T6 - 20 × 15
cm with 100% RDF; T7 - 20 × 15 cm with 125% RDF; T8 - Conventional cultivation with 100% RDF
Table 1. Effect of high density planting on physiological parameters of rice at different stages.
12
Mohan Kumar, S. and Thavaprakaash, N. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 9 - 17 2021)
reduced chlorophyll content in leaves that ultimately
reduces the photosynthetic rate. Similar results were
reported by San-oh et al. (2006) and Thakur et al.
(2010).
Effect of high density planting on transpiration rate
of rice
Mean data obtained on transpiration rate (mmol H2O/
m2/s) of rice at active tillering, panicle initiation, flower-
ing and at maturity stages are given under Table 1.
At the active tillering stage, the transpiration rate was
varied significantly due to high density planting. The
rice planted at a spacing of 25 × 25 cm with 100% RDF
(T1) recorded a significantly higher rate of transpiration
(7.55 mmol H2O/m2/s) but, it was statistically on par
with a spacing of 25 × 20 cm with 100% RDF (7.53
mmol H2O/m2/s) and 25 × 15 cm fertilized with 100%
RDF (7.49 mmol H2O/m2/s) and 20 × 20 cm spacing
with 100% RDF (T5). All other spacing levels recorded
a lower transpiration rate with the minimum of 6.63
mmol H2O/m2/s recorded in conventional method trans-
planting (T8). During panicle initiation stage, significant-
ly higher rate of transpiration rate values (7.90 mmol
H2O/m2/s) were recorded at spacing 25 × 25 cm with
100% RDF (T1) than others. Lower transpiration rate
(7.04 mmol H2O/m2/s) was observed in rice planted at
conventional method of planting (T8). At flowering
stage, higher transpiration (9.64 mmol H2O/m2/s) was
noted at spacing of 25 × 25 cm with 100% RDF (T1) but
it was on par with other 25 cm row spacing levels (T2,
T3 and T4). Significantly lower transpiration rate (8.73
mmol H2O/m2/s) was observed at conventional method
of planting (T8) and was par at 20 × 15 cm applied with
100% RDF (T6) and 125% RDF (T7). Wider plant spac-
ing (25 × 25 cm and 25 × 20 cm) with 100% RDF (T1
and T2) did record significantly higher transpiration rate
Fig. 2. Transpiration rate vs grain yield of rice at different stages. AT- Active tillering stage,
PI- Panicle initiation stage, FL– Flowering stage, MT- Maturity stage. (Scatter plot with correlation analysis).
Fig. 1. Relationship between photosynthetic rate and chlo-
rophyll index of rice at different stages. (* significant at 5%
level).
13
Mohan Kumar, S. and Thavaprakaash, N. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 9 - 17 2021)
(6.37 and 6.13 mmol H2O/m2/s, respectively) compared
to all other treatments which were statistically on par
with each other with the least transpiration rate (5.47
mmol H2O/m2/s) in conventional method of planting
(T8). The correlation analysis shows that transpiration
rate influenced positively on the grain yield obtained
and significantly correlated during the flowering stage
(r=0.78*) of rice (Fig. 2). In wider spacing, the plant
leaves are more exposed to sunlight due to lesser LAI
and sparse crop canopy, which might have allowed the
sunlight to fall on most of the leaves and would have
enhanced the transpiration rate. The reason was due
to the mutual shading of leaves due to dense canopy
and higher LAI, which might not allow the sunrays to
fall and penetrate to all leaves in closer spacing treat-
ments. Wind speed form a thick lower boundary layer
around the leaves which might reduce the transpiration
rate in denser planting. This result is in agreement with
the result by Farooq et al. (2009).
Effect of high density planting on stomatal
conductance of rice
The stomatal conductance (mol H2O/m2/s) of rice as
influenced by high density planting at active tillering,
panicle initiation, flowering and maturity stages are
represented in the Table 1.
At active tillering stage, the plants at a spacing level of
25 × 25 cm with 100% RDF (T1) recorded significantly
higher values (0.173 mol H2O/m2/s) but, it was on par
Fig. 3. Stomatal conductance vs grain yield of rice at different stages. AT- Active tillering stage, PI- Panicle initiation
stage, FL– Flowering stage, MT- Maturity stage. (Scatter plot with correlation analysis).
Fig. 4. Effect of high density on chlorophyll index of rice.
AT- Active tillering stage, PI- Panicle initiation stage, FL–
Flowering stage, MT– Maturity stage. (The vertical line in
bar chart represents standard error).
with other wider spacing levels (25 × 20 cm and 25 ×
15 cm) with 100% RDF and 125% RDF (T2, T3 and T4).
Significantly lesser stomatal conductance (0.147 mol
H2O/m2/s) was observed in spacing of 20 × 10 cm with
100% RDF and was on par with all the row spacing
levels of 20 cm (T5, T6 and T7) with any of nutrient level.
Similar trend of observation as like active tillering stage
was recorded during panicle initiation and maturity
stages. At flowering stage, significantly higher values
(0.30 mol H2O/m2/s) of stomatal conductance were not-
ed in 25 × 25 cm spacing level with 100% RDF (T1), but
it was statistically on par with level of spacing levels of
14
Mohan Kumar, S. and Thavaprakaash, N. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 9 - 17 2021)
Fig. 5. Chlorophyll index vs grain yield of rice at different stages. AT- Active tillering stage, PI- Panicle initiation stage, FL
– Flowering stage, MT- Maturity stage. (Scatter plot with correlation analysis).
Fig. 6. Weekly leaf temperature at different time intervals at 0600 hrs, 1000 hrs, 1400 hrs and 1800 hrs.
15
Mohan Kumar, S. and Thavaprakaash, N. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 9 - 17 2021)
25 × 20 cm with 100% RDF (T2), 25 × 15 cm with
100% RDF (T4) and 125% RDF (T5). Significantly lower
value on stomatal conductance (0.238 mol H2O/m2/s)
was recorded in conventional method of planting than
all others. Stomatal conductance at flowering stage
was positively and significantly correlated to the grain
yield obtained (r=0.73*) (Fig. 3). In general, stomatal
conductance was more in wider spacing than closer
spacing during all stages. The reason for higher sto-
matal conductance in wider spacing was due to more
light profile at canopy level with higher temperature
and lesser relative humidity as evidenced in the pre-
sent study which might have promoted the stomata to
open. However, lesser stomatal conductance was ob-
served in closer spacing, due to partially closed stoma-
ta by low illumination level of light caused by mutual
shading of leaves (Farooq et al., 2010). Accumulation
of more humidity due to denser canopy structure also
expressed to universe relationship between relative
humidity and stomatal conductance (Nobel, 1999).
Effect of high density planting on chlorophyll index
of rice
The chlorophyll index (SPAD value) during active tiller-
ing, panicle initiation, flowering and maturity stages are
given in Figure 4. During the active tillering stage, sig-
nificantly higher SPAD value (56.73) were recorded at
spacing of 25 × 25 cm with 100% RDF (T1) than all
other treatments. Conventional method of planting rec-
orded the lowest chlorophyll index value (47.47). At the
panicle initiation stage, rice planted at a spacing of 25
× 25 cm with 100% RDF (T1) recorded higher chloro-
phyll index (49.90) over other treatment under study,
however, it was on par with 25 × 20 cm with 100%
RDF (T2). Almost similar nature of results were noted
at later (flowering and maturity) stages also. A positive
correlation between grain yield and chlorophyll index at
panicle initiation (r=0.78*) and flowering stages
(r=0.82*) was recorded and is represented in Fig. 5.
During all the stages, the chlorophyll index was signifi-
cantly higher in wider plant spacing. This might be due
to more spacing (lesser plant population), more solar
radiation is observed by plant leaves which might in-
crease the chlorophyll index in wider spacing plants.
The lower value is due to mutual shading and denser
plant population.
Effect of high density planting on leaf temperature
of rice
Weekly leaf temperature recorded at different time in-
tervals viz., 0600 hrs, 1000 hrs, 1400 hrs and 1800 hrs
are represented in Fig. 6. At 0600 hrs and 1000 hrs,
closer spacing levels (T5, T6, T7 and T8) had higher leaf
temperature during all time of weekly observation, while
during later time of observation (1400 hrs and 1800
hrs), warmer leaf temperature (℃) was noted in wider
spacing levels (T1 and T2) over other treatments. In
general, leaf temperature was higher in closer spacing
compared to wider spacing at 0600 hrs. In closer spac-
ing, where heat trapped inside the canopy during night
hours might reflect on leaf surface as high leaf temper-
ature at early hours. During 1000 hrs, 1400 hrs and
1800 hrs, wider spacing plants had more leaf tempera-
ture compared to closer spacing levels. The reason for
warmer leaf surface in wider spacing treatments might
be due to leaves of rice are more exposed to solar radia-
tion, which would absorb the solar radiation as heat. The
plants with lesser leaves can be easily heated than more
leaves, hence lesser leaves in wider spacing, the leaf sur-
face was high (Yang et al., 2014). However, leaf struc-
ture and orientation play an important role in leaf tem-
perature (Nobel, 1999). Cooler leaf temperature was
recorded in closer spacing levels was mainly due to
poor light illumination at lower level leaves which cause
leaf surface cooler in rice. Correlation analysis between
leaf temperature and grain yield shows negative
Fig. 8. Effect of high density planting on grain yield of rice.
(The vertical line in bar chart represents standard error).
Fig. 7. Correlation between leaf temperature and grain
yield at weekly intervals (* significant at 5% level ** signifi-
cant at 1% level).
16
Mohan Kumar, S. and Thavaprakaash, N. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 9 - 17 2021)
response during 0600 hrs and 1000 hrs, and positive
response during 1400 hrs and 1800 hrs (Fig. 7).
Influence of high density planting on yield of rice
Grain yield was significantly influenced due to plant
spacing (Fig. 8). A significantly higher grain yield was
recorded under 20 × 20 cm (6392 kg/ha) planting ge-
ometry which was statistically on par with 25 × 20 cm
(6259 kg/ha), 25 × 15 cm at 100% RDF (5951 kg/ha)
and 25 × 15 cm at 125% RDF (6272 kg/ha). The yields
obtained under the rest of the plant spacing levels were
lower and statistically identical. The lowest yield was
recorded under conventional method of planting (5061
kg/ha). The reason for higher yield might be due to
more plant population compared to wider spacing with
optimum canopy temperature and reduced competition
for light, air and nutrients compared to other spacing
levels. Similar results by Thakur et al. (2010) also re-
ported that rice plant at a spacing level of 20 × 20 cm
resulted in higher grain yield.
Conclusion
The study concluded that the photosynthetic rate, tran-
spiration rate, stomatal conductance, and chlorophyll
index were higher during the early growing period and
decreased as rice grew at later stages. During all stag-
es of rice, wider plant spacing levels had higher photo-
synthetic rate, transpiration rate, stomatal conductance
and chlorophyll index, and also had positive correlation
with the grain yield. Transpiration rate and stomatal
conductance during the flowering stage significantly
influenced the grain yield of rice. While leaf tempera-
ture was higher in closed spacing levels during 0600
and 1000 hours, a reversal trend was noticed during
1400 and 1800 hours. Grain yield shows a negative
response during 0600 hrs and 1000 hrs, and a positive
response during 1400 hrs and 1800 hrs with observed
leaf temperature. The optimum level of observation was
noticed in planting spacing of 20 × 20 cm, which might
result in higher grain yield.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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Standardization of seed ball media for fodder sorghum to increase
green cover and fodder availability in degraded lands
C. Tamilarasan*
Department of Crop Improvement, Vanavarayar Institute of Agriculture, Pollachi, Coimbatore
- 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
R. Jerlin
Department of Seed Science and Technology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
- 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
K. Raja
Department of Seed Science and Technology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
- 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
*Corresponding author Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2772
Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: April 17, 2021
Accepted: May 8, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
Climate change is the major threat faced by the global
population. Due to the increased emissions of green-
house gases, including carbon dioxide, the global tem-
perature is rising which cause extreme climatic irregu-
larities. One of the major reasons for the rise in green-
house gases is Oxygen-Carbon dioxide imbalance due
to deforestation. According to FAOSTAT (2019), a re-
duction in 0.5% of forest area was there in the last ten
years and that could have a great influence on the 11
per cent increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide. If this
condition continues, it will lead to an oxygen deficient
earth and the only way to withstand this problem is af-
forestation. Deforestation also leads to lower or non-
availability of forage and fodders for grazing animals,
which also effects on agricultural crop growth and pro-
duction by adverse climate changes. Under this situa-
tion, natural regeneration on those areas of deforesta-
tion is highly essential to bring back the forest cover.
Mesquita et al. (2015) and Jakovac et al. ( 2016) de-
scribed that the great potential for natural regeneration
in the Amazon region has long been demonstrated,
where depending on the intensity of land-use, different
successional paths.Most of the regeneration tech-
niques available are not at all cost effective and high
cost of regeneration have been a major barrier for up
scaling this activity (De Groot et al., 2013). Deforesta-
tion and land degradation leads the water as well as
nutrient stress to the surviving vegetation (Baboo et al.,
2017; Bargali et al., 2018; 2019; Manral et al., 2020).
Soil water supply is an important environmental factor
controlling seed germination and seedling establish-
ment (Kramer and Kozlowski, 1980; Bargali and Barga-
Abstract
Fodder sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) is a tall, erect annual grass. It is a drought resistant crop due to its effective root system.
A seed ball is one of the low-cost technologies which was prepared with locally available materials on the farm. In seed balls,
the seeds are protected from external factors. At the same time, vigorous seedling was established through seed ball. In order
to improve the degraded lands with green cover, the following experiment was framed and carried out. Seed balls were pre-
pared with a combination of red soil and vermicompost at different ratios with 230-250ml of water per kg of medium to get an
optimum size and quality. After the preparation, seed balls were shade dried for 24-36 hrs. Among the different ratio of media
combinations, 2:1 and 4:2 ratio was found to be the best media for seed balls preparation with good physical and physiological
qualities. The maximum seedling quality parameters speed of germination (7.6), germination (98%), root length (10.6 cm), shoot
length (19.4 cm) and vigour index (2900) obtained in the present study were due to vermicompost, which contained an optimum
concentration of nutrients that helped improve the seedling vigour. This experiment confirmed that using seed balls with best
media combinations for the regeneration of degraded lands was very effective.
Keywords: Best media, Fodder sorghum, Red soil, Seed ball, Vermicompost
How to Cite
Tamilarasan, C. et al. (2021). Standardization of seed ball media for fodder sorghum to increase green cover and fodder
availability in degraded lands. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 13 (SI), 18 - 25. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2772
19
Tamilarasan, C. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 18 - 25 (2021)
li, 1999). If the water potential is reduced, seed germi-
nation will be delayed or prevented depending on the
extent of its reduction (Hegarty, 1977). As a result, pri-
mary and secondary bare areas are created frequently
and need immediate restoration to arrest environmental
degradation (Bargali and Bargali, 2016). The environ-
ment of bare site is characterized by wide fluctuations
in moisture conditions (Karki et al., 2017). In such situa-
tion, the seeds of species which have an ability to ger-
minate under fluctuating moisture conditions can germi-
nate and survive (Quinlivan, 1968). Seed germination
and early seedling growth are considered the most criti-
cal phases for the establishment of any species (Bargali
and Singh, 2007; Pratap and Sharma, 2010; Vibhuti et
al., 2015; Shahi et al., 2015).
To increase the green coverage in forest areas, through
natural regeneration, the seeds of various species have
to be sown directly in the forest areas which are not at
all approachable by humans. The seeds which are car-
ried away by birds, animals, wind and water also are
not effectively sown in forest areas. The directly sown
seeds through afforestation programmes viz., aerial
seeding is not cost effective but at the same time the
birds, rodents and animals feed on the seeds which
leads to ultimate loss of seeds available for regenera-
tion. In addition, in the direct-sown seeds, the mortality
rate will be more due to non-penetration of the roots
from the germinated seeds on the upper surface of the
soil. Rasmussen et al. (2003) reported that direct seed-
ing of black walnut for regeneration has been incon-
sistent. Seed predation is listed as the most common
reason of failure for direct seed planting in Illinois
(Farlee, 2013).
Fodder sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) is a tall, erect
annual grass. It is a drought resistant crop due to its
effective root system. It has the ability to grow in higher
temperature and in dry condition. The optimal growth
condition is 25 to 30⁰C at seedling and 30⁰C day tem-
perature during growth with an annual rainfall of 400 to
750 mm. It contains lignin component, which is essen-
tial for plant health, survival and plant environmental
fitness (Pedersen et al., 2005). Fodder sorghum has
the ability to withstand heavy grazing. Out of 329 million
ha of total geographical area in India, 46.7 million ha
comes under the degraded area (Anonymous, 2014).
Direct sowing can be practised to increase the fodder
availability in the forest and degraded regions by con-
ventional methods,. But it is difficult, time-consuming
and laborious process and also causes difficulty in hav-
ing easy accessibility to interior forest areas. Direct
sowing of seeds also causes losses by natural preda-
tors viz., rodents, squirrels, birds, ants, and other ani-
mals. To overcome these problems, seed ball tech-
niques can be adopted. Seed ball technology is an an-
cient method developed from Japan for increasing the
greenery with flower and some of the grass species
(Fukuoka, 1985), where the seed balls were made up
of clay loam, red soil, compost and biofertilizer. This
facilitates good seedling establishment and survival.
Seed balls also protect the seeds and provide a suita-
ble microclimatic condition by supplying nutrients from
compost and biofertilizers.
Seeds balls prepared with clay or soil alone or without
any specific ratios of media compositions by crude
methods will cause cracks or breakages to seed balls
during transport, storage and casual handling due to
the less compactness of the medium (Tamilarasan et
al., 2020). It also leads to reduction in seedling emer-
gence. Moreover, during the dissemination of seed ball,
it will cause damages or breakages to seed balls, lead-
ing to seed loss by predators that get exposed to the
open environment and lead to unfavourable conditions
for seeds to germinate. To overcome these complica-
tions in seed balls, standardization of specific ratio of
seed ball media becomes a crucial factor. Therefore,
the objectives of the present study were to standardize
the seed ball medium for production of effective seed-
ling establishment for fodder sorghum.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present experiment was carried out at the Depart-
ment of Seed Science and Technology, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University (TNAU), Coimbatore, Tamil Na-
du, during 2018-2019. The red soil (RS) from open field
was collected and sieved into fine powder to avoid
coarse surface and higher dusting while handling. Ver-
micompost (V) was purchased from the Department of
Agronomy, TNAU, Coimbatore. To obtain the media for
seed ball preparation, following combination of different
ingredients was added at various ratio. Treatment de-
tails were as follows: T0-Control; T1-Red Soil; T2-
1:1:RS:V; T3-1:2:RS:V; T4-1:3:RS:V; T5-1:4:RS:V; T6-
2:1:RS:V; T7-2:2:RS:V; T8-2:3:RS:V; T9-2:4:RS:V; T10-
3:1:RS:V; T11-3:2:RS:V; T12-3:3:RS:V; T13-3:4:RS:V; T14
-4:1:RS:V; T15-4:2:RS:V; T16-4:3:RS:V; T17-4:4:RS:V.
As per the above ratio, compositions were mixed thor-
oughly to get fine media. After mixing, 230-250 ml of
water was added to one kg of each media composition
to get optimum moisture for making a proper sized and
round-shaped seed ball. 10-15g of well-mixed medium
in each composition were taken and 2 number of fod-
der sorghum seeds per ball were kept inside and made
into a smooth and round shape seed ball. Then the
seed balls were dried for 24-36hrs. Drying duration may
depend on atmospheric conditions. To avoid the crack
lines and hardness of seed ball, drying under direct
sunlight should be avoided.
Then seed balls were subjected to test verify the physi-
cal parameters viz., seed ball size, seed ball weight,
fragmentation test and dissolution rate and physiologi-
cal parameters viz., germination (%), root length (cm)
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Tamilarasan, C. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 18 - 25 (2021)
and shoot length (cm), vigour index and dry matter
accumulation (g/ 10 seedlings) along with control seeds
(seed alone). The observed data were tabulated and
analysed with statistical tools.
Seed ball size weight
Randomly selected 100 seed balls were used for size
and weight determination. Seed ball size was meas-
ured by the traditional method using thread. The thread
was circled around seed ball and obtained thread
length was measured by measuring scale represented
in centimetre (cm).
Seed ball weight
Randomly selected 100 seed balls were used for
weight determination. Seed balls were weighed in
weighing balance and weight was noted in gram.
Fragmentation test
The fragmentation test was done by taking 100 seed
balls in a plastic bag and shaking the seeds manually
for one minute. Ten replications of 100 seed balls from
each treatment were tested. The fragmentation was
evaluated visually and the total number of cracked or
broken seed balls were counted (Tamilselvi, 2017).
Dissolution rate
Ten randomly selected seed balls were dropped into
water one by one. Time taken to dissolve the seed balls
in water was noted and expressed in seconds (Dogan
et al., 2005).
Speed of germination (Maguire, 1962)
The germinated seedlings from each replication of
treatments were counted daily from 1st day onwards up
to 10th day of sowing. From the number of seeds germi-
nated on each day, the speed of germination was cal-
culated using the following formula and the result was
expressed in number.
Speed of germination = X1/Y1 + (X2 – X1)/Y2 +
……………+ (Xn – Xn-1)/Yn …..Eq.1
Where,
X1- Number of seeds germinated at first count
X2- Number of seeds germinated at second count
Xn- Per cent germination on nth day
Y1- Number of days from sowing to first count
Y2- Number of days from sowing to second count
Yn- Number of days from sowing to nth count
Germination (%)
The germination test was conducted under shade net
condition in a raised bed and the germination percent
was calculated as per International Seed Testing
Association (2015), 25 seed balls from each treatment
in four replications were taken. At the end of 15th day,
the final count was taken and the number of normal
seedlings were recorded for calculating germination
percent.
Germination percent (%) = (No. of normal seedlings /
Total no. of seeds sown) x 100 …. Eq.2
Root and shoot length (cm)
Root length was measured from the point of attach-
ment of the cotyledon to the tip of the root. On the day
of the final count, randomly selected ten normal seed-
lings from each replication in each treatment were tak-
en for root length measurement and reported in Centi-
metre. The same ten seedlings taken for root length
were used for measuring shoot length, it has measured
from the point of cotyledon attachment to the tip of the
leaf.
Dry matter production (g 10 seedlings-1)
Ten seedlings selected for measurement of root and
shoot length were placed in a paper cover, shade dried
for 24 h and dried at 80°C for 16 ±1 h in a hot air oven.
Then they were allowed for cooling using a desiccator,
weighed and expressed as g 10 seedlings-1.
Vigour index I
Vigour index I was calculated by using the following
formula and the mean values were expressed as a
whole number (Abdulbaki and Anderson, 1973).
Vigour index = Germination (%) x Total seedling length
(cm) …..Eq.3
Statistical analysis
The analysis of variance was carried out and a com-
parison was made by Duncan’s Multiple Range Test
(DMRT). The mean difference is significant at the P-
values < 0.05. Statistical analysis was performed using
the SPSS 16.0 software (SPSS Inc., Chicago, USA).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A significant difference was noticed for physical param-
eters among various seed ball media viz., control (seed
alone), red soil (RS) and vermicompost (V) at various
ratio used for the preparation of seed balls. The maxi-
mum weight (17.1 g) was observed in the medium of
red soil alone and the minimum was recorded from the
media RS+V @ 2:3 ratio (8.9 g). Maximum seed ball
weight recorded by red soil alone may be attributed to
the increased weight of red soil particles, whereas the
red soil and vermicompost at various ratios were com-
paratively lower in weight. The compactness of fine soil
particles were more in red soil with low pore spaces
where vermicompost has low weight and high pore
spaces. This character played a major role in physical
parameters responsible for altering the weight of seed
balls. While observing seed ball size, no difference
was noticed among the treatments because balls were
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Tamilarasan, C. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 18 - 25 (2021)
prepared with the same size that ranges from 2.0 to 2.6
cm diameter per ball (Table 1).
Fragmentation was recorded to find out the percentage
of seed ball breakage or crack lines during handling
and transportation. Maximum number of seed ball
breakages were noticed in T5 (14.1) and minimum in
T15 (7.3) and T6 (7.7), respectively (Table 1). Compared
to red soil, organic materials have a higher pore space
and high disintegration rate while handling. High disso-
lution rate in water is the desired characteristic of seed
balls. Seed balls having more diameter had longer dis-
solution time. Longer dissolution time lags the absorp-
tion of moisture by the seed and inhibits germination
(Dogan et al., 2005). The dissolution rate of seed balls
was observed to define the amount of media disinte-
grated while watering or during raining at open field
condition. It was observed to calculate the percentage
of effective seeding rates. In the media of red soil and
vermicompost, the fastest dissolution was noticed from T5
(220 sec.), while T1 took maximum time to dissolve (375
sec.). The optimum dissolution rate observed in T6 and T15
which were 345 and 360 sec. respectively (Table 1).
The minimum dissolution rate of the media leads to the
fastest disintegration of media, which in turn activates
the dislocation of seeds placed in the seed ball. The
fastest dissolution may be due to the presence of high
pore space in the media, which was achieved in the
combination of red soil and vermicompost. This combi-
nation causes more absorption of water and easy dis-
solved media. When the time for dissolution was more,
the process of seed germination was suppressed by
hard base media as well as hinderance in imbibition
process. When red soil alone was used as a medium,
slower rate of disintegration was observed due to high
compactness of media because of the presence of fine
soil particles. Fine soil particles have a capacity of high-
er compact and lower porosity that help in preventing
the degradation of media during watering. Minimal and
maximal time taken for dissolution of seed balls had a
negative impact on seedling emergence; hence an opti-
mum dissolution rate is required for good seedling
emergence. Optimum disintegration of media helps in
seed germination by providing favourable basic require-
ments.
Raviv et al. (2002) reported that soilless media have
more porosity and aeration space as it implies on water
Treatments (T) Seed ball weight (g ball -1)
Size diameter (cm ball-1)
Fragmentation (No's)
Dissolution (Sec. ball-1)
T1 - Red Soil 17.1 ± 0.15 j 2.3 ± 0.04 ns 8.1 ± 0.12 b 375 ± 4.47 a
T2 -1:1:RS:V 11.5 ± 0.08 dec 2.4 ± 0.05 ns 10.8 ± 0.12 f 308 ± 6.89 d
T3 -1:2:RS:V 10.8 ± 0.15 cde 2.6 ± 0.02 ns 12.6 ± 0.21 g 284 ± 6.21 g
T4-1:3:RS:V 10.1 ± 0.12 bcd 2.5 ± 0.06 ns 13.2 ± 0.03 h 281 ± 3.77 g
T5-1:4:RS:V 9.4 ± 0.20 a 2.2 ± 0.03 ns 14.1 ± 0.07 i 220 ± 5.15 i
T6-2:1:RS:V 12.2 ± 0.22 fgde 2.6 ± 0.04 ns 7.7 ± 0.23 b 345 ± 8.80 b
T7-2:2:RS:V 11.2 ± 0.20 cd 2.3 ± 0.03 ns 10.9 ± 0.06 f 300 ± 5.31def
T8-2:3:RS:V 8.9 ± 0.20 ade 2.6 ± 0.02 ns 9.3 ± 0.15 c 288 ± 3.84 fg
T9-2:4:RS:V 11.0 ± 0.32 bde 2.6 ± 0.06 ns 10.3 ± 0.20 e 276 ± 1.44 gh
T10-3:1:RS:V 13.8 ± 0.19 icd 2.5 ± 0.01 ns 9.0 ± 0.18 c 361 ± 4.88 a
T11-3:2:RS:V 12.6 ± 0.31 ghf 2.9 ± 0.02 ns 10.0 ± 0.21 de 327 ± 5.96 c
T12-3:3:RS:V 11.8 ± 0.22 efe 2.7 ± 0.06 ns 10.9 ± 0.23 f 289 ± 3.46 efg
T13-3:4:RS:V 11.2 ± 0.13 cde 2.7 ± 0.01 ns 12.4 ± 0.23 g 262 ± 2.18 h
T14-4:1:RS:V 13.7 ± 0.21 icd 2.5 ± 0.01 ns 9.8 ± 0.09 d 364 ± 5.08 a
T15-4:2:RS:V 13.1 ± 0.16 hc 2.4 ± 0.05 ns 7.3 ± 0.12 a 360 ± 8.43 ab
T16-4:3:RS:V 12.5 ± 0.12 gde 2.6 ± 0.06 ns 13.9 ± 0.20 i 304 ± 4.90 de
T17-4:4:RS:V 11.7 ± 0.29 def 2.3 ± 0.04 ns 11.1 ± 0.03 f 301 ± 6.06 def
T1-Red Soil; T2-1:1:RS:V; T3-1:2:RS:V; T4-1:3:RS:V; T5-1:4:RS:V; T6-2:1:RS:V; T7-2:2:RS:V; T8-2:3:RS:V; T9-2:4:RS:V; T10-3:1:RS:V; T11
-3:2:RS:V; T12-3:3:RS:V; T13-3:4:RS:V; T14-4:1:RS:V; T15-4:2:RS:V; T16-4:3:RS:V; T17-4:4:RS:V (*RS-Red Soil; V-Vermicompost) Data
presented are means from four replicates with standard errors. Within each treatment, different letters at each column indicate signifi-
cant differences by Duncan’s multiple range test at P < 0.05.
Table 1. Physical parameters of red earth and vermicompost at different ratios on fodder sorghum seed ball medium.
22
Tamilarasan, C. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 18 - 25 (2021)
Tre
atm
en
ts
(T)
Sp
ee
d o
f
em
erg
en
ce
Ge
rmin
ati
on
(%
) R
oo
t le
ng
th (
cm
) S
ho
ot
len
gth
(cm
) D
MP
(g
10
se
ed
lin
gs
-1)
Vig
ou
r in
dex
I
T0-C
on
tro
l 6
.5 ±
0.1
0 c
de
88
(69
.73
) ± 0
.41
i 8
.3 ±
0.0
5 h
i 1
6.4
± 0
.12
fgh
0.1
46
± 0
.00 jk
2
17
4 ±
17
.59
j
T1 - R
ed
So
il 6
.9 ±
0.1
1 b
9
6(7
8.4
6)
± 0
.99
abc
8.9
± 0
.21
fg
16
.8 ±
0.1
2 e
f 0
.14
8 ±
0.0
1 jk
2
46
7 ±
14
.31
def
T2 -1
:1:R
S:V
5
.9 ±
0.0
8 g
9
5(7
7.0
7)
± 0
.79
cde
8.6
± 0
.20
gh
17
.3 ±
0.1
6 c
d
0.1
52
± 0
.00 ij
24
61
± 1
5.7
6 e
f
T3 -1
:2:R
S:V
6
.7 ±
0.1
6 b
cd
95
(77
.07
) ± 0
.35
cde
8.7
± 0
.05
gh
16
.8 ±
0.1
1 e
f 0
.14
5 ±
0.0
0 k
2
42
3 ±
10
.09
fg
T4-1
:3:R
S:V
6
.9 ±
0.0
6 b
9
3(7
4.6
5)
± 0
.24
defg
8.9
± 0
.20
fg
17
.0 ±
0.1
7 d
e
0.1
56
± 0
.01 i
24
09
± 1
5.3
1 g
h
T5-1
:4:R
S:V
6
.5 ±
0.0
8 d
e
90
(71
.56
) ± 0
.88
hi
7.6
± 0
.19
j 1
6.2
± 0
.22
ghi
0.1
68
± 0
.01 g
h
21
42
± 1
6.8
1 j
T6-2
:1:R
S:V
7
.4 ±
0.1
2 a
9
8(8
1.8
6)
± 0
.33
a
10
.6 ±
0.0
9 a
1
8.9
± 0
.22
a
0.2
46
± 0
.02 a
2
89
1 ±
17
.32
a
T7-2
:2:R
S:V
6
.5 ±
0.1
1 c
de
94
(75
.82
) ± 0
.64
cdef
9.4
± 0
.16
deh
17
.1 ±
0.1
5 c
de
0.1
89
± 0
.01 d
2
49
1 ±
14
.26
de
T8-2
:3:R
S:V
6
.8 ±
0.1
2 b
cd
93
(74
.65
) ± 1
.11
def
9.2
± 0
.05
ef
16
.3 ±
0.2
6 h
i 0
.17
2 ±
0.0
0 fg
2
37
2 ±
18
.66
h
T9-2
:4:R
S:V
6
.3 ±
0.0
5 e
f 9
4(7
5.8
2)
± 0
.20
cdef
9.9
± 0
.12
b
16
.8 ±
0.1
5 e
fg
0.1
29
± 0
.00 i
25
10
± 1
4.3
7 d
T10-3
:1:R
S:V
6
.8 ±
0.0
7 b
c
94
(75
.82
) ± 1
.57
cdef
9.4
± 0
.16
de
15
.9 ±
0.1
5 i
0.2
01
± 0
.01 b
c
23
78
± 1
2.3
8 h
T11-3
:2:R
S:V
6
.9 ±
0.1
2 b
9
2(7
3.5
7)
± 1
.21
fgh
9.8
± 0
.06
bcd
16
.2 ±
0.1
8 h
i 0
.17
9 ±
0.0
0 e
2
39
2 ±
12
.10
gh
T12-3
:3:R
S:V
5
.9 ±
0.0
4 g
9
0(7
1.5
6)
± 0
.37
ghi
7.9
± 0
.16
ij 1
7.5
± 0
.11
c
0.2
06
± 0
.01 b
2
28
6 ±
20
.60
i
T13-3
:4:R
S:V
6
.0 ±
0.0
6 fg
9
6(7
8.4
6)
±1
.06
abcd
8.0
± 0
.20
ij 1
6.9
± 0
.15
def
0.1
99
± 0
.00 c
2
39
0 ±
12
.70
gh
T14-4
:1:R
S:V
6
.9 ±
0.1
5 b
9
5(7
7.0
7)
±1
.17
bcde
10
.1 ±
0.1
2 b
1
8.1
± 0
.12
b
0.1
62
± 0
.02 h
2
67
9 ±
10
.58
b
T15-4
:2:R
S:V
7
.6 ±
0.1
9 a
9
7(8
0.0
2)
± 0
.76
ab
10
.5 ±
0.1
5 a
1
9.4
± 0
.15
a
0.2
49
± 0
.00 a
2
90
0 ±
14
.12
a
T16-4
:3:R
S:V
6
.9 ±
0.1
4 b
9
5(7
7.0
7)
± 0
.89
cde
9.5
± 0
.15
cde
17
.6 ±
0.2
9 c
0
.19
6 ±
0.0
0 c
2
57
5 ±
22
.55
c
T17-4
:4:R
S:V
6
.5 ±
0.0
4 c
de
94
(75
.82
) ± 0
.93
cdef
8.6
± 0
.11
g
15
.9 ±
0.1
2 i
0.1
75
± 0
.01 e
f 2
30
3 ±
14
.53
i
Ta
ble
2.
Eff
ect o
f se
ed
ba
ll m
ed
ium
(re
d e
art
h a
nd v
erm
icom
po
st)
at
diffe
ren
t ra
tios o
n p
hysio
log
ica
l p
ara
me
ters
of
fod
der
so
rgh
um
.
T0-C
ontr
ol; T
1-R
ed S
oil;
T2-1
:1:R
S:V
; T
3-1
:2:R
S:V
; T
4-1
:3:R
S:V
; T
5-1
:4:R
S:V
; T
6-2
:1:R
S:V
; T
7-2
:2:R
S:V
; T
8-2
:3:R
S:V
; T
9-2
:4:R
S:V
; T
10-3
:1:R
S:V
; T
11-3
:2:R
S:V
; T
12-3
:3:R
S:V
; T
13-3
:4:R
S:V
; T
14-
4:1
:RS
:V;
T1
5-4
:2:R
S:V
; T
16-4
:3:R
S:V
; T
17-4
:4:R
S:V
(*R
S-R
ed S
oil;
V-V
erm
icom
post)
(F
igure
s in
pare
nth
esis
in
dic
ate
arc
sin
e v
alu
es).
Data
pre
sente
d a
re m
eans f
rom
four
replic
ate
s w
ith s
tandard
err
ors
. D
iffe
rent le
tters
at
each c
olu
mn in
dic
ate
sig
nific
ant
diffe
rences w
ithin
each tre
atm
ent by D
uncan
’s m
ultip
le r
ange t
est
at P
< 0
.05.
23
Tamilarasan, C. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 18 - 25 (2021)
holding capacity and wetness. Marinari et al. (2000)
suggested that more porosity in the soil treated with
vermicompost was due to increase in the number of
pores. Compost addition in growth media caused a
positive increase of moisture content because of more
porosity in the soil (Bazzoffi et al., 1998). The higher
accumulation of soil particles were reported by Munnoli
and Bhosle (2008), and vermicompost had recorded
increased porosity, aeration and decreased density
(Munnoli and Bhosle, 2011) which causes increased
water-holding capacity of the media.
Seed balls prepared with a combination of red soil and
vermicompost at various ratios were evaluated for
seedling parameters under shade net condition. The
maximum speed of emergence was noticed in T15 (7.6)
which was on par with T6 (7.4) and the minimum speed
of emergence was recorded in control (6.5). The high-
est germination percent was observed in T6 (98%) fol-
lowed by T15 (97%), whereas control recorded the low-
est (88%). The shortest root length was recorded in
control (8.3 cm) and the longest in T6 (10.6 cm), which
was on par with T15 (10.5 cm). A significant difference
in shoot length was observed as higher shoot length in
T15 (19.4 cm) followed by T6 (18.9 cm) and the lower
shoot length in control (16.4 cm). Dry matter production
ranged from 0.146 to 0.249 g among treatments. The
maximum accumulation of DMP was noticed in T15
(0.249 g) which was on par with T6 (0.246 g) and mini-
mum was recorded in T0 (0.146 g). The highest seed-
ling vigour was recorded in T15 (2900) followed by T6
(2891) and the lowest in T0 (2174) in vigour index I (Fig.
1 & Table 2).
The maximum seedling quality parameters obtained in
the present study was due to the presence of ver-
micompost, which contained an optimum concentration
of nutrients that helped in improving the seedling vig-
our. This result was supported with increased germina-
tion rate, seedling length and vigour in muskmelon (Vo
and Wang, 2014), increased germination, seedling
length and dry matter accumulation in tomato by use of
vermicompost (Paul and Metzger, 2005; Gutierrez-
Miceli et al., 2007). Bachman and Metzger (2008) re-
ported that the application of vermicompost in germina-
tion media increased root and shoot length. Arancon et
al. (2004) and Mishra et al. (2005) reported a positive
influence of vermicompost on the growth and yield of
strawberry and vermicompost had beneficial effects on
rice, especially significant increase of many growth pa-
rameters, seeds germination and yield. Rekha et al.
(2018) suggested application of vermicompost in Cap-
sicum annum increased root and shoot length, in-
creased number of leaves. During seed ball drying pro-
cess, the moisture from the seed ball media will be im-
bibed by seeds, the nutrients and beneficial growth
hormones are infused through imbibition. This helps
seeds for early and uniform germination through the
process of biopriming. Moeinzadeh et al. (2010) report-
ed that sunflower seeds primed with rhizobial bacteria
positively influenced seed germination by increased
seedling vigour. Seed germination and enhanced seed-
ling growth are obtained through seed priming with
PGPR in maize (Anitha et al. 2013). Tamilarasan et al.
(2020) reported that the preparation of subabul seed
balls with a combination of red soil and vermicompost
had an positive effect on seedling quality improvement
in subabul seeds.
The use of a high ratio of vermicompost caused a re-
duction in seed germination and seedling vigour. Lev-
insh (2011) also reported a reduction in seed germina-
tion of radish, cabbage, Swedish turnip, beetroot,
beans and peas when grown with more than 50% ver-
micompost in substrates. Higher content of vermicom-
post in growth media causes a lower plant growth rate
due to the presence of a high concentration of plant
growth hormones such as auxin and humic acids pro-
duced by microorganisms (Arancon et al., 2006).
Conclusion
The results of the study revealed that mixing of different
ratio of red soil, vermicompost at different combination
had significant effect on both physical and physiologi-
cal characteristics of seed balls balls speed of germi-
nation (7.6), germination (98%) and vigour index
(2900) which will have the impact on the seedling
emergence and subsequent vigour and establishment
of the sorghum plants. The optimum ratio of media
had an effect on lesser fragmentation, optimum disso-
lution rate, which implicated on better seedling emer-
gence with the supply of the required amount of
growth hormones and essential nutrients for uniform
and earlier seed germination. The combination of red
soil + vermicompost at the ratio of 2:1 and 4:1 were
found to be optimum for the preparation of seed balls
with enhanced physical and physiological parameters
that resulted in uniform and vigorous seedling estab-
lishment. Therefore, the use of seed balls could also
T0 - Con- T6– RS+V
Fig. 1. Effect of vermicompost on physiological parameters
of fodder sorghum seed ball at the optimum dose.
24
Tamilarasan, C. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 18 - 25 (2021)
restore the degraded lands.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
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Influence of elevated carbon dioxide concentrations on methane
emission and its associated soil microflora in rice ecosystem
S. K. Rajkishore*
Department of Environmental Sciences, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
- 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
M. Maheswari
Department of Environmental Sciences, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
- 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
K. S. Subramanian
Director of Research, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 641003 (Tamil Nadu),
India
R. Prabhu
School of Post Graduate Studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 641003
(Tamil Nadu), India
G. Vanitha
School of Post Graduate Studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 641003
(Tamil Nadu), India
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2773
Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: April 17, 2021
Accepted: May 8, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
Rice fields are considered important sources of atmos-
pheric methane (CH4), contributing about 5-19 per cent
of total global CH4 emissions to the atmosphere
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , 2018).
Methane is the potent greenhouse gas next to carbon
dioxide, which is 25 times greater in global warming po-
tential than CO2 on a 100-year horizon (Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change , 2013). Projections to the
end of this century suggest that atmospheric [CO2] will
top 700 ppm or more (Intergovernmental Pan-
el on Climate Change , 2018). Photosynthesis, a major
process of sequestration and turnover of the total car-
bon on the planet is strongly influenced by the elevated
atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. Crops
sense and respond directly to rising [CO2] through pho-
tosynthesis and stomatal conductance and there is a
Abstract
The dynamics of methane emission and its associated soil microflora in rice ecosystem as a response to elevated CO2 concen-
trations were studied in open top chamber (OTC) conditions. The treatments consisted of three levels of CO2 (396, 550 and 750
µmol mol-1) and three levels of nitrogen (0, 150 and 200 kg ha-1) and replicated five times in a completely randomized design.
The data showed that elevated [CO2] significantly (P ≤ 0.01) increased the DOC throughout the cropping period with the values
ranging from 533 to 722 mg L-1 and 368 to 501 mg L-1 in C750 and Camb, respectively. Methane emission rates were monitored
regularly during the experiment period and it was revealed that elevated [CO2] had increased the methane emissions regardless
of stages of crop growth. It was observed that methane emissions were significantly higher under [CO2] of 750 µmol mol-1 by 33
to 54 per cent over the ambient [CO2] of 396 µmol mol-1. Consistent with the observed increases in methane flux, the enumera-
tion of methanogens showed a significant (P ≤ 0.01) increase under elevated [CO2] with the population ranging from 5.7 to 20.1
x 104 CFU g-1 of dry soil and 5.1 to 16.9 x 104 CFU g-1 of dry soil under C750 and Camb concentrations, respectively. Interestingly,
even though higher methanotrophs population was recorded under elevated [CO2], it could not circumvent the methane emis-
sion. Overall, the results of OTC studies suggest that methane mitigation strategies need to be explored for the future high CO2
environments.
Keywords: Elevated CO2, Methane, Methanogens, Methanotrophs, Nitrogen
How to Cite
Rajkishore, S. K. et al. (2021). Influence of elevated carbon dioxide concentrations on methane emission and its associated soil
microflora in rice ecosystem. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 13 (SI), 26 - 34. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2773
27
Rajkishore, S. K. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 26 - 34 (2021)
need to assess the likely influence of changing atmos-
pheric carbon dioxide concentrations on methane
emission and its associated microflora. The amount
of CH4 emitted from rice fields to the atmosphere is
the balance of two opposite processes, i.e., CH4
production and oxidation in the soil. In the global CH4
cycle, a substantial amount of CH4 is consumed by
biological processes. The only known biological sink for
atmospheric CH4 is its oxidation in aerobic soils by
methanotrophs or methane-oxidizing bacteria (MOB),
which can contribute up to 15 per cent to the total glob-
al CH4 destruction (Singh, 2011).
With this background, experiments were conducted by
employing carbon dioxide enrichment facility to under-
stand the response of elevated carbon dioxide concen-
trations on methane emission and its associated
biological activities, especially methanogens and
methanotrophs.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Open top chambers (OTCs)
The influence of elevated levels of CO2 viz., 550 µ mol mol-1 CO2 and 750 µ mol mol-1 CO2 on rice crops on methane
emission were investigated by employing Open Top
Chambers with a dimension of 3x3x3 m.
Pot experiment
The soil used was sandy clay which belongs to Noyyal
series and classified taxonomically as Typic Ustochrept
according to USDA classification,1999. The soil was
slightly alkaline (pH =8.21) with low soluble salts (EC =
0.35). The soil was high in organic carbon content (6.78
g kg-1), low in available nitrogen (110.3 mg kg-1), medi-
um in available phosphorus and potassium (6.8 mg kg-
1and 118.0 mg kg-1), respectively. Seven kilograms of
soil transferred into a syntex pot was used in this study.
The FYM at the recommended dose of 12.5 t ha-1 (41.6
g pot-1) and NPK at 150:50:60 kg ha-1 (500, 166.6, 200
mg NPK pot-1) were applied in the form of urea, single
super phosphate and muriate of potash, respectively.
Zinc sulphate at rate of 25 kg ha-1 (83.3 mg pot-1) was
applied and was thoroughly mixed with the soil. The N
and K was applied in four splits and P was applied ba-
sally before transplanting. Rice crop was treated with
three different levels of nitrogen viz., 0, 150, 200 kg N
ha-1 and the N was applied in four splits on soil weight
basis. Nursery was raised in the wetland farm and 14
days old paddy (ADT 45) seedlings were transplanted
into the pots. After establishment, two healthy seed-
lings were allowed to grow in each pot. Twenty five
days old rice crop was subjected to different CO2 at-
mospheric conditions. The pots were maintained under
flooded conditions (cyclic submergence) throughout the
crop period.
Treatments
Design: Factorial Competely Randomized Design
(FCRD)
Replications: Five
Factor 1:
Camb - Ambient CO2 concentration (396 µ mol mol-1
CO2)
C550 - 550 µ mol mol-1 CO2
C750 - 750 µ mol mol-1 CO2
Factor 2:
N0 - 0 kg N ha-1
N100 - 150 kg N ha-1
N200 - 200 kg N ha-1
Estimation of methane flux
Gas samples were collected from the pots using static
closed chamber technique and the gas chambers (250
mm diameter and 890 mm height) were fabricated in
such a way that it fits the pot. The other specifications
and components are similar to the chambers used for
field measurements. Gas samples were collected at
active tillering, flowering and harvest using tedlar bags
and the protocol was followed for collection and estima-
tion were carried out as per the standard procedure
(Rajkishore et al., 2013).
Redox potential
Measurements for redox potential were done with each
set of CH4 flux measurement. The redox potential (Eh)
of the field soil was measured by inserting a combined
waterproof ORP/ redox meter (Eutech Instruments,
USA) to the soil and measuring the potential difference
in mV (Satpathy, 1997). The Eh of soil was measured
(rhizosphere to bulk soil interface) in the morning and
afternoon at different points near the flux measurement
setup and averaged for the day.
Dissolved organic carbon (DOC)
Equilibrated soil solution samples were collected by
zero tension sampling using soil water samplers
(Tiensing et al., 2001). The DOC was estimated by
adopting the protocol of Nelson and Sommers (1996)
with a slight modification as described by Lu et al.
(2000). 2 mL of the soil solution was mixed with 3.0 mL
of deionized water, 5.0 mL of 0.0175 M K2Cr2O7, 10.0
mL of 98% H2SO4, and 5.0 mL of 88% H3PO4 in a tube
and digested for 30 min at 1500C. Upon cooling, the
solutions were transferred to 150 mL Erlenmeyer
flasks and titrated with 0.005 M Fe (NH4)2(SO4)2 .6
H2O in 0.4 M H2SO4 solution and sucrose was used
as a standard.
Methanotrophs
Nine ml of phosphate buffer solution were taken in test
tubes representing up to 10-6 dilution. Then the tubes
28
Rajkishore, S. K. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 26 - 34 (2021)
were sterilized in autoclave at 15psi for 20 minutes. One
gram of soil sample was taken and serially diluted. Dilu-
tions of 10-3 were used for plating. Pour plate tech-
nique was performed using Noble Agar Medium and
the plates were incubate in the Macintosh jar assem-
bly (Plate 1) with provisions for attaching a bladder
containing methane. Methane was provided as the
carbon source for the growth of methanotrophs in the
chamber and the plates were incubated for 7 to 15
days. Methane gas was replenished once in two days
through the bladder. After fifteen days of incubation, the
plates were removed, and the o-dianisidine dye test was
performed to assess the methanotrophs activities in the
presence of naphthalene crystals. Few naphthalene
crystals were sprinkled on the plate lid and stored in-
verted for 15 minutes. Then the plates were opened
and freshly prepared o-dianisidine (tetrazotized; zinc
chloride) was sprayed and incubated for 15 minutes in
the presence of the dye. Methanotrophs exhibits me-
thane mono oxygenase (MMO) activity and hence,
napthol was produced and purple red colour colonies
were observed. Methanotrophs colonies (Purple red)
colonies were counted and expressed as CFU g-1 of
dry soil.
Methanogens
Methanogens were enumerated by adopting the roll
tube technique (Hungate, 1957). Soil samples were
collected at active tillering, panicle initiation, flowering
and harvest stages and enumerated for the population
of anaerobic micro-flora. The samples were collected at
the lower horizon (10 cm depth) under anaerobic condi-
tions (Ramasamy et al., 1992). The population of meth-
anogens was estimated by using Mah’s medium (Mah,
1980). The colonies were identified by their bluish fluo-
rescence under UV light.
Statistical analysis
The data were statistically analyzed, as suggested by
Gomez and Gomez (1984). Wherever the treatment
differences were found significant, the critical difference
(CD) were worked out at the 5 per cent level of signifi-
cance with mean separation by least significant differ-
ence and denoted by the symbol * (** for 1%). Treat-
ment differences that were not significant were denoted
as ‘NS’.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Redox potential
Redox potential remained unaltered throughout the
growth phase of rice crop regardless of CO2 concentra-
tions or nitrogen levels. In general, the redox potential
ranged between -276 mV and -281 mV and the values
were non-significant. The interaction effect was non-
significant.
Dissolved organic carbon (DOC)
DOC was significantly highest under elevated levels of
CO2 (Table 1). The highest DOC was observed under
C750 levels and the lowest under Camb (ambient) condi-
tions. DOC ranged from 533 to 722 mg L-1 and 368 to
501 mg L-1 in C750 and Camb, respectively.
Incremental levels of nitrogen addition significantly in-
creased the DOC regardless of the stages of measure-
ments. Highest DOC contents were recorded in N200
and the mean values were 534, 621 and 507 mg L-1 at
tillering, flowering and harvest stages, respectively.
Control (N0) registered the lowest DOC contents and
the mean values are 455, 528 and 436 mg L-1 at tiller-
ing, flowering and harvest stages, respectively. Among
the stages, flowering recorded the highest DOC con-
tents and lowest at the harvest stage. The interaction
effect was non-significant.
Our results revealed that the elevated [CO2] significant-
ly increased the DOC throughout the cropping period.
Enhanced photosynthesis and plant growth under ele-
vated [CO2] had led to increased C input to the soil
(including cortical cell sloughing, root exudation and
mortality) (Ineson et al., 1996; Cheng and Johnson,
1998). As soil microorganisms are often C limited
(Anderson and Domsch, 1986; Smith and Paul, 1990),
more C input will directly contribute for increased soil micro-
bial biomass and activities. Moreover, in submerged rice
soils enhanced algal growth in response to CO2 enrich-
ment was reported to increase microbial biomass of the
surface soil (Inubushi et al., 1999; Inubushi et al.,
2011).
Increasing atmospheric [CO2] is unlikely to directly
influence soil microorganisms because CO2 concentrations
in soils are already 10–50 times higher than in the atmos-
phere (Lamborg, 1983; Schortemeyer et al., 1996),
even though it usually stimulates plant (especially C3
plant) productivity due to higher net carbon assimilation
(Kimball et al., 1993). Nevertheless, elevated atmospher-
ic [CO2] may indirectly affect soil microbial populations
(Montealegre et al., 2002; Wang et al., 2018), since
root biomass, total rhizodeposition, and chemical
composition of plant tissues and root exudates proba-
bly change when atmospheric CO2 is enriched
(Rogers et al., 1994; Schortemeyer et al., 1996; Cai et al.,
2016). Our results are in conformity with Li et al. (2004)
and Wang et al. (2018), who reported that DOC had a
positive relationship with elevated [CO2]. Nitrogen ferti-
lization significantly increased DOC irrespective of the
[CO2] and this is attributed to the fact that addition of
nitrogen favours increased plant biomass and in turn it
contributes for more root exudates which serves as a
source of energy for soil microbial population. On the
other hand, low N supplement limited the enhancement
of root growth by elevated [CO2], leading consequently
to the diminished response of DOC to CO2 enrichment
(Li et al., 2004). According to Cardon et al. (2001), the
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Rajkishore, S. K. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 26 - 34 (2021)
influence of elevated CO2 on soil microbial population is
linked to the nutrient status of the soil. Under nitrogen
limited conditions, effects of elevated CO2 on plants
were generally found to be much smaller (Korner et al.,
1997). Besides, it is also suggested that poor N supply
limited the microbial utilization of C compounds (van
Veen et al., 1991).
Methanogens
The present study on the mechanisms associated with
Treatments DOC (mg L-1)
Tillering Flowering Harvest
Camb
N0 368 427 350
N150 418 485 397
N200 430 501 409
C550
N0 464 538 440
N150 529 614 508
N200 548 639 523
C750
N0 533 618 517
N150 607 703 573
N200 624 722 590
Mean
Camb 405 471 385
C550 514 597 490
C750 588 681 560
N0 455 528 436
N150 518 601 493
N200 534 621 507
SEd CD SEd CD SEd CD
C 4.1 8.4** 4.8 9.8 3.9 8.0**
N 4.1 8.4** 4.8 9.8 3.9 8.0**
C x N 7.2 NS 8.3 NS 6.8 NS
CO2 levels : Camb - 396 µ mol mol-1 CO2; C550 - 550 µ mol mol-1 CO2; C2 - 750 µ mol mol-1 CO2; Nitrogen levels : N0 – 0 kg N ha-1;
N150 – 150 kg N ha-1; N200 – 200 kg N ha-1; *P ≤ 0.05, ** P ≤ 0.01, NS - Non significant
Table 1. Effect of elevated CO2 and nitrogen levels on dissolved organic carbon (DOC).
Treatments
Methanogens (× 104 CFU g-1 of dry soil)
Methanotrophs (× 103 CFU g-1 of dry soil)
Tillering Flowering Harvest Tillering Flowering Harvest
Camb
N0 7.60 10.1 5.1 11.4 11.9 12.5
N150 11.80 15.1 8.2 7.3 7.7 7.9
N200 13.10 16.9 9.1 6.3 6.5 6.9
C550
N0 8.10 11.3 5.3 12.4 12.8 13.1
N150 13.30 17.6 8.6 8.6 9.0 9.5
N200 14.60 19.5 9.5 6.7 7.2 7.6
C750
N0 8.90 12.4 5.7 12.9 13.1 13.6
N150 14.20 18.9 9.0 10.2 10.7 11.0
N200 14.90 20.1 9.7 7.1 7.9 8.3
Mean
Camb 10.8 14.0 7.5 8.4 8.7 9.1
C550 12.0 16.1 7.8 9.2 9.7 10.1
C750 12.7 17.1 8.1 10.1 10.5 11.0
N0 8.2 11.3 5.4 12.2 12.6 13.1
N150 13.1 17.2 8.6 8.7 9.1 9.5
N200 14.2 18.8 9.4 6.7 7.2 7.6
SEd CD SEd CD SEd CD SEd CD SEd CD SEd CD
C 0.09 0.20** 0.13 0.27** 0.06 0.13** 0.08 0.16** 0.08 0.16** 0.06 0.12**
N 0.09 0.20** 0.13 0.27** 0.06 0.13** 0.08 0.16** 0.08 0.16** 0.06 0.12**
C x N 0.17 0.35* 0.23 0.46* 0.11 NS 0.13 0.27** 0.14 0.28** 0.10 0.21**
CO2 levels : Camb - 396 µ mol mol-1 CO2; C550 - 550 µ mol mol-1 CO2; C2 - 750 µ mol mol-1 CO2; Nitrogen levels : N0 – 0 kg N ha-1; N150 – 150 kg N ha-1; N200 – 200 kg N ha-1; *P ≤ 0.05, ** P ≤ 0.01, NS - Non significant
Table 2. Effect of elevated CO2 and nitrogen levels on soil methanogens and methanotrophs population.
30
Rajkishore, S. K. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 26 - 34 (2021)
methane flux under elevated [CO2], the population dy-
namics of methanogens and methanotrophs showed
that the Methanogen population was significantly (P ≤
0.05) highest under elevated CO2 levels regardless of
stages of observation (Table 2). C750 had a significantly
highest methanogen population, ranging from 5.7 to
20.1 x 104 CFU g-1 of dry soil, while the lowest popula-
tion ranged from 5.1 to 16.9 x 104 CFU g-1 of dry soil
under ambient (Camb) concentration. At flowering, the
mean values were 14.0, 16.1 and 17.1 x 104 CFU g-1 of
dry soil under 396, 550 and 750 µ mol mol-1 CO2 con-
centrations, respectively. Nitrogen significantly in-
creased the methanogen population irrespective of CO2
levels or stages. The highest methanogen load (9.1 to
20.1 x 104 CFU g-1 of dry soil) was observed in N200,
while the lowest population (5.1 to 12.4 x 104 CFU g-1
of dry soil) was recorded in N0. Among the stages, flow-
ering registered the highest methanogen population and
the lowest at the harvest stage irrespective of CO2 lev-
els. The interaction effect was significant only at tillering
and flowering stages.
Methanotrophs
Elevated CO2 levels significantly increased the soil
methanotrophs population irrespective of stages of ob-
servation (Table 2). The highest methanotrophs popu-
lation ranging from 7.1 to 13.6 x 103 CFU g-1 of dry soil
was observed in C750 while the lowest population rang-
ing from 6.3 to 12.5 x 103 CFU g-1 of dry soil in ambient
CO2 concentration. At harvest, the mean values are
9.1, 10.1 and 11.0 x 103 CFU g-1 of dry soil under 396,
550 and 750 µ mol mol-1 CO2 concentrations, respec-
tively. Incremental levels of nitrogen addition signifi-
cantly decreased the methanotrophs population regard-
less of CO2 concentrations or stages of observation.
The highest mean values (12.2, 12.6 and 13.1 x 103
CFU g-1 of dry soil) were observed in N0, while the low-
est population (6.7, 7.2 and 7.6 x 103 CFU g-1 of dry
soil) was recorded in N200 at tillering, flowering and har-
vest stages, respectively. Among the stages, harvest
registered the highest methanotrophs population and
the lowest at tillering stage irrespective of CO2 levels.
The interaction effect was significant.
Consistent with the observed increases in methane
flux, the enumeration of methanogens showed a signifi-
cant increase under elevated [CO2]. This positive effect
of elevated [CO2] may be attributed to stimulated rice
above ground and below ground biomasses (Ziska et
al., 1998; Liu et al., 2016) which might have provided
more carbon substrates for methanogens (Hou et al.,
2000; Inubushi et al., 2003; Yue et al., 2003; Yue et al.,
2007; Liu et al., 2016; Li et al., 2017). Root exudation
accounts for approximately 0.5–5.0 per cent of net fixed
C (Farrar and Jones, 2003) and provides 10 and 50 per
cent of the carbon substrate needed for methanogene-
sis (Seiler et al., 1984). In addition, the cells are
sloughed from the cortices of living roots and lysates
consisting of polymeric C compounds and enzymes
Treatments Methane emission (mg pot-1 d-1)
Average methane emission (mg pot-1 d-1)
Total methane emission (g pot-1)
Tillering Flowering Harvest
Camb
N0 1.43 4.13 0.50 2.02 0.22
N150 2.00 5.27 0.66 2.64 0.29
N200 2.19 5.54 0.83 2.85 0.31
C550
N0 1.79 5.41 0.61 2.60 0.29
N150 2.54 6.96 0.80 3.43 0.38
N200 2.83 7.38 1.00 3.74 0.41
C750
N0 2.04 6.35 0.67 3.02 0.33
N150 2.88 8.15 0.87 3.97 0.44
N200 3.19 8.52 1.09 4.27 0.47
Mean
Camb 1.87 4.98 0.66 2.51 0.28
C550 2.39 6.58 0.80 3.26 0.36
C750 2.70 7.67 0.88 3.75 0.41
N0 1.75 5.30 0.59 2.55 0.28
N150 2.47 6.79 0.78 3.35 0.37
N200 2.74 7.15 0.98 3.62 0.40
SEd CD SEd CD SEd CD
C 0.019 0.039** 0.053 0.108** 0.007 0.014**
N 0.019 0.039** 0.053 0.108** 0.007 0.014**
C x N 0.034 0.069** 0.093 0.118* 0.012 0.024*
CO2 levels : Camb - 396 µ mol mol-1 CO2; C550 - 550 µ mol mol-1 CO2; C2 - 750 µ mol mol-1 CO2; Nitrogen levels : N0 – 0 kg N ha-1;
N150 – 150 kg N ha-1; N200 – 200 kg N ha-1; *P ≤ 0.05, ** P ≤ 0.01, NS - Non significant
Table 3. Effect of elevated CO2 and nitrogen levels on methane emission.
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enter the rhizosphere, providing further substrate for
microorganisms (Farrar et al., 2003). This fact also sup-
ports our observations on methanotrophs, which was
found to be higher under elevated [CO2]. Interestingly, the
data showed that the highest methanotrophic population
was found at the harvest stage and these observations are
in accordance with (Yue et al., 2007), who reported en-
hanced populations of methanotrophs at maturing peri-
ods under elevated [CO2]. This suggests that the avail-
ability of O2 and the concentration of CH4 jointly deter-
mine the methanotrophic activity (van Bodegom et al.,
2001).
Effect of elevated CO2 on methane emissions
Methane emission rate
Elevated CO2 levels significantly increased the methane
emission rate irrespective of stages of observation
(Table 3). CO2 concentration @ 750 µ mol mol-1 CO2
recorded the highest methane emission rate (0.67 to
8.52 mg pot-1d-1) while the lowest rate (0.50 to 5.54 mg
pot-1d-1) was observed under ambient concentration.
The highest mean methane emission values (2.70, 7.67
and 0.88 mg pot-1d-1) in C750 and the lowest values
(1.87, 4.98 and 0.66 mg pot-1d-1) in Camb were recorded
at tillering, flowering and harvest stages, respectively.
C750 increased the methane emission rate by 44.4, 54.0
and 33.3 per cent over Camb at tillering, flowering and
harvest stages, respectively. Under C550 levels, the me-
thane emission rate increased by 27.8, 32.1 and 21.2
per cent over Camb at tillering, flowering and harvest
stages, respectively. The methane emission rate in-
creased under C750 to the tune of 13.0, 16.6 and 10per
cent over C550 at tillering, flowering and harvest stages,
respectively.
Addition of nitrogen significantly increased the methane
emission rate regardless of CO2 levels or stages of ob-
servation. The highest mean values (2.74, 7.15 and
0.98 mg pot-1d-1) and the lowest values (1.75, 5.30 and
0.59 mg pot-1d-1) were recorded in N200 and N0 at tiller-
ing, flowering and harvest stages, respectively. At the
flowering stage, the highest methane emission rate was
recorded while harvest registered the lowest. The inter-
action effect was significant.
Average methane emission
The average methane emissions ranged from 2.02 to
2.85 mg pot-1d-1, 2.60 to 3.74 mg pot-1d-1 and 3.02 to
4.27 mg pot-1d-1 under 396, 550 and 750 µ mol mol-1
CO2, concentrations, respectively (Table 3). The mean
values are 2.51, 3.26 and 7.75 mg pot-1d-1 under Camb, C550
and C750 levels, respectively. With respect to nitrogen
levels, the mean values are 2.55, 3.35 and 3.62 mg pot-
1d-1 in N0, N150 and N200, respectively.
Total methane emission
The total methane emission was highest under 750 µ
mol mol-1 CO2 followed by 550 µ mol mol-1 CO2 and the
lowest under 396 µ mol mol-1 CO2 concentrations
(ambient) (Table 3). Total methane emission ranged
from 0.22 to 0.31 g pot-1, 0.29 to 0.41 g pot-1 and 0.33 to
0.47 g pot-1 under Camb, C550 and C750 levels, respec-
tively. The highest mean value (0.41 g pot-1) was ob-
served in C750, while the lowest value (0.28 g pot-1) in
Camb. C750 increased the total methane emission by 46.4
per cent and 13.9 per cent over the Camb and C550 lev-
els, respectively. The total methane emission increase
was to the tune of 28.6 per cent in C550 level over the
ambient CO2 concentration.
Total methane emission increased with increasing dos-
es of nitrogen fertilizers. N200 increased the total me-
thane emission by 42.9 per cent and 8.1 per cent over
the N0 and N150 levels, respectively. The total methane
emission increase was to the tune of 32.1 per cent in
N150 over the control (N0).
The data clearly indicated that methane emissions
Plate 1. Mcintosh jar assembly and colonies of methanotrophs.
32
Rajkishore, S. K. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 26 - 34 (2021)
were significantly higher under [CO2] of 750 µmol mol-1
by 33 to 54 per cent over the ambient [CO2] of 396
µmol mol-1 . Our results are in line with ample literature
which reported that elevated [CO2] enhanced the me-
thane emissions by 49 to 60 per cent @ 650 µmol mol-
1 (Ziska et al., 1998), 38 to 51 per cent @ 550 µmol mol-1
(Inubushi et al., 2003), 58 per cent @ 700 µmol mol-1
(Cheng et al., 2006), 26 per cent @ 580 µmol mol-1
(Tokida et al., 2010) and 28-120 per cent @ 500 µmol
mol-1 (Wang et al., 2018) over the ambient [CO2].
These facts are further supported by a recent meta-
analysis report (van Groenigen et al., 2011), indicating that
[CO2] between 463 to 780 µmol mol−1 stimulated CH4
emissions an average by 43.4 per cent. CH4 is the
dominant terminal degradation product of soil organic
materials in submerged rice fields (Kruger et al., 2001),
therefore, increased C input to the soil in response to
elevated [CO2] leads likely to enhanced CH4 produc-
tion (Ziska et al., 1998; Li et al., 2004; Cai et al., 2016).
Moreover, the positive correlations between CH4 emis-
sions and above-ground or root biomass also agree
well with the results of previous studies suggesting that
greater assimilation of carbon under high [CO2] leads to
higher rates of rhizo-deposition (root exudation and autol-
ysis products), which is an important source of substrates
for CH4 production (Inubushi et al., 2003; Xu et al., 2004;
Tokida et al., 2010; Cai et al., 2016; Wang et al.,
2018). Further, the positive correlation of DOC with
methane emissions also adds strength to our results.
Among the different stages of observation, the flower-
ing stage recorded the highest methane flux irrespec-
tive of [CO2]. This period generally corresponds with
increased availability of root sloughing or exudates
due to peak photosynthetic activity and advanced root
senescence and might probably provide more sub-
strate for methanogenesis (Allen et al, 2003; Tokida et
al., 2010; Li et al., 2017). The results from the present
experiment also demonstrated that nitrogen fertiliza-
tion increased the methane flux irrespective of [CO2].
Inference from our observations is in line with Schimel
(2000), who have reported that the application of N
fertilizers enhances rice biomass and contributed for
enhanced root exudates that favours methane
production.
Conclusion
Elevated CO2 levels favoured methane emission as a
result of enhanced carbon assimilation and production
of energy rich root exudates that stimulated microbial
activities in the soil rhizosphere of rice ecosystem.
Consistent with the observed increases in methane
flux, the enumeration of methanogens showed a signif-
icant (P ≤ 0.01) increase under elevated [CO2]. In addi-
tion, the methanotrophs population was also signifi-
cantly (P ≤ 0.01) highest under elevated CO2 levels
regardless of stages of observation. Incremental levels
of nitrogen addition significantly increased the meth-
anogens but decreased the methanotrophs population
regardless of CO2 concentrations or stages of observa-
tion. This study unequivocally demonstrated that even
though higher methanotrophs population was recorded
under elevated [CO2], it could not circumvent the me-
thane emission, thereby showcasing the knowledge
gap and suggesting that methane mitigation strategies
need to be explored for the future high CO2 environ-
ments by duly optimizing the dosage of nitrogenous
fertilizer.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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Characterization of substrates of growing media by Fourier transform
infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy for containerized crop production
N. Elakiya*
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Anbil Dharmalingam Agricultural
College and Research Institute, Trichy - 620027 (Tamil Nadu), India
K. Arulmozhiselvan
Centre of Excellence in Sustaining Soil Health, Anbil Dharmalingam Agricultural College and
Research Institute, Trichy - 620027 (Tamil Nadu), India
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2774
Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: April 17, 2021
Accepted: May 8, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
Soilless culture systems are increasingly being adopted
as a major technological component in the modern
greenhouse industry which developed rapidly during
the last 30-40 years (Gruda et al., 2018) to sustain prof-
itable agriculture globally over recent decades
(Schmilewski, 2009). The term “soilless culture” in gen-
eral refers to any method of growing plants without the
use of soil as a rooting medium (Savvas, 2003; Gruda
et al., 2016a). The soilless culture can be done by cultiva-
tion of crops on porous growing media which creates a
matrix retaining both air and water at suitable ratios for
plant growth. The main innovations that turned soilless
culture into the leading cultivation technology in modern
greenhouses include the development of suitable growing
media (GM) with optimal physical, hydraulic, and chemical
properties, such as rockwool and coir, and the advances
put forth in plant nutrition and irrigation via modern fertiga-
tion equipment and automation technologies (Savvas and
Gruda, 2018).
Growing media are solid substrates, which alone or in
mixtures can guarantee better plant growth conditions
similar to agricultural soil in one or many aspects (Gruda
et al., 2013). The independence from the soil as a root-
ing medium in soilless culture facilitates optimizing both
physical and chemical characteristics in the crop root envi-
ronment and more efficient pathogen control eliminating
application of soil fumigation. Therefore, higher yields at a
reasonable production cost with minimal use of pesticides
Abstract
Growing media used in soilless culture systems are those solid substrates, which alone or in mixtures can guarantee better plant
growth conditions similar to agricultural soil in one or many aspects. This study was aimed to characterize lignocellulosic organic
substances predominant in most available and effective organic substrates viz., coir pith and dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata)
powder and compost maturity in vermicompost based on the presence of functional groups by Fourier transform infrared (FT-
IR) spectroscopy. The dominant downward peaks noted at 3300-3500 cm-1 in coir pith and dhaincha indicate vibration of
hydroxyl (OH--) stretch in cellulose structure and presence of alcohols and phenols. Peaks at 2925-2850 cm-1 found prominently
in coirpith would be indicative of vibration of C-H bonds showing aliphatic degradation of cellulose, hemicelluloses, lipids, fats,
etc. Particularly in dhaincha, vibration at 1733.32 cm-1 would be due to C=O stretch associated with an unconjugated ketone,
carbonyl and ester groups. In vermicompost, peak value around 1549.85 cm-1 indicates C=C aromatic structure formed during
mineralization of protein, cellulose, and hemicelluloses showing compost maturity. In the present study, FT-IR analysis of
organic lignocellulosic substrates confirmed the occurrence of lignin, hemicellulose and cellulose, which are the main character-
istics of natural fibers with high water holding and cation exchange capacity. Presence of alcoholic and carboxylic groups indi-
cated stages of compost maturity and stability. Therefore, these renewable and environmentally sustainable lignocellulosic
organic materials could be recognized as ideal soilless substrates for preparing grow media for containerized crop production
and also recycling organic wastes in an environmentally friendly manner.
Keywords: Coir pith, Dhaincha, FT-IR, Growing media, Vermicompost
How to Cite
Elakiya, N. and Arulmozhiselvan, K. (2021). Characterization of substrates of growing media by Fourier transform infrared
(FT-IR) spectroscopy for containerized crop production. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 13 (SI), 35 - 42. https://
doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2774
36
Elakiya, N. and Arulmozhiselvan, K. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 35 - 42 (2021)
and high product quality can be attained (Gruda et al.,
2018).
The selection of an appropriate substrate composition
based on technical and economic feasibility is an im-
portant aspect of research and key to success in any soil-
less production system (Vaughn et al., 2011). The grow-
bag media composition may possibly be either inorganic
(e.g. perlite, rockwool, vermiculite, gravel, sand, pumice,
zeolite, tuff, volcanic porous rock, and expanded clay
granules, etc.) or organic in nature (Papadopoulos et al.,
2008; Gruda et al., 2016b). Currently, organic materials
would meet the requirement of being environment-friendly
in the commercial sector (Gruda, 2012; Barrett et al.,
2016) and have become the focus of most intensive re-
search attributed to their widespread availability, low cost,
easy disposal, renewable and eco-friendly nature (Raviv,
2013; Gruda et al., 2018). As the importance of soilless
culture is likely to rise in the near future, it is essential to
take research work towards identifying new materials that
are environmentally sustainable, commercially viable and
able to perform as well as those they are replacing (Barret
et al., 2016).
Nowadays, the most available and effective organic sub-
strates are coir pith, vermicompost, peat, etc. Coir is a
100% organic naturally occurring fiber derived from a re-
newable resource of coconut husk. Raw coir pith consists
of 35 per cent cellulose, 25.2 per cent lignin, 7.5 per cent
pentosanes, 1.8 per cent fat and resins, 8.7 per cent ash,
11.9 per cent moisture and 10.6 per cent of other nutrients
(Tripetchkul et al., 2012). Because of its high C: N ratio
(117: 1) (Noguera et al., 2000) and high lignin under natu-
ral conditions, its degradation and mineralization rates are
very slow, preventing its direct use as organic manure. A
study on coir pith, sewage sludge and compost incorpo-
rated equally in garden soil, silt and leaf mould showed
that the incorporation of coir pith and compost lowered the
pH, maintained optimum EC and increased the organic
carbon content improving nutrient uptake, yield and quality
of marigold (Ahmad et al., 2012). Vermicompost is peat
like material containing plant growth hormones, enzymes
and plant available nutrients promoting crop growth and
yield (Atiyeh et al., 2000). Dhaincha is an ideal quick grow-
ing and largely grown green manure crop. Its dry matter as
a powder can also be used in the mixture of growing me-
dia as it is easily decomposable and supplier of organic
carbon and nitrogen.
Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy analy-
sis is one of the most promising tool for characterizing
heterogeneous organic matter by providing comprehen-
sive information on the composition, properties and
behaviour of the samples (Cuetoset al., 2010). In the
present instrumental investigation, compost maturity
and lignocellulosic organic substances predominant in
coir pith, vermicompost and dhaincha powder were
characterized based on the presence of functional groups
by FT-IR spectroscopy.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Collection of substrate samples
Raw coir pith blocks were obtained from an Agri-Clinic
centre, Trichy, Tamil Nadu and soaked in water to loos-
en the pith fibers and sun-dried. Vermicompost was
collected from vermicompost production centre, Depart-
ment of Agronomy, Anbil Dharmalingam Agricultural
College and Research Institute (ADAC&RI), Trichy. The
obtained vermicompost was thoroughly mixed and air-
dried. After drying, the samples were stored for analy-
sis. Dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata) plants were harvest-
ed from the ADAC&RI field, chopped into pieces, dried,
ground as a powder in a flour mill and stored (Fig.1).
Sample preparation for FT-IR analysis
For the substrates viz., coir pith, vermicompost and
dhaincha FT-IR spectra were obtained on FT-IR spec-
trometer (Thermo Scientific Nicolet iS10 model with
DTGS KBr detector). In solid film (pellet) technique of
sample preparation, 1mg of dried sample along with
100 mg) KBr (spectroscopy grade) was homogenized
and compressed to pellet (1mm thickness, 13 mm di-
ameter) using a hydraulic press (Fig. 2). Spectra were
recorded over the frequency range of 4000-400 cm-1
with 4 cm-1 resolution averaging 32 scans and corrected
against air as background. The spectra collected were
finally processed using OMNIC Spectra software
(Ravindran et al., 2013).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
FT-IR spectroscopy analysis
Solid-state spectroscopy is the most powerful tool
which is used for examining the carbon composition of
organic materials. One among them is FT-IR spectros-
copy providing structural and compositional information
on the functional groups present in the samples of or-
ganic substrates. Thus, this technique aids to confirm
the products of decomposition containing several func-
tional groups viz., polypeptides, polysaccharides, lignin,
aliphatic, aromatic, carboxylic, phenolic groups existing
in the substrates. In the present study, the spectra's
different absorption peaks/ pattern and values showed
the presence or absence of specific functional groups
in the samples. In numerous FT-IR studies, relevant
peaks attributing to specific functional groups/ and
compounds were ascertained and these peaks were
used as a guide for interpretation (Table 1).
FT-IR spectra of coir pith
Coir pith is an indigenously available agricultural organ-
ic solid byproduct, generated during the process of ex-
traction of fibers from coconut husk. Before the last 20
years, coir pith was considered as a waste product of
the extraction process and was dumped outside of coir
37
Elakiya, N. and Arulmozhiselvan, K. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 35 - 42 (2021)
fibre mills, causing large environmental pollution issues
and serious health hazards of its own. When every 10
tons of coconut husks utilized for coir extraction, 1.6 ton
of coir pith was obtained as a byproduct (Coir Board,
International Coir Fair, 2016). During 2012, there was
an accumulated stock of 10 million tons of coir pith in
southern states (Reghuvaran and Ravindranath, 2014),
while in all over India, only 10 lakh tons of coir pith are
produced annually (Coir Board, India International Coir
Fair, 2016). With the development of commercial horti-
culture and reduction in sphagnum peat availability,
coco peat has become an internationally recognized
ideal soil amendment and component of soilless con-
tainer media for horticultural plants. In addition, coir
pith also acts as an absorbent for eliminating pollutants
from wastewater (Ali et al., 2012).
S. No.
Band position* (cm-1)
Vibration* Functional group or component*
Wavelengths obtained for grow media substrates from FTIR
Coir pith Vermi compost
Dhaincha
1. 3200-3500 (Broadband)
O-H stretch Alcohols and phenols 3334.66 3291.75 3294.28
2. 2925-2850 (Peak)
C-H stretch Aliphatic nature – Degradation of cellulose, hemicelluloses, lipids, fats
2922.49 2918.01 2917.63
3. 1738–1709 (Peak)
C=O stretch Unconjugated ketone, carbonyl and ester groups
- - 1733.32
4. 1600-1650 C=O stretch Carbonyl group of hemicellu-lose/lignin/ amide groups
1608.61 1634.71 1613.33
5. 1649-1521 C=C aro-matic struc-ture
Mineralization of protein, cellu-lose, hemicelluloses. Compost maturity
- 1549.85 -
5. 1515-1510 Aromatic C=C stretch
Lignin 1515.44 1514.87 1512.88
6. 1425-1410 COO-stretch Carboxylic acids 1423.10 1421.63 1422.27
7. 1095-1030 (Sharp peak)
C-O-C stretch
Polysaccharides 1031.68 1053.95 1031.74
8. 785-800 C-O stretch Carbonate/and Silica - 789.69 -
Table 1. Assignment of typical infrared bands for grow media substrates from FT-IR spectra.
*Interpretive Source :Rout and Arulmozhiselvan (2019); Bhat et al. (2017); Jahan and Mun (2009)
a) Sun drying of coir pith b) Air drying of vermicompost
Fig. 1. Processing of growing media substrates.
c) Dhaincha harvesting and powdering
38
Elakiya, N. and Arulmozhiselvan, K. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 35 - 42 (2021)
The analysis of the FT-IR spectra of coir pith (Fig. 3)
showed the presence of lignin, cellulose and hemicellu-
lose, which are confirming the main characteristic of
natural fibers. In general, the IR spectra with a broad,
round band in between 3200-3600 cm-1indicates axial
deformation of the hydroxyl (O-H) group representing
the presence of alcohols (Saberikhahet al., 2013). The
exhibition of broadband at 3334.66 cm-1might be indica-
tive of the presence of stretch vibration of bonded hy-
droxyl groupsfrom cellulose structure (Anirudhanet al.,
2007) on the coir dust. The weak band at 2922.49 cm-
1would have been caused by C-H stretch, which re-
flects the aliphatic nature of coir pith (Lazimet al.,
2015). The peak at 1608.61cm-1might be the reflection
of the presence of carbonyl group (C=O) of hemicellu-
lose in coir pith. Similar findings have been reported by
Ammar et al. (2014); Rout and Arulmozhiselvan
(2019).
The absorption peak at 1515.44 cm-1 might be the axial
stretch of aromatic C=C groups that ensures the pres-
ence of lignin, a prominent constituent of coir pith, as
reported by Boeriuet al. (2004) and Lazimet al. (2015).
The presence of lignin is a sign of a complex carbon
backbone and a high degree of polymerisation, imped-
ing resistance against degradation. The vibration at
1423.01 cm-1 might be corresponding to the –COO–
antisymmetric stretching of carboxylic acids as per the
reports of Bhat et al. (2017). The characteristic peak at
1370.27 cm-1 could be due to weak vibration of OH
deformation of phenolic group, CH3 bending, or C-O
stretching. Similar findings are reported by Lailiet al.
(2010) in humic acids present in coir pith.
All the substrates showed a sharp peak between 1095
and 1030 cm-1 attributable to –OCO– and –C–O–
stretch in alcohols, esters and ethers, which would also
show the presence of lactones and polysaccharides as
stated by Davila-Rodriguez et al.(2009).
FT-IR spectra of vermicompost
Vermicompost comes as an excellent product since it is
homogenous has desirable aesthetics, has minimal
contamination levels, and tends to hold more nutrients
over a longer period without adversely impacting the
environment (Ndegwa and Thompson, 2000). Minerali-
zation of organic matter and degradation of complex
aromatics (lignin, polyphenols) into simpler compounds
(carbohydrates, lipids) can be analyzed by FT-IR spec-
troscopy. This technique indicates the stages of com-
post maturity and stability of compounds of degradation
present. Therefore, it appears as a promising technique
a) Thermo Scientific Nicolet iS10 model with DTGS KBr detector b) Hydraulic press
c) Substrate sample and their pellets
Fig. 2. Media pellet preparation by solid film technique in FT-IR.
39
Elakiya, N. and Arulmozhiselvan, K. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 35 - 42 (2021)
to identify functional groups in compost in the process
of vermicomposting. The spectral bands symbolize the
presence or absence of certain functional groups aiding
to predict the degradation or stabilization process at
different stages.
In the recorded infrared spectra (Fig. 4), an intense
wide band in between 3200 – 3500 cm-1 might indicate
–OH stretching of alcohols and phenols group. Similar
findings were reported by Pandey and Pitman (2003)in
fungi; Simkovic et al. (2008) in soil organic matter; Amir
et al. (2010) in humic acids and Hussain et al. (2016)in
vermicompost. The decrease in intensity of band from
3291.75 to 2918.01cm-1 would be the indication of the
evidence of intense biodegradation ensuring compost
maturity. Similar results were given by Ganguly and
Chakraborty (2019).
The band at wave number 1634.71 cm-1 shows the ex-
istence of lignin. The peak value around 1549.85 cm-1
indicate C=C aromatic structure formed during minerali-
zation of protein, cellulose and hemicelluloses. This
increase in the aromatic carbon is considered as an
indicator of an increasing degree of organic matter hu-
mification associated with compost maturity and stabil-
ity and their transformation to the highly humified sub-
strate. These interpretations corroborate the reports of
Huag et al. (2006) who have indicated an increase in
polycondensed structures by detecting with FT-IR
Spectra, and concluded that the mature compost de-
rived from pig manure with saw dust contained more
stable organic matter.
In another study, FT-IR spectra exhibited an increase in
absorbance at 1453.31, 1421.63 cm-1 and a strong in-
crease at 1053.95 cm-1, also the appearance of new
small peaks around 1634.71 and 1514.87 cm-1 which
were mainly attributed to aromatic ethers from lignin-
like structures. This confirms the decrease in aliphatic
structures and the increase in more oxidized, poly-
condensed aromatic structures as reported by Ammar
et al. (2014) in lignin samples, while vibration at 789.69
cm-1 might be the indication of C-O stretch associated
Fig. 3. FT-IR spectra of coir pith.
Fig. 4. FT-IR spectra of vermicompost.
40
Elakiya, N. and Arulmozhiselvan, K. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 35 - 42 (2021)
with carbonate/and silica as observed from the FTIR
results of vermicomposts by Carrasquero-Duran and
Flores (2009) and Ravindran et al. (2008).
FT-IR spectra of dhaincha
Green manure is an excellent natural source of nitro-
gen for cultivated crops. Dhaincha, a stem nodulating
green manure crop,is widely available in many tropical
countries of Asia and Africa and is considered the most
promising of the green manure crops for wetland rice
since it has high nitrogen fixing ability in standing water.
The major use of the crop has been for fodder for live-
stock and green manure to improve soil fertility. FT-IR
spectra were recorded for the dry matter of dhaincha,
which was ground as a powder (Fig. 5) and based on
the assignments made by Faix (1991) the spectral pat-
tern can be interpreted as follows:
In the region between 3412-3460 cm-1, the absorbance
at 3294.28 cm-1 correspond to –OH stretching
vibrations of polysaccharides and amino groups. The
peak value around 3000-2842 cm-1have been assigned
to C-H stretch in methyl and methylene group of lignin
extracted from different non-woods. In the present
sample, such peaks were found at 2917.63 and 2849.31
cm-1.
The presence of vibration at 1738–1709 cm-1 would be
due to C=O stretch associated with an unconjugated
ketone, carbonyl and ester groups. Such peak ap-
peared at 1733.32 cm-1for the present sample. The
bands around 1610 and 1422 cm-1 depict the aromatic
skeleton vibrations plus C=O stretching and aromatic
skeleton vibrations plus CH in plane deformation. The
spectra showing signs of absorbance between 1505
and 1515 and 1460-1470 cm-1can be associated with
aromatic skeleton vibration and C-H deformations
(asymmetric in –CH3 and –CH2 of lignin) respectively.
As per the reports of Jahan and Mun (2009), the sharp
peak appearing at 1031.74 would be the indication of
the aromatic C-H in plane deformation plus C-O defor-
mation in primary alcohols plus C-H stretching
(unconjugated) of polysaccharides.
Advantages and limitations
FT-IR spectroscopy is used to study the substrates
without any chemical treatment, which would cause
unsuitable reactions. It is simple, quick, highly sensi-
tive, informative for evaluation of the functional groups
in organic substrates and environment friendly as it
produces remarkably less waste. Solid, liquid, as well
as gas can be analyzed with FT-IR spectroscopy. The
disappearance or the appearance of a new band in the
FT-IR spectra provides essential information about the
organic matter evolution and its interaction with heavy
metals. Organic and inorganic compounds can also be
easily identified with the spectra obtained.
FT-IR spectroscopy is a single beam technique. It can-
not detect atoms or monoatomic ions. It is impossible to
measure the level of an element in a substance unless
it is present as a part of a molecule whose spectrum
can be detected (Bhat et al., 2017).
Conclusion
In the present study, FT-IR analysis in coir pith and
dhaincha samples confirmed the occurrence of lignin,
hemicellulose and cellulose, which are the main char-
acteristics of natural fibers with high water-holding and
cation exchange capacity. The presence of alcoholic
and carboxylic groups would be indicative of stages of
compost maturity and stability. It also showed the pres-
Fig. 5. FT-IR spectra of Dhaincha.
41
Elakiya, N. and Arulmozhiselvan, K. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 35 - 42 (2021)
ence of functional groups on their surfaces, which pro-
vide a conducive physical, chemical, and biological
environment for crop growth. Therefore, these renewa-
ble and environmentally sustainable lignocellulosic or-
ganic materials, viz., coir pith, vermicompost and dhain-
cha could be recognized as ideal soilless substrates for
preparing growth media for containerized crop produc-
tion. Further, utilizing these organic materials paves the
way for recycling organic wastes in an environmentally
friendly manner. Therefore, an ideal soilless media
while improving crop productivity can minimize the risks
associated with soil-based cultivation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The laboratory and instrumentation facility provided by
the Centre of Excellence in sustaining Soil Health (COE
-SSH), Anbil Dharmalingam College and Agricultural
Institute, Trichy, for carrying out the sample analysis for
the present study is duly acknowledged.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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India rice export and virtual water trade
Uma Gowri M.*
Department of Agricultural Economics, Centre for Agricultural and Rural Development
Studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore- 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
Shivakumar K. M.
Department of Agricultural Economics, Centre for Agricultural and Rural Development
Studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore- 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2775 Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: April 17, 2021
Accepted: May 8, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
Rice is one of the important cereal crops and it serves a
major role in feeding the population of the world, espe-
cially in South Asia and African countries (Cai and
Sharma, 2017). Water used in the production of a
product is called the 'virtual water' (Aeschbach and
Gleeson, 2012). The Water Footprint (WF) of rice pro-
duction and consumption is significant in the South
Asian countries (Amarasinghe and Smakhtin, 2014). In
these countries, WF is mostly rooted in the wet season
and hence the contribution of scarcity of water is mini-
mal. In rice production, the impact of environment of
blue WF depends on the time and allocation of water
use. Probably, majority of the cases, the green WF
does not have any significant negative impact on the
environment and economic level (Chukalla et al., 2015).
If one country trades a product with water-intensive to
another country, it trades water in the form of virtual
(Anup and Sekhon, 2014). In this way, some countries
support other countries in their water needs Khandare
et al., 2012). International virtual water flows for rice
related to trade are quantified by multiplying trade vol-
umes by their respective water footprints in the export-
ing countries (Naresh et al., 2017). Water footprint and
percolation for production of rice in India were stands in
the second position in major rice producing countries
globally (De Fraiture and Wichelns, 2010), which were
2020 m3 and 1403 m3 per ton respectively and total
national water footprint and percolation of water were
432.9 billion m3 per year. India was exported nearly 44
and 76 lakh tons of basmati and non-basmati rice re-
spectively in 2018-19 (United States Department of
Agriculture, 2018). Globally, the top five largest virtual
water traders for rice products are Thailand (9627
Mm3), India (5185 Mm3), USA (3474 Mm3), Pakistan
(2923 Mm3) and China (1296 Mm3) per year
(Chapagain and Hoekstra, 2011).
Abstract
The present study aimed to assess water footprint in the production and export of rice in India. From recent few years, the water
footprint conception in full swing to inward detection around the world. The amplified attention in the water footprint has impelled
the trade of commodities between countries. Water footprint in the rice field is a sign of water use that exhibits direct and
indirect water usage in the rice field. Rice is an important food crop in India. It accesses the flows of water virtually between
countries/regions of the world to illustrate the dependency of countries/regions on water resources with other countries/regions
under diverse feasible futures. Hence, it is gaining consequence to calculate the water foot print in production as well as export
of rice. The Indian rice production and export of rice was calculated by using international trade and domestic production data.
The study results indicated that the global footprint of rice production was 235774 Mm3 per ton which was 53 % of green water
footprint, 41 % of blue water footprint and 6 % of grey water footprint for 2018-19. The virtual water flowed in trade was 24354
Mm3/year and the percolation was 16924 Mm3/year since rice is a more water consuming crop. The share of basmati and non-
basmati trade accounted was 16 % and 42 %, respectively. Virtual water trade in rice can be minimized by exporting less water
demand and high-value crops, proper water harvesting structures and other agronomic practices
Keywords: Economic gain, Export, Rice, Water footprint, Virtual water trade
How to Cite
Uma Gowri, M. and Shivakumar, K. M. (2021). India rice export and virtual water trade. Journal of Applied and Natural Science,
13 (SI), 43 - 46. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2775
44
Uma Gowri, M. and Shivakumar, K.M. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 43 - 46 (2021)
This paper quantifies the fresh rain water (green) and
irrigation srface water (blue) needed to produce rice in
India and quantum of water polluted (grey) from the
application of fertilisers like nitrogen etc. Also, this study
has made an attempt to calculate the percolation of rain
and irrigation water in the rice field and the flow of virtu-
al water through external rice trade.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The data on the production, export of basmati and non-
basmati rice were obtained from FAO, APEDA, USDA
and Ministry of Commerce and Industry, for the year
1995 to 2019. The water footprint for rice crop was cal-
culated as follows:
Water footprint
Water footprint (WF) indicates the direct (green and
blue) and indirect (grey) appropriation of freshwater
resources which evaporates/evapo-transpires, incor-
porates into a product, contaminated and it is not
returned to the same area where it was drawn (Kar
et al., 2014).
Blue water footprint
It is the quantum of irrigated water from surface or
groundwater except the water from rainfall for growing
rice. Under unconstrained irrigated water condition, the
whole need of scarcity of water for rice is met in the
course of irrigation with the intention to execute the
evapo-transpiration of rice crop (PETR) or requirement
of water for rice crop (CWRR) and evaporation through-
out in preparation of land for rice cultivation and thus
usage of water by rice crop (CWUR) is equivalent to
PETR or CWRR. Hence, for effusive irrigated rice crops,
blue water (ETBLUE) or else the irrigation (IRR) require-
ment is equivalent to the CWRR minus PEFF and ΔSW. If
PEFF and ΔSW are equivalent or above that of CWRR,
the blue water requirement is zero.
The Blue Water Footprint (WFBLUE) refers to the share
of the quantity of blue water consumed (m3/ha) through-
out the period of rice production to the volume of the
economic yield of rice crop (t/ha)
BWFRICE (m3/t) = Volume of blue water used in rice
field (m3/ha) / Grain yield of the rice crop (t/ha) ..Eq. 1
Green water footprint
It is the ratio of loss of rain water and stored soil mois-
ture as it does not become run off due to evaporation or
evapo-transpiration during the rice growth to the quanti-
ty of economic rice yield (t/ha) produced. If rainfall is not
received during rice growth period, the Profile Residual
Soil Moisture of the rainy season (PSMC) may serve as
a source of green water footprints.
GNWFRICE (m3/t) =Volume of green water used in rice
field (m3/ha) / Grain yield of the rice crop (t/ha) …..Eq. 2
Grey water footprint
It is defined as the quantity of freshwater required to
assimilating the volume of pollutants in rice field based
on ambient water quality standards
GYWFRICE (m3/t) = Volume of grey water used in rice
field (m3/ha) / Grain yield of the rice crop (t/ha) ..Eq.(3)
The water footprint of rice is always expressed as the
quantity of green, blue and grey water consumed dur-
ing the rice growth period. Thus the total water footprint
TWFRICE (Hoekstra and Chapagain, 2008; Hoekstra et
al., 2011)
TWFRICE = GNWFRICE + BWFRICE + GYWFRICE (volume/mass)
Rice water foot print can be calculated by
GNWFRICE + BWFRICE + GYWFRICE (m3/ha) / Economic
yield of the rice crop (t/ha) ………..Eq. 4
GNWURICE = Green water usage for rice crop,
BWURICE = Blue water usage for rice crop,
GYWURICE = Grey water usage for rice crop.
Crop Water Requirement is the total amount of water
needed to compensate the evapo-transpiration (ETRICE)
loss from the rice field from planting to harvest. Under
unlimited water availability the total blue and green us-
age of water are equivalent to evapo-transpiration of
rice crop (PETRICE) or CWRRICE. When constrained wa-
ter is available, BWURICE+ GNWURICE would be equiva-
lent or less than total crop water requirement
(CWRRICE) for the production of rice and thus, CWURICE
will be the actual evapo-transpiration of rice crop
(AETRICE).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Water footprint of Indian rice production
Using the national water foot print of rice production,
different water footprints of rice producing states of In-
dia, the present study as estimated the rice production
to 235774 Mm3 per ton (53% green water footprint,
41% blue water footprint and 6% grey water footprint)
for the year 2018-19. The volume of percolated rain
and irrigation water in the rice field was 163839 Mm3
per ton. (Fig. 1). Total water footprint and percolation of
water used in the rice field was 1359 billion m3 which
was reported by Chapagain and Hockstra (2011) esti-
mated water foot print for production and export of rice
in major rice producing countries at global level. Water
footprint of Indian rice exports
International trade in rice during 2018-19 resulted in a
total virtual water transfer of 24354 Mm3 per year. The
total percolation of rain and irrigation water footprint of
Indian rice export was 9578 Mm3 and 7346 Mm3 per
year. The total water footprint of Indian rice export
(Fig. 2).
Share of basmati and non-basmati rice exports of
India
The Five year average of basmati and non-basmati rice
45
Uma Gowri, M. and Shivakumar, K.M. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 43 - 46 (2021)
exports of India from 1995 to 2020 was calculated and
is shown in Fig. 3. In the total trade of Indian rice, the
contribution of basmati rice was increased from 1995 to
2015, which was accounted 16 % and 42 % in the re-
spective years. In 2016-17, it was declined to 37 % due
to weak international demand of basmati rice in major
importing countries. After 2017, basmati rice exports
were witnessed to pick up in total Indian rice exports as
the surge in demand in global markets.
Indian rice exports (1995-2020)
The trend of basmati and non-basmati rice export is
given in Fig. 4. It could be seen that the export of non-
basmati rice decreased in the initial period of 1995 to
2005 and the export swirled the same volume up to
2010, after that it was increased. But in the case of non
-basmati rice export, it was increased up to 2015, then
the rate of increase in exports decreased due to decline
in export demand and it is expected to increase in the
coming years when the export orders would be re-
ceived.
Rice is a staple food for three billion people (Kumar and
Singh, 2005), especially in South Asian countries. In
global level, rice provides chief calorie and nutrition
directly and thus it makes an major food crop.
Trade in virtual water is a relevant concept accepted
worldwide, considering countries are grappling with the
consequences of environmental sustainability (Ridoutt
and Pfister, 2010). Depletion of groundwater, erratic
rainfall, natural calamities like flood and drought are
resulting in constrained economic ties among coun-
tries. India is a water-stressed country, water exploita-
tion for production of rice to cater to exports significant-
ly contribute to an increase in the virtual water trade.
The surface water availability per person water would
considerably be minimised from 1902 cubic metre in
2001 to 1401 cubic metre in 2025 and 1191 cubic me-
tre in 2050 (Mishra et al., 2014). 85 % of ground water
used for agricultural and farming purposes remaining
water is used for industrial and domestic purposes
(Mamma, 2013). Hence, it is important to decide
whether the contribution from export of water intensive
crop like rice would be more than the commitment on
the import dependence of less water consuming maize,
pulses and oilseeds as the New Agricultural Export
policy paves way encouraging states to go for import
substitution wherever possible. The other way to re-
duce the export of water in virtual form from India is
through the production of food crops by water efficient
methods includes effective irrigation techniques, proper
irrigation scheduling, suitable crop selection according
to the land, climate conditions and using alternative
sources of water for irrigation (Naresh et al., 2017). In
the national level, less water demanded crops and as-
Fig. 2. Water footprint if Indian rice export (2018-19). Fig. 1. Water footprint of India rice production (2018-19).
Fig. 4. India rice exports (1995-2020). Fig. 3. Export of basmati and non basmati rice of India.
46
Uma Gowri, M. and Shivakumar, K.M. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 43 - 46 (2021)
tute mixing to be engaged to condense the virtual water
export from India.
(Singh et al., 2014). This study provides ample evi-
dence in calculating the water footprints of rice produc-
tion and rice exports from India and helps the policy-
makers, scientists and extension officials to devise al-
ternate cropping pattern to promote agricultural ex-
ports, implement suitable import substitution in order to
strike a balance between export earnings and address-
ing the environmental issues.
Conclusion
The rice water footprint of production and export is fair-
ly considerable in the world, especially in South Asian
countries like India. There is almost an equivalent
allocation of water usage in the form of green and
blue water in the rice total water footprint at the
world level. The green water footprint that is rain
water consumed by the production of rice has a
moderately stumpy opportunity cost compared to the
evaporated irrigation water. In other words, blue wa-
ter footprint from the rice field. The evaporated irriga-
tion water from rice field depends on the location and
time of the usage of water. From this study, it is evi-
dent that rice production mostly depends on irrigated
water, which commonly causes greater impact per
rice production unit. Further, in an international per-
spective, rice producing countries does not over-
heads the actual cost of water. Since the system of
irrigation are subsidized and scarcity of water is
never converted into a penalty, the economic costs
of water are not enclosed in the form of rice price.
The cost of water varies from countries/regions to
countries/regions and depends on dry or wet rice
production.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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Development of a picking and dropping mechanism for protray grown
vegetable seedlings
Vivek Periasamy*
Department of Farm Machinery & Power Engineering, AEC & RI, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore- 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
Duraisamy
Department of Farm Machinery & Power Engineering, AEC & RI, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore- 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
Kavitha
Department of Farm Machinery & Power Engineering, AEC & RI, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore- 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2776
Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: April 17, 2021
Accepted: May 8, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
In India, manual transplanting of vegetable seedlings
was the commonly adopted method for raising vegeta-
ble crops, but it is laborious, time-consuming and cost-
ly. Therefore, mechanical transplanters are being de-
veloped to overcome the problems in manual trans-
planting. These transplanters include devices for feed-
ing, conveying and metering a variety of vegetable
seedlings. Initially, semiautomatic transplanters were
reported as successful for transplanting of vegetable
seedlings, but a requirement of a significantly higher
amount of labourers to feed the seedlings to the trans-
planter could not attract the farmers in India. To over-
come the limitations of semi-automatic transplanter,
automatic vegetable transplanters were developed.
This necessitated developing a suitable mechanism to
feed the seedlings to the metering device without any
human intervention.
Han et al. (2018) developed multi-task robotic trans-
planting work cell for greenhouse seedlings. The trans-
planting system having multi-grippers was designed to
automatically pick-up and plant whole rows of seed-
lings. The conveyors were designed with the pallet-type
double-row chain transmission system which moves
the plug trays and pots to the predefined working space
Abstract
In India, manual transplanting of vegetable seedlings was the commonly adopted method for raising vegetable crops, but it is
laborious, time-consuming and costly. Therefore, mechanical transplanters are developed to overcome the problems in manual
transplanting. The present work was to develop multiple seedlings picking and transferring mechanism for protray grown vege-
table seedlings. Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), chilli (Capsicum annuum) and brinjal (Solanum melongena) seedlings were
raised in portrays with coir pith as a growth media and used for transplanting operation. The mechanism was to pick seven
numbers of seedlings in one row at a time and transfer them into lateral conveying system, which could deliver the seedlings
one by one on to the ground at regular interval. Programmable Logic Controller was used to controlling entire operations of
seedlings picking and dropping. At the time of evaluation, a totally 196 number of seedlings were used with 98 cell protray.
From the test results, the success rate of 89.28 per cent, missing seedling of 3.57 per cent, damaged seedling of 4.08 per cent,
seedling delivering failure of 3.06 per cent were recorded for tomato seedlings.
Similarly, in chilli and brinjal the success rate of 95.40 and 91.83 per cent, the missing seedling of 2.04 and 2.55 per cent, dam-
aged seedling of 1.53 and 3.06 per cent and seedling delivering failure of 1.02 and 2.55 per cent respectively were observed.
Transplanting frequency of developed mechanism was 2520 seedlings h-1. As a whole, this work was able to develop a work-
ing model of vegetable seedling transplanting mechanism, which can eject seven seedlings at a time from portray cell and
transfer them into the slotted conveyor.
Keyword: Coir pith, Gripper, Picking mechanism, Protray seedlings, Transplanting rate
How to Cite
Periasamy, V. et al. (2021). Development of a picking and dropping mechanism for protray grown vegetable seedlings. Journal
of Applied and Natural Science, 13 (SI), 47 - 54. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2776
48
Periasamy, V. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 47 - 54 (2021)
of the multi-grippers. The results was up to 90% at the
efficiency of 960 plants/h.
Yang et al. (2018) developed a seedling separation
device with reciprocating movement of seedling cups
and the full automatic plug seedling transplanter
system. The linear driving motor and driving cylinder
were used to control the reciprocating motion, open and
close mechanism of mobile seedling cups. It assured
the control program for picking of seedling in the fixed
position and the transmission of seedling rapidly and
dropping of seedling in the fixed position. The results
showed that speed and the success rate was 70
working cycles min-1 and 95.03 per cent, respectively.
Although these automatic and robotic transplanters per-
formed well, their complex structure and high manufac-
turing costs have made it difficult to use a large number
of growers. These transplanting systems are not feasi-
ble for local plug transplants production since publica-
tion of their designs does not match progress made so
far in the agronomic technology of seedling production
(Rozan et al., 2016). Furthermore, the existing mecha-
nism, can pick and transfer a single seedling at a time.
It takes more time to achieve the operations viz., grasp-
ing, remove the plug seedling from protray cell, transfer
to the specified location and finally release the seedling
with low transplanting frequency (Han et al., 2018).
Hence, the present study was under taken to reduce
the transplanting time to meet the tractor forward
speed. For the same, the aim was to develop and eval-
uate a multiple seedling pickup unit.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
For the development of an automatic transplanting
mechanism for protray grown vegetable seedlings, two
stages were considered. The first stage was the auto-
mation of seedling removal. Seedlings need to be
picked and transferred from the protray one by one
without damaging the plug seedling. Since the removal
mechanism was difficult in single action, two actions
were required. One was grasping the plug seedling with
a robotic arm like structure and another action was to
remove the plug seedling from the protray cell with the
help of pneumatic cylinder. The second stage was auto-
mating the conveying of protray seedlings to the picking
mechanism. Hence, the entire study was split into two
phases. The study was deliberated to develop an effec-
tive gripping device at the initial stage, which grasped,
removed, and released protray grown seedling without
any missing and damaged seedlings. Furthermore, the
study was extended to pick seven numbers of seedlings
in one row at a time and transfer into lateral conveying
system, which could deliver the seedlings one by one
on to the ground at regular interval.
The materials used to develop a seedling picking finger
and linkage mechanism for gripping the protray raised
seedling and methodology adopted for evaluating the
finger gripping mechanism are detailed. Further, the
development and testing of multiple numbers of seed-
lings picking and dropping mechanism are explained.
The procedure adopted for evaluating the performance
of the developed automatic vegetable seedling trans-
planting mechanism is outlined.
Selection of crop and machine operational
parameters to develop a picking mechanism
Tomato, chilli and brinjal seedlings raised in 98 celled
protray were used for conducting experiment. Coir pith
and protray cell size 17.83 cm3 were used as it was
found suitable for good quality seedlings of all the three
vegetables and 25 days age of tomato seedling, 40
days age of chilli and brinjal seedlings were used as it
gave minimum damages to seedlings while picking
(Kavitha and Duraisamy 2008; Sivakumar and Durairaj,
2014).
Three types of mechanical linkage were developed for
the optimized piercing finger and tested in a developed
experimental setup to grasp, remove, transfer and re-
lease the seedlings. The study was conducted with
three levels of media moisture content (16 ±1, 18 ±1
and 21 ±1 per cent), three types of picking fingers
(sliding plate cam type, sliding end cam type and four
bar type picking finger) and three levels of angle of
gripper needle (6°, 8° and 10°) for assessing maximum
successful ejection and delivering with minimum miss-
ing and damages to protray grown selected vegetable
seedlings as shown in Fig. 1. (Yang et al., 1991; Kumar
Fig. 1. View of picking fingers for picking of portray grown seedlings.
49
Periasamy, V. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 47 - 54 (2021)
and Raheman, 2011; Kang et al., 2012 and Mao et al.,
2014).
Experimental setup for evaluate the picking fingers
It consisted of a mainframe, an aluminium linear extru-
sion frame, linear guideway, linear rail, limit switch,
stepper motor with pulleys, timer belt, pneumatic cylin-
ders of 50 mm and 60 mm stroke, electrical panel box,
solenoid values with coils, Filter Regulator Lubricator
(FRL) unit, Switched-Mode Power Supply (SMPS), Pro-
grammable logic controller (PLC) board, relay board,
stepper drive, conveyor, wiper motor with spire gear
and tray guide shaft (Fig. 2). Two pneumatic cylinders
actuated the mechanical linkage picking fingers, one to
grasp the seedling and another to remove the seedling
from protray cell. The same sequence of operation was
repeated seven times to pick all seven numbers of
seedlings in the first row. Belt conveyer was used to
move the protray seedlings to the picking device. PLC
was used to control the picking and to transfer the pro-
tray seedling.
Protray seedlings conveyer
Nylon belt conveyor was used for the automatic move-
ment of protray at a regular interval. A 45-rpm wiper
motor was used for the operation of the conveyor. After
the complete removal of seedlings from the first row of
the protray, the conveyor moves one step forward to
position the cells of the second row of the protray just
below the gripper mechanism. The distance of move-
ment of tray and the time taken for the movement were
measured and it was incorporated in the programme.
The process was continued to pick the seedlings in the
desired position. The transplanting rate was set as 840
seedlings h-1.
Effect of selected levels of variables on assessed
parameters
A total number of 81 experiments were conducted in
the automatic picking and dropping mechanism with
the selected levels of variables. The test results were
used to evaluate the adaptability of the pick-up device.
The effect of the selected levels of variables on the
measured parameters was statistically analyzed by
using AGRES statistical software. The success of ejec-
tion or failure was recorded in each replication and da-
ta were recorded. A completely randomized design of
statistical experiment was done, wherein the response
variable is a success or failure over the three inde-
pendent variables.
Optimization of selected levels of variables for
effective picking and dropping device
The selected levels of variables were optimized for
achieving the optimum picking efficiency reflected in
terms of success rate with minimum missing and dam-
age to the plug seedlings. The treatment with the com-
bination of selected variables that resulted in maximum
Fig. 2. Experimental setup for evaluating the picking fingers.
50
Periasamy, V. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 47 - 54 (2021)
picking efficiency with minimum missing and damage
to the plug seedlings with optimized level of age of
seedlings for tomato, chilli and brinjal was selected.
Development of multiple seedling picking and
transplanting mechanism
The developed mechanism could pick and transfer a
single seedling at a time. It takes 3 seconds to achieve
the operations viz., grasping, remove the plug seedling
from protray cell, transfer to the specified location and
finally release the seedling at a frequency of 840 seed-
lings h-1. Hence, the study was taken up to reduce the
transplanting time to meet the tractor forward speed.
For the same, a multiple seedling pickup and the trans-
ferring unit was developed and evaluated as explained
below.
The aim was to pick all seven numbers of seedlings in
one row and transfer into lateral conveying mechanism
that could deliver the seedlings one by one on to the
ground at regular intervals. Hence, a picking mecha-
nism for multiple plug seedlings was developed and
its performance was evaluated. It consisted of a
mainframe, aluminium arms, pneumatic cylinders,
gripping unit, panel box, SMPS, PLC, solid-state
relay, solenoid valves with coil, FRL unit, protray
conveying mechanism, seedlings conveying mecha-
nism and 24V wiper motors. The sliding plate cam-
type mechanical linkage-picking finger was used as
a gripping device.
The development of multiple seedling picking and the
dropping mechanism is shown in Fig. 3. All compo-
nents of multiple seedlings picking and dropping mech-
anism for protray grown vegetable seedlings were
mounted on the mainframe. The entire gripping unit
was threaded to pneumatic cylinder shaft with the help
of aluminium plate that helps to remove out the plug
seedlings from the protray cell. Seven seedlings from
the first row were grasped, removed from protray cell
and then transferred into the slotted conveyer with the
help of aluminium arms. The length of the aluminium
channel was selected based on the gripper picking po-
sition to releasing position.
Two belt conveying systems were used in the multiple
seedlings picking system from the protray. One was
after the removal of seedlings from the first row of the
protray. The conveyor moves one step forward to posi-
tion the cells of the second row of the protray just below
the gripper mechanism. The distance of tray movement
and the time taken for the movement were measured
and incorporated in the programme. In addition, the
other for conveying the seedlings for their release by
the gripper with lateral conveyer. The operational se-
quence of multiple seedlings picking and dropping
mechanism is shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 3. Development of multiple seedling picking and dropping mechanism.
51
Periasamy, V. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 47 - 54 (2021)
Performance evaluation of multiple seedling
picking and transplanting mechanism
The developed picking mechanism for multiple seed-
lings was evaluated and corresponding data were rec-
orded with protray grown tomato, chilli and brinjal
seedlings (Garg and Dixit 2002; Patil et al., 2015).
Missing seedlings
In the test trials, extraction failure and inadequate grip-
ping between finger and growth media were consid-
ered as missing seedling and it was expressed in per
cent,
MS (%) =NMS x 100 / NSF ……… (1)
Where,
MS = Missing seedlings, per cent
NMS = Number of missing seedlings
NSF = Number of seedlings fed
Damaged seedlings
In the test trials, breakage of root lump due to over-
growth or undergrowth of seedlings were considered
as damaged seedlings and it was expressed in per
cent,
DS (%) = NDS x 100 / NSF ……… (2)
Where,
DS = Damaged seedlings, per cent
NDS = Number of damaged seedlings
Failure of seedlings delivered
In the test trials, un-dropped seedlings were consid-
ered as the failure of seedlings delivered and it was
expressed in per cent.
FSD (%) = NFD x 100 / NSP ……….(3)
Where,
FSD = Failure of seedlings delivered, per cent
NFD = Number of seedlings failure in delivery
NSP = Number of seedling picked
Success rate of transplanting
The success rate was defined as the ratio of the total
number of seedling picked without missing, damage
and failure of seedlings in delivery to the total number
of seedlings fed. It was expressed in per cent,
SR (%) = NSF – NMS- NDS- NFD x 100 / NSF
…………(4)
Where,
SR = Success rate, per cent
NSF = Number of seedlings fed
NMS = Number of missing seedlings
NDS = Number of damaged seedlings
NFD = Number of seedlings failure in delivery
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Effect of selected levels of variables on assessed
parameters in vegetable seedlings
The effect of media moisture content, picking finger and
angle of gripper needle on seedling missing and suc-
cess rate of picking for protray grown seedlings is
shown in Fig. 5. The minimum value of missing seed-
Fig. 4. Transplanting sequence of automatic picking and dropping mechanism. (I. Approaching, II. Piercing, III. Grasp-
ing, IV. Ejecting and V. Transferring and Releasing).
V IV
I II III
52
Periasamy, V. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 47 - 54 (2021)
ling (6.55, 3.57 and 5.88 per cent) was registered at 18
±1 per cent of growth media moisture content (M2), 8°
of the angle of gripper needle (θ2) and sliding plate cam
type picking finger (F1) whereas, the maximum of
24.65, 20.65 and 24.15 per cent was recorded at 21 ±1
per cent of growth media moisture content (M3) 10° of
angle of gripper needle (θ3) and four bar type
picking finger (F3) in tomato, chilli and brinjal seedlings
respectively.
The minimum value of success rate (75.35, 79.35 and
75.85 per cent) was registered at 21 ±1 per cent of
growth media moisture content (M3), 10° of angle of
gripper needle (θ3) and four bar type picking finger (F3)
whereas, the maximum of 93.45, 96.43 and 94.12 per
cent was recorded at 18 ±1 per cent of growth media
moisture content (M2), 8° of angle of gripper needle (θ2)
and sliding plate cam type picking finger (F1) in tomato,
chilli and brinjal seedlings respectively. This was due to
when the gripper needle was at an angle of 8°, the nee-
dles grasped the maximum amount of root mass
whereas, the gripper could not grasp the sufficient
amount of media at 6° and 10° angle of gripper needle
(θ1 and θ3) and resulted in poor extraction. A similar
effect was also observed with Sivakumar and Durairaj,
(2014) who developed a gravity fed automatic vegeta-
ble transplanter and concluded that the success rate of
transplanting ( 90 per cent) at medium level of variables
were significantly higher than other levels. Further, re-
sult was in lined with Chilur et al. (2018) who devel-
oped a auger conveyor type metering device for trans-
planting of vegetable seedlings raised in paper pots
with success rate of 90 per cent.
Analysis of variance for media moisture content, angle
of gripper needle and picking finger on seedling miss-
ing and success rate of picking seedlings is shown in
Table 1 and Table 2. The individual effect of varia-
bles viz., media moisture content (M), angle of grip-
per needle (θ) and mechanical picking finger (F)
were at 1 per cent level of probability. The interac-
tion effect of M x F, F x θ, M x θ and M x F x θ were
significant at 1 per cent level probability. Han et al.,
(2018) was developed a multi-task robotic trans-
S. No. Source df SS MS F PROB
1 Total 80 2049.75 25.62 238.47
2 Media moisture content (M) 2 989.97 494.98 4607.07 0.000 **
3 Mechanical linkage finger (F) 2 735.93 367.96 3424.82 0.000 **
4 Angle of gripper needle (θ) 2 233.48 116.74 1086.56 0.000 **
5 M x F 4 16.37 4.09 38.10 0.000 **
6 F x θ 4 56.15 14.03 130.66 0.000 **
7 M x θ 4 5.81 1.45 13.53 0.000 **
8 M x F x θ 8 6.20 0.77 7.21 0.000 **
9 Error 54 5.80 0.10 1.00
Table 1. ANOVA for selected levels of variables on seedlings missing.
S. No. Source df SS MS F PROB
1 Total 80 4075.20 50.94 73.53
2 Media moisture content (M) 2 2002.49 1001.24 1445.29 0.000 **
3 Mechanical linkage finger (F) 2 1358.80 679.40 980.71 0.000 **
4 Angle of gripper needle (θ) 2 592.69 296.34 427.77 0.000 **
5 M x F 4 40.12 10.03 14.47 0.000 **
6 F x θ 4 21.62 5.40 7.80 0.000 **
7 M x θ 4 4.85 1.21 1.75 0.010 **
8 M x F x θ 8 17.19 2.14 3.10 0.006 **
9 Error 54 7.40 2.69 1.00
CV = 1.34 %, **Significant at 1% level; * Significant at 5% level
CV = 1.47 %, **Significant at 1% level; * Significant at 5% level
Table 2. ANOVA for selected levels of variables on success rate of picking seedlings .
53
Periasamy, V. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 47 - 54 (2021)
planting mechanism and these experiments con-
firmed a significant enhancement in seedling picking
and transplanting effect for greenhouse seedlings
with a success rate of 90 per cent. In addition, the
result was in lined with Wei et al. (2015), who tested
the seedling-feeding device using maize seedling at
1 per cent level probability.
Optimization of selected levels of variables based
on experiments
The combination of levels of variables that resulted in
the maximum success rate of picking with minimum
missing seedling for an automatic transplanting mecha-
nism for protray grown vegetable seedlings, M2 x F1 x
θ2, viz., 18±1 per cent of media moisture content, slid-
ing plate cam type picking finger and 8° angle of grip-
per needle respectively considered as the optimized
variable for the development of automatic multiple
seedling picking and transplanting mechanism.
Performance evaluation of multiple seedlings
picking and dropping mechanism
Performance of developed multiple seedlings picking
and dropping mechanism was evaluated with optimized
crop and machine variables. The transplanting frequen-
cy of developed mechanism was 2520 seedlings h-1. At
the time of evaluation (Table 3), totally 196 number of
seedlings were used with 98 cells protray. From the
test results, the success rate of 89.28 per cent, missing
seedling of 3.57 per cent, damaged seedling of 4.08
per cent, seedling delivering failure of 3.06 per cent
were recorded for tomato seedlings. Similarly, in chilli
and brinjal it was recorded that the success rate of
95.40 and 91.83 per cent, missing seedling of 2.04 and
2.55 per cent, damaged seedling of 1.53 and 3.06 per
cent, seedling delivering failure of 1.02 and 2.55 per
cent respectively were observed. Similar result was in
lined with Liu et al. (2016) who optimized a transplant-
ing actuator in a medium level of parameters with the
success rate of picking was 97.6 per cent for pot type
vegetable seedlings.
Conclusion
In the present study, the success rate for tomato seed-
lings was found to be the lowest among the three crops
(Tomato, chilli and brinjal). When the number of seed-
lings missed to the successful seedling extraction was
compared, it was found that some seedlings did not
grow due to picking up position. A total number of 7
tomato seedlings, 4 chilli seedlings and 5 brinjal seed-
lings were missed at the time of transplanting opera-
tion. To reduce the number of missing seedlings, it is
recommended that the seedlings should be grown at
the centre of the respective tray cells. Damage to toma-
to seedlings (8 nos.) was focused on being more as
compared to other two seedlings. It was further ob-
served that the gripper tore the seedling stem as the
stem of tomato seedling was quite brittle, succumbed to
easy damage during gripping by pick-up device. Hence,
agronomic improvement is particularly important for
automatic transplanting of protray seedling. The aver-
age seedling delivery failure was recorded as 4.33 per
cent. This was due to overgrowth of seedlings, and
some roots were getting struck with gripper needle.
Some seedlings were stick on gripper needle due to the
unfavourable moisture content of the growth media. In
terms of the success rate of transplanting, the average
for all the three kinds of seedlings was 92.17 per cent.
The pick-up device satisfactorily grasped and removed
each seedling from the protray and transported the
seedling to the place where they would be precisely
transplanted in the ground. As a whole, this work was
able to develop a working model of vegetable seedling
transplanting mechanism, which can eject seven seed-
lings at a time from protray cell and transfer them into
slotted conveyor.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by a grant from the Council of
Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR), Human
Resource Development Group (HRDG), CSIR Com-
plex, Library Avenue, Pusa, New Delhi- 110 012.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
REFERENCES
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Seedlings No. of seedling fed
No. of missing seedling
No. of seed-ling damage
Seedling-delivering failure
Success ratios (%)
Tomato 196 7 8 6 89.28
Chilli 196 4 3 2 95.40
Brinjal 196 5 6 5 91.83
Table 3. Performance test for multiple seedlings picking and dropping mechanism.
54
Periasamy, V. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 47 - 54 (2021)
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Fabrication and performance evaluation of vertical farming structures
Shaheemath Suhara K K*
Department of Soil and Water Conservation Engineering, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore - 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
Priya G Nair
Department of Soil and Water Conservation Engineering, Kerala Agricultural University,
Thrissur - 680656 (Kerala,) India
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2777
Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: April 17, 2021
Accepted: May 8, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
Human population is increasing day by day. The United
Nation (UN) reported that the human population will
exceed 9 billion people by the year 2050 and thereby, it
is necessary to produce 70 percentage more foods to
ensure food security (United Nation, 2017). According
to the United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organiza-
tion (FAO), there was one acre of arable land per per-
son on earth in the year 1961 and it shrinks to nearly
half, about 0.56 acres by the year 2002 due to uncon-
trollable population growth and also due to urbanization
(Despommier, 2010, Healy and Rosenberg, 2013, Tho-
maier et al., 2015, Al-Kodmany, 2018). By the year
2011, the United Nation concluded a global assess-
ment of the planet’s land resources, which reveals that
a quarter of all cultivable land is highly degraded. If tra-
ditional farming practices continue as they are practiced
today, an estimated 107 square kilometers of additional
land is to be required to grow sufficient food and there-
by to meet demand of the ever increasing population
(United Nation, 2017).
Apart from the problems imparted by the huge popula-
tion on the environment, modern day agriculture is also
a major contributor to a large range of environmental
problems including agricultural runoff, degradation of
the ecosystem, use of fossil fuels, food wastage, under
capacity drainage infrastructure etc. (Al-Kodmany and
Ali, 2013). As a best solution, nowadays horticultural-
ists and entrepreneurs are focusing on the practice of
vertical farming, which is a component of urban agricul-
ture, where cultivating food within skyscrapers or on
vertically inclined surfaces, where crops would be culti-
vated and grown inside multi-storey buildings that will
mimic the ecological system (Al-Kodmany, 2018a, Val-
ley and Wittman, 2018). This farming practice encour-
Abstract
This study was undertaken to fabricate Vertical Farming Structures (VFS) suitable for homestead and evaluate the performance
of fabricated vertical farming structures. The experiment was conducted in Kelappaji College of Agricultural Engineering and
Technology (KCAET), Tavanur, in Malappuram district, Kerala. Two vertical farming structures DVFS 1 (Developed vertical
farming structure 1) and DVFS 2 (Developed vertical farming structure 2) were designed and fabricated. The drip irrigation sys-
tem was adopted to irrigate the plants to reduce the wastage of water. Amaranthus seedlings of variety ‘Kannara local’ was
taken for the trial. Climatic parameters and biometric observations were analyzed to compare and evaluate the performances of
vertical farming structures. Correlation analysis was done using IBM SPSS statistics 25 software. The analysis of trials revealed
that DVFS 1 showed better performance in every aspect compared to DVFS 2. The biometric observations like plant height and
number of leaves were more in T1 at the right side and followed by T3 at the right side of DVFS 1. The plant characteristics are
highly correlated with the light intensity. This was the reason for more growth was observed on the right side of DVFS 1. The
maximum yield was obtained from the DVFS 1 (58%) than DVFS 2 (42%). The study recommended that usage of the platform
like structure with triangular cross-section was more advantageous than the structure with tiers one over the other with Poly
Vinyl Chloride (PVC) splits.
Keywords: Biometric observation, Light intensity, Temperature, Urban farming
How to Cite
Shaheemath Suhara K K and Nair, P.G. (2021). Fabrication and performance evaluation of vertical farming structures. Journal
of Applied and Natural Science, 13 (SI), 55 - 62. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2777
56
Shaheemath Suhara K K and Nair, P.G. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 55 - 62 (2021)
ages sustainable agricultural growth and enhances food
security more than by conventional farming. It provides
additional farmlands and ensures year-round crop pro-
duction. Furthermore, vertical farming practices can
save crops from floods, pests, weeds, extreme weather
events, and drought as it is a farming practices in a
controlled environment. Also, it can reduce deforesta-
tion and desertification caused by agricultural encroach-
ment on natural biomass system (Omrani et al., 2017).
In sight of all the above facts, this study was undertak-
en to fabricate Vertical Farming Structures (VFS) suita-
ble for homestead and to evaluate the performance of
the fabricated vertical farming structures.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Location of study
The experiment was performed in KCAET, Tavanur,
Kerala, located at the 10o 51' 13" N and 75o 59' 9" E.
The mean maximum and mean minimum temperature
of the study area are 42.1oC and 22oC, respectively and
relative humidity about 80 %. The study area comes
under a humid tropic climatic region so that area re-
ceives more extreme events during south-west mon-
soon.
Fabrication of VFS
Design and fabrication of two vertical farming structures
named DVFS 1 (Developed Vertical Farming Structure
1) and DVFS 2 (Developed Vertical Farming Structure
2) were done suitable for homestead as well as urban
farming.
The DVFS 1 is a platform like structure with a triangular
cross section, consists three tiers (platforms) on each
side. The structure has a dimension of 213 cm x 163
cm x 213.3 cm (Fig. 1). It is a metallic structure, where
frame and roof were made up of 0.5” mild steel (MS)
rods, 0.75” MS tubes and 1” MS square tubes. Metallic
seating (width 20.5 cm) were provided by fixing MS
flats of 3/4” x 1/8” for placing grow bags or garden pots.
A total of 36 grow bags of size 15 cm x 15 cm can be
placed in the structure in such a way that 6 grow bags
can be accommodated in each platform. The height of
the structure excluding roof was fixed about 167 cm for
easy harvesting of crops. The height of the first, second
and third platform from top to bottom are 51 cm, 48 cm
and 45 cm, respectively, designed according to the
height of the structure and width of platform. The roof
has a quonset shape made up of MS rods of 1/2” diam-
eter. The roof is supported by using MS rod of length
80 cm attached to the main structure at each corner.
UV sheet of 200 microns of 230 x 180cm was used for
covering the roof. Three rings (8 cm diameter) were
provided on the roof to place the PVC pipe for irriga-
tion.
The DVFS 2 had rectangular open shelves like struc-
ture with overall dimension of 155 cm x 220 cm m x 70
cm (Fig. 2). This structure was also fabricated using
MS square tubes (1 inch) and MS rods. Half splitted
PVC pipes (6 inches diameter and 2.80 mm wall thick-
ness) were used as a trough for filling growing media
(Pradeepkumar et al., 2018). The structure has three
tiers one over the other, which consisted 19 half splitted
PVC pipes. The PVC splits were supported by semicir-
cular rings (¾” x ⅛” MS flat) welded with the frame. The
structure had three sections; left, middle and right with
Fig. 1. Developed vertical farming structure 1 (DVFS 1).
57
Shaheemath Suhara K K and Nair, P.G. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 55 - 62 (2021)
length 50, 120 and 50 cm, respectively, so that each
portion could assemble and dismantle easily using
screws and bolts, making its transportation easier. The
roof was provided as shown in the figure with the provi-
sion to place PVC pipes for irrigation as done in DVFS
1. The roof of the structure was covered with UV sheets
of 200 micron thickness (Lamnatou and Chemisana,
2013).
Setup for irrigation
Irrigation was given daily by drip irrigation method, as it
saves water and reduces losses (Postel et al., 2001,
Vazquez et al., 2006, Wang et al., 2020). Water sup-
plied to the system through gravity from the institution
tank located 10 m above the structure.
Field experiment
Tier wise analysis of both structures was done to evalu-
ate crop production performances, so that crops from
each tiers were selected randomly from each side of
both structures. Tiers are named as shown in Table 1.
Amaranthus of variety ‘kannara local’ was taken for the
trial and seedling were placed in the grow bags as well
as in the half split PVC pipes. The depth of rooting me-
dia in half split PVC pipes and grow bags was about 10
cm. Two seedlings were placed in each grow-bags.
The grow bags and PVC splits were mixed with coco
peat and vermiculite at a ratio 3:1 (Rani et al., 2018).
Climatic parameters such as temperature and light in-
tensity were observed in morning, afternoon and even-
ing during the growth stage of the crop (Marcelis et al.,
2006). Biometric observations such as plant height
and number of leaves were made once a week. Har-
vesting was done after attaining maturity. The orien-
tation of the structure was along the east-west direc-
tion according to institute direction and available
space in the yard.
Fig. 2. Developed vertical farming structure 2 (DVFS 2).
Tier Position
1RT1 top tier at the right side of DVFS 1
1RT2 middle tier at the right side of DVFS 1
1RT3 bottom tier at the right side of DVFS 1
1LT1 top tier at the left side of DVFS 1
1LT2 middle tier at the left side of DVFS 1
1LT3 bottom tier at the left side of DVFS 1
2LT1 top tier at left section of DVFS 2
2LT2 middle tier at left section of DVFS 2
2LT3 bottom tier at left section of DVFS 2
2MT1 top tier at the middle section of DVFS 2
2MT2 middle tier at the middle section of DVFS 2
2MT3 bottom tier at the middle section of DVFS 2
2RT1 top tier at the right section of DVFS 2
2RT2 middle tier at the right section of DVFS 2
2RT3 bottom tier at the right section of DVFS 2
Table 1. Different tiers of the DVFS 1 AND DVFS 2
analyzed in this study.
58
Shaheemath Suhara K K and Nair, P.G. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 55 - 62 (2021)
Statistical analysis
Correlation between climatic and biometric parameters
was analyzed by correlation analysis (Franzese and
Luliano, 2018) based on Pearson correlation coefficient
at 0.01 significant level using SPSS Inc. 25 software.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Climatic parameters such as air temperature and light
intensity were observed in both structures at 8:00 am,
1:30 pm and 5:00 pm for a period of three weeks from
December to January 2017.
Air temperature
The daily data were taken using a dry bulb thermome-
ter and further calculated weekly average values from
the daily data observed at 8:00 am, 2:00 pm and 5:00
pm and plotted as shown in Fig. 3. The minimum mean
temperature measured at 8:00 am in DVFS 1 and
DVFS 2 were the same, about 19 ºC. The maximum
mean temperature observed in DVFS 1 was 19.5 ºC
and in DVFS 2 was about 19.4 ºC. Similarly, at 2:00 pm
the maximum mean temperature noted in DVFS 1 was
25˚C and in DVFS 2 was 24.8˚C. Minimum tempera-
tures were 24˚C in both the structures (Fig. 3). In the
evening, the maximum temperature in DVFS 1 was
about 23˚C and in DVFS 2, it was 22.8˚C. Minimum
temperatures were the same for both structures i.e., 22
˚C. The slight increase in temperature observed in
DVFS 1 compared to DVFS 2 is due to the structural
difference. The former used metallic seating, whereas
the other is with PVC splits as the metal has higher
thermal conductivity than plastics. Michel et al. (2019)
stated that the thermal conductivity of PVC is only
0.45%–0.6% of a steel tube.
Orientation of the structure (east-west) reflects the vari-
ation of the temperature among different tiers. The re-
sults are in agreement with Sethi (2009), where 3.5-5.5
Fig. 3. Variations in air temperature in DVFS 1 and DVFS 2 at 8:00 am, 2:00 pm and 5:00 pm.
Fig. 4. Variations in light intensity in DVFS 1 and DVFS 2
at 8:00 am.
Fig. 5. Variations in light intensity in DVFS 1 and DVFS 2 at 2:00 pm.
Fig. 6. Variations in light intensity in DVFS 1 and DVFS 2 at 5:00 pm.
59
Shaheemath Suhara K K and Nair, P.G. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 55 - 62 (2021)
◦C change in the air temperature was observed inside
the greenhouse in east-west orientation.
Light intensity
The weekly average of light intensity was calculated for
8:00 am, 1:30 pm and 5:00 pm data, respectively, from
the daily intensity data. Measurements were taken us-
ing lux meter in range B. Fig. 4 shows the variations in
light intensity in DVFS 1 and DVFS 2 at 8:00 am. The
maximum light intensity was obtained on tier 3 (T3) at
the right side of DVFS 1. It was about 7010 lux. The
minimum light intensity of 2850 lux was measured from
tier 1 (T1) on the middle section of DVFS 2. The re-
ceipt of solar radiation and reflected radiation obtained
were maximum in tier 1 as it was close to the ground
surface. Due to the orientation of the structure in the
east-west direction, in morning hours, there was a pos-
sibility of receipt of more solar radiation in the left sec-
tion of DVFS 2 as it was oriented towards east. Fig. 5
shows the variations in light intensity of DVFS 1 and
DVFS 2 respectively at 2:00 pm. The maximum light
intensity was observed on tier 1 (T1) at the right side of
DVFS 1 (16050 lux). The minimum light intensity of
3180 lux was observed from tier 2 (T2) on the middle
section of DVFS 2. Tier 1 was more close to the roof
than other tiers, would receive directly transmitted light
compared to other tiers. In DVFS 2, tier 2 (T2) is the
middle tier shows less light intensity compared to tier1
(T1) and tier 3 (T3) as there was less availability of di-
rect sunlight and reflected radiations. Fig. 6 showed the
variations in light intensity in both structures at 5:00 pm.
The maximum light intensity was obtained from tier 1
(T1) at the right side of DVFS 1 and it was about
5680 lux.
From these data, it was concluded that in the case of
DVFS 1, always the maximum light intensity was ob-
served on tier 1 on the right side of the structure due to
the location of the structures and the availability of re-
flected and transmitted radiations. But in DVFS 2, maxi-
mum light intensity was observed in the left section
Fig. 7. Variation of plant height in T1 (tier 1) of DVFS 1 and DVFS 2.
Fig. 8. Variation of plant height in T2 (tier 2) of DVFS 1 and DVFS 2.
Fig. 9. Variation of plant height in T3 (tier 3) of DVFS 1 and DVFS 2.
Fig. 10. Variation of number of leaves in T1 (tier 1) of DVFS 1 and DVFS 2.
60
Shaheemath Suhara K K and Nair, P.G. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 55 - 62 (2021)
during morning hours, the middle section in the after-
noon and the right section in evening hours. This is due
to the direction of solar radiation. Xu et al. (2020) stated
that the careful orientation of structure could increase
the interception of solar radiation on the rear side by
3.95 %.
The structural difference was also a major factor for
differing light intensity. DVFS 1 was a platform like
structure with triangular cross section where the possi-
bility of getting more light in each tier is higher. But in
case of DVFS 2, tiers were arranged one over the other
and thereby, it might not be possible to get enough light
compared to DVFS 1 due to the shade of tiers set over
it. A similar result was observed by Touliatos et al.
(2016), where a significant reduction of light intensity
was observed from top to base of vertical columns with-
in the vertical farming structures.
Tier wise analysis of biometric observations
Plant height
The biometric observations were taken in the weekly
interval. The height of randomly selected plants from
each tier was observed for three weeks. The maximum
plant height observed at the end of 3rd week was on tier
T1 on the right side of DVFS 1 (74 cm). A minimum
plant height of 18 cm was found at tier T2 on the middle
section of DVFS 2. The tier wise observation made on
the left and right-hand side of DVFS 1 and left, middle
and right sections of DVFS 2 were taken and plotted in
a graph as shown in Fig. 7-9. The growth of plants was
more in DVFS 1 than in DVFS 2.
Considering the T1 at the end of 3rd week, the maxi-
mum plant height of 74 cm was at the right side of
DVFS 1. Minimum plant height was found at the right
section of DVFS 2 and is about 45 cm (Fig. 7). At tier
T2, a maximum plant height of 65 cm and minimum
plant height of 18 cm were found at the right side of
DVFS 1 and the middle section of DVFS 2, respectively
(Fig. 8). Similarly, at tier T3, maximum plant height of
65 cm and minimum plant height of 18 cm were found
at the right side of DVFS 1 and middle section of DVFS
2, respectively (Fig.9).
From the graphs, it is clear that plant height was ob-
served to be maximum in the right side tier T1 followed
by right side tier T3 in DVFS 1. This was due to the
variations observed in light intensity. Correlation be-
tween plant height and intensity was analysed using
IBM SPSS statistics 25 software, which showed that
correlation (positive correlation) was significant at 0.01
significant level with Pearson correlation coefficient of
0.935. The result is in good agreement with the Re-
zazadeh et al. (2018), which reported that plant height
increases at a higher intensity. Rezazadeh et al. (2018)
found that higher light intensity in control and 45%
shade plus long day (LD) treatments resulted in in-
creased plant height. The positive correlation between
light intensity and height of Cardinal flower (Sinningia
cardinalis) was also reported previously by Kim et al.
(2015).
Number of leaves
The number of leaves is also an important biometric
observation usually used to analyse the crops' growth
performance. At the end of 3rd week after planting, the
maximum number of leaves was found in the right side
of DVFS 1 and it was 87 in number. The minimum
number of leaves was found in the middle section of
DVFS 2, which was 33. Considering the tier T1, the
maximum number of leaves was obtained at the right
side of DVFS 1 and minimum was obtained at the right
section of DVFS 2 and was found to be 87 and 34 re-
spectively (Fig. 10). At T2, 77 and 33 were the maxi-
mum and a minimum number of leaves obtained from
the right side of DVFS 1 and middle section of DVFS 2,
respectively (Fig. 11). For tier T3, the maximum and the
minimum number of leaves was 78 and 36 and was
found at the right side of DVFS 1 and right section of
DVFS 2 (Fig. 12).
Fig. 12. Variation of plant height in T3 (tier 3) of DVFS 1 and DVFS 2.
Fig. 11. Variation of number of leaves in T2 (tier 2) of DVFS 1 and DVFS 2.
61
Shaheemath Suhara K K and Nair, P.G. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 55 - 62 (2021)
From Fig. 9-12, it is clear that the number of leaves
was observed to be maximum in DVFS 1 than DVFS 2.
This also can be correlated with the light intensity as
maximum light intensity was observed in these tiers.
Correlation between the number of leaves and intensity
was analysed using IBM SPSS statistics 25 software,
which showed that correlation was significant at 0.01
significant level with Pearson correlation coefficient of
0.86. Many studies depicted that light intensity has sig-
nificant positive correlation with number of leaves and
other growth parameters as it promotes growth rate
(Rezai et al., 2018; Rezazadeh et al., 2018). Kang et al.
(2013) observed that plants grown under treatments of
high light intensity of 290 μmol·m-2 ·s -1 showed greater
results in growth as compared to the other treatments.
Yield of crop
The harvesting was done at the end of 3rd week. The
maximum yield was obtained from DVFS 1 (61%) than
DVFS 2 (39%). It is mainly due to the differences in the
obtained light intensity. Correlation of yield data with
light intensity revealed that correlation was significant
at 0.01 significant level with Pearson correlation coeffi-
cient of 0.902. This result is very much agreed with
Rezazadeh et al. (2018), where he has observed a
positive correlation between light intensity and bio-
metric parameters. Similarly, Rezai et al. (2018) also
found that photosynthetic rate and stomatal conduct-
ance showed a strong positive correlation with light
intensity. Touliatos et al. (2016) observed a 43 % re-
duction in crop yield in the vertical farming structures,
where tiers are arranged one over the other.
Conclusion
In the present study, the climatic parameters
(temperature and light intensity) and biometric observa-
tions (plant height, number of leaves, yield) were ana-
lysed to compare and evaluate the performances of two
vertical farming structures, DVFS 1 and DVFS 2. The
analysis of trials revealed that DVFS 1 showed better
performance in every aspect compared to the DVFS 2.
The biometric observations like plant height and num-
ber of leaves were more in T1 at right side and followed
by T3 at the right side of DVFS 1. The plant character-
istics such as plant height, number of leaves and yield
showed a significant positive correlation with the light
intensity. This is the reason for more growth was ob-
served on the right side of DVFS 1. The maximum yield
was obtained from DVFS 1 (58%) than DVFS 2 (42%).
The analysis of trials revealed that DVFS 1 shows bet-
ter performance in every aspect compared to DVFS 2.
The yield data and growth performances made the re-
sults more reliable. The study recommended using the
platform like structure with a triangular cross-section as
it was advantageous than the structure with tiers one
over the other with PVC splits. The provision for as-
sembling and dismantling the parts of the structure,
made these systems more attractive as they can move
to any required areas. It is recommended for urban
farming as a substitute for traditional farming practices.
The designed structures can also be used in problem-
atic soils like drought, salinity and soil with toxicity prob-
lems. In such conditions, the structure can be placed
even in the field itself. The orientation of these struc-
tures can be changed according to the climatic parame-
ters or according to our convenience.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by Kelappaji College of
Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Tavanur. The
author would like to thank Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore, for the support towards
publication, the Journal’s reviewers for providing helpful
comments, and the staff for careful and professional
work.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
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Effect of okra plant resistance on transmission rate of okra enation leaf
curl virus by its vector whitefly, Bemisia tabaci
E. Pasupathi*
Department of Agricultural Entomology, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil
Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai - 625104 (Tamil Nadu), India
M. Murugan
Department of Agricultural Entomology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 641003
(Tamil Nadu), India
C. Chinniah
Department of Agricultural Entomology, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil
Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai-625104 (Tamil Nadu), India
J. Ramalingam
Department of Plant Biotechnology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 641003
(Tamil Nadu), India
G. Karthikeyan
Department of Plant Pathology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 641003
(Tamil Nadu), India
S. Harish
Department of Plant Pathology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 641003
(Tamil Nadu), India
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2778
Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: April 17, 2021
Accepted: May 8, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
India is the world's leading producer of okra, Abel-
moschus esculentus (L.) Moench with the production of
6095 thousand mt from an area of 509 thousand mha
(Horticultural Statistics at a Glance, 2018). Okra is an
important source of vitamins, calcium, potassium, and
other minerals, which are often lacking in people's diet
in developing countries (Singh et al., 2014). The crop is
prone to damage by various insects, fungi, nematodes
and viruses, although its degree of infestation varies
widely. The production and quality of okra fruits are
affected by an array of sucking and fruit boring pests
from the seedling phase until harvest. The key sucking
Abstract
The present study aimed to investigate the effect of age of the okra plants that showed varying whitefly resistance responses on
the transmission rate of okra enation leaf curl virus (OELCV) by its vector whitefly Bemisia tabaci. The OELCV infected whitefly
adults were collected from whitefly colonies and were challenged on the test okra accessions (Upl mona 2, Co 1, Arka anamika
and AE 64) of differential ages which were individually caged (7, 10 and 15 d after germination) with glass chimney and the
number of such whiteflies used were at the rate of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14 and 20 adults per plant. Observations were made on the
virus symptom expression 30 d after challenge. The efficiency of transmission was determined. The efficiency of transmission of
OELCV was the highest (maximum T and P*, 0.80, 1.00 and 0.08, 0.10) when 7 d old seedlings were inoculated (Arka anamika
and AE 64 respectively) and transmission had decreased as the age of seedlings increased. The estimated transmission rate
for single whitefly (P*) increased with an increase in the number of whiteflies used per plant. Okra plant resistance to B. tabaci
significantly changed the transmission rates of OELCV on okra. Understanding the resistance mechanisms of the okra acces-
sions and interactions between plant viruses and their insect host can pave the way for novel approaches to protect plants from
virus infection.
Keywords: Bemisia tabaci, Okra, Okra enation leaf curl virus, Transmission rate, Whitefly
How to Cite
Pasupathi, E. et al. (2021). Effect of okra plant resistance on transmission rate of okra enation leaf curl virus by its vector
whitefly, Bemisia tabaci. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 13 (SI), 63 - 68. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2778
64
Pasupathi, E. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 63 - 68 (2021)
insect pests of okra are whiteflies, aphids, jassids,
thrips and mites (Anitha and Nandihalli, 2008). Among
the sucking pests, the sweet potato whitefly, Bemisia
tabaci (Gennadius) (Aleyrodidae: Hemiptera) causes
damage directly through feeding and indirectly by the
transmission of viruses. The whitefly transmits im-
portant begomoviruses in okra such as bhendi yellow
vein mosaic virus (BYVMV) and okra enation leaf curl
virus (OELCV). The incidence of OELCV has reached
serious proportions in recent years both in Northern
India (Sanwal et al., 2016) and Southern India as well
(Sayed et al., 2014).Host plant resistance is an eco-
nomically sound and ecologically safe method for man-
aging insect pests including B. tabaci (Hilje et al.,
2001). Our earlier studies involving field screening of 88
okra germplasm against the sweet potato whitefly, B.
tabaci and the begomoviruses, Okra enation leaf curl
virus (OELCV) and Bhendi yellow vein mosaic virus
(BYVMV) during two seasons (March, June sowing) of
2018 at Attur, Salem District, Tamil Nadu revealed that
the lowest mean population of whiteflies was recorded
in the okra accessions viz.,Upl mona 2 (0.35), Co 1
(0.4), A. moschattus (0.65), Sona (0.78). In contrast,
accessions AE 66, IC 113920 and IC 282274 record-
ed the highest number of whiteflies with a mean popula-
tion of 3.94, 3.45 and 3.24 adults per leaf (Pasupathi et
al., 2019). Among the accessions tested, A. moschattus
and Upl mona 2 did not show any signs of OELCV and
BYVMV infection throughout the crop period. The high-
est OELCV per cent disease incidence (PDI) was rec-
orded on AE 66 (100) followed by AE 64 (80) and AE
65 (80), while the PDI recorded susceptible check was
100% (Pasupathi et al., 2019). The OELCV infected
young leaves of selected okra accessions were collect-
ed from the screening field and was analyzed using
DNA marker specific to coat protein-based primer in
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and the amplicons
were sequenced and comparative analysis had con-
firmed the OELCV (data unpublished) (Pasupathi,
2020). It is important to understand the interactions be-
tween the host plants, their age, the insect resistance
nature of the host plants, and vectoring insects to de-
velop field management strategies. Thus, the current
research was taken up with the aim of establishing in-
formation on interactions between the B. tabaci adults,
okra plant age and resistance; and the OELCV under
laboratory condition.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Test plants
The seeds of okra accessions viz.,Upl mona 2 (Highly
resistant), Co 1 (Moderately resistant), Arka anamika
(Moderately susceptible) and AE 64 (Highly suscepti-
ble)were selected from the field screening reactions to
whitefly and OELCV responses. Plants were grown in
coco pith and soil potting mix in 13cm dia x 15cm
height mud pots and maintained at a 30-350C tempera-
ture and 70-80% of relative humidity in walk-in-cages in
the Insectary at the Agricultural College and Research
Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU),
Madurai.
Insect culture
Adults of cotton whitefly, B. tabaci were collected from
okra (A. esculentus L.) and cotton (Gossypium spp.) in
Madurai district of Tamil Nadu, India and were cultured
on mixed host plants of cotton (cultivar ARBH 1401),
Black night shade (Solanum nigrum) and Okra
(A. esculentus) in the greenhouse.
Virus source
Symptomatic Okra plants were collected by uprooting
(with minimum disturbance to the taproot system and
the soil around the roots is intact) from five locations
(farmer fields) in and around Attur, Salem district, Tamil
Nadu, India. These plants served as the inoculum
source and further inoculated on the susceptible check
(OELCV check) and used for transmission studies. Ini-
tially, the virus presence was molecularly confirmed by
PCR using specific primers (JKOE34F5'-
AAGAATTATGTCGAAGCGTCCTGCTT-3' (Forward
primer) and JKOE35R 5'-AAGAATCGTAGAAGTAA
CTCCTAACTT-3' (Reverse primer) (Rakesh Kumar,
2016) (Fig. 1).
Effect of okra plant age on OELCV transmission by
B. tabaci
To perform the experiment, Okra plant (30-d-old) with
typical OELCV symptom from the virus culture source
plants was selected and caged individually so that the
space around the plant inside the cage was very close
to minimal. Whiteflies (adults) were collected from
healthy culture and were introduced at the rate of 100-
125 numbers of adults/OELCV infected okra plant.
They were left undisturbed for 24 hr with a buffer time
of 2hr allowed for settling by the adults. After 24 hr,
these adults were collected in test tubes at the rate of
10 numbers per tube, starved for 1 hr and were used
for challenging on the test accessions. The test acces-
sions were raised in 13cm dia x 15cm height mud pots
filled with coco pith mixed soil, nourished with fertilizers
and regularly watered. Differentially aged seedlings (7,
10 and 15 d after germination) obtained by staggered
showing with uniformity in leaf size and shape at re-
spective ages were independently caged with a glass
chimney (6.5cm dia x 15cm height). Care was taken
that the selected plants were free from any insect dam-
age and life stages of insects. Then, the whiteflies in
the test tubes were carefully released inside the glass
chimney @10 OELCV viruliferous B. tabaci per plant.
Five replications were maintained in each age group
65
Pasupathi, E. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 63 - 68 (2021)
and each plant was considered as single replication.
Insects were given a 24 hr acquisition access period
(AAP) on OELCV expressed plants and an inocula-
tion access period (IAP) on test accessions with an
additional buffer time of 2 hr for settling on plants.
After the IAP, the glass chimney were opened and
the whiteflies were removed and the plants were
treated with insecticide solution to destroy life stages
of the insects, if any and were further mobilized into
bigger cages (60cm x 60cm x 60cm) fitted with 100
micron mesh all around for observation. The plants
were observed for symptom development30 d after
removal from the glass chimney and the transmis-
sion rate was calculated. The OELCV specific PCR
was used to test the plants for confirmation of the virus
incidence.
Effect of vector load against whitefly resistant ac-
cessions on OELCV disease transmission by B.
tabaci
Viruliferous adult B. tabaci were prepared as described
in the previous section. After 24 hr, these adults were
collected in test tubes at the rate of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12,
14 and 20 in individual glass tubes and were used to
challenge on the test accessions (Upl mona 2, Co 1,
Arka anamika and AE 64) which were individually
caged (7 to 10-d-old) with glass chimney. This set up
was left undisturbed for 24 hr and then the cages were
opened and whiteflies were disturbed by slightly shak-
ing the plants and ensured that no insects were settled
on plants and an insecticide spray was given to kill life
stages if remained any. These plants were kept inside
150cmx150cmx150cm cages fitted with transparent
100 micron mesh cloth for one month for symptom de-
velopment. Five replications were used and a single
plant served as a replicate. The development of dis-
ease symptoms and confirmation using PCR was done
as described in the previous section.
Estimation of transmission rate
The transmission rates were calculated by dividing the
number of infected plants by the number of inoculated
plants and estimated transmission rate. The transmis-
sion rate of a single whitefly was calculated as follows
using the formula of (Gibbs and Gower, 1960).
1-(1-T)1
P* = ----------------------- x 100 ….Eq.1
I
Where, P*=estimated transmission rate for a single
whitefly; T=transmission rate T=R/N; R=number of in-
Age of plants (d after ger-mination)
Accessions Whitefly re-sistance response of genotype
Plants infected (R)/plants inoculated (N)
Transmission Rate (T=R/N)
Estimated Transmis-sion rate for single whitefly (P*)
7
Upl mona 2 Highly Resistant 0/5 0.00 (0.50)a
0.00
Co 1 Moderately Re-sistant
2/5 0.40 (0.90)b
0.04
Arka anamika Moderately Sus-ceptible
4/5 0.80 (1.30)c
0.08
AE 64 Highly Susceptible 5/5 1.00 (1.50)c
0.10
10
Upl mona 2 Highly Resistant 0/5 0.00 (0.50)a
0.00
Co 1 Moderately Re-sistant
1/5 0.20 (0.70)a
0.02
Arka anamika Moderately Sus-ceptible
3/5 0.60 (1.10)b
0.06
AE 64 Highly Susceptible 5/5 1.00 (1.50)b
0.10
15
Upl mona 2 Highly Resistant 0/5 0.00 (0.71)a
0.00
Co 1 Moderately Re-sistant
1/5 0.20 (0.83)ab
0.00
Arka anamika Moderately Sus-ceptible
1/5 0.40 (0.94)b
0.00
AE 64 Highly Susceptible 2/5 0.40 (0.94)b
0.02
SEd 0.1154
CD (.05) 0.2663
Values in parentheses are square root transformed, *Means in a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different (α =
0.05) by Tukey’s HSD test
Table 1: Effect of age and whitefly resistance response of the okra genotype plants on transmission of OELCV by
B. tabaci adults.
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Pasupathi, E. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 63 - 68 (2021)
fected plants; N=number of receptor plants; I=number
of whiteflies per receptor plant.
Statistical analysis
Data from transmission experiments were analyzed
using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) (SAS
Institute, 1985) and the transmission rates were trans-
formed into before statistical analysis.
The Means in a column followed by the same letter are
not significantly different (α = 0.05) by Tukey’s HSD test.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effect of age of the seedlings on transmission
OELCV by B. tabaci
The age of okra plants had a profound impact on the
vector transmission (Table 1). The transmission effi-
ciency was the highest (maximum T and P*, 0.80, 1.00
Accessions Number of White-flies used (I)
Plants infected (R)/Plants inoculated (N)
Estimated Transmission rate for single whitefly (P*)
Transmission Rate (T=R/N)
Upl mona 2 0 0/5 0 0.00 (0.50)a
Upl mona 2 2 0/5 0 0.00 (0.50)a
Upl mona 2 4 0/5 0 0.00 (0.50)a
Upl mona 2 6 0/5 0 0.00 (0.50)a
Upl mona 2 8 0/5 0 0.00 (0.50)a
Upl mona 2 10 0/5 0 0.00 (0.50)a
Upl mona 2 12 0/5 0 0.00 (0.50)a
Upl mona 2 14 0/5 0 0.00 (0.50)a
Upl mona 2 20 0/5 0 0.00 (0.50)a
Co 1 0 0/5 0 0.00 (0.50)a
Co 1 2 1/5 0.1 0.20 (0.70)b
Co 1 4 2/5 0.1 0.40 (0.90)bc
Co 1 6 0/5 0 0.00 (0.50)a
Co 1 8 1/5 0.02 0.20 (0.70)b
Co 1 10 0/5 0 0.00 (0.50)a
Co 1 12 2/5 0.03 0.40 (0.90)bc
Co 1 14 0/5 0 0.00 (0.50)a
Co 1 20 2/5 0.02 0.40 (0.90)bc
Arka anamika 0 0/5 0 0.00 (0.50)a
Arka anamika 2 1/5 0.1 0.20 (0.70)b
Arka anamika 4 2/5 0.1 0.40 (0.90)bc
Arka anamika 6 2/5 0.06 0.40 (0.90)bc
Arka anamika 8 3/5 0.07 0.60 (1.10)cd
Arka anamika 10 3/5 0.06 0.60 (1.10)cd
Arka anamika 12 4/5 0.06 0.80 (1.30)de
Arka anamika 14 5/5 0.07 1.00 (1.50)e
Arka anamika 20 5/5 0.05 1.00 (1.50)e
AE 64 0 0/5 0.00 0.00 (0.50)a
AE 64 2 2/5 0.20 0.20 (0.70)b
AE 64 4 2/5 0.10 0.20 (0.70)b
AE 64 6 3/5 0.10 0.60 (1.10)cd
AE 64 8 3/5 0.07 0.60 (1.10)cd
AE 64 10 4/5 0.08 0.80 (1.30)de
AE 64 12 5/5 0.08 1.00 (1.50)e
AE 64 14 5/5 0.07 1.00 (1.50)e
AE 64 20 5/5 0.05 1.00 (1.50)e
SEd 0.0788
CD(.05) 0.1563
Table 2: Transmission rate of OELCV on different okra accessions with differential whitefly resistance responses with
varying challenged numbers of B. tabaci under laboratory condition.
Values in parentheses are square root transformed, *Means in a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different (α =
0.05) by Tukey’s HSD test
5.0+x
67
Pasupathi, E. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 63 - 68 (2021)
and 0.08, 0.10) when 7 d old seedlings were inoculat-
ed (Arka anamika and AE 64 respectively) and trans-
mission had decreased as the age of seedlings in-
creased. Accessions, Upl mona 2 and Co 1 had ac-
quired the lowest transmission when 7 d old seedlings
were inoculated (minimum T and P*, 0.00, 0.40 and
0.00, 0.04). Thus, Arka anamika and AE 64 were con-
sidered as susceptible to OELCV and Upl mona 2 and
Co 1 were considered as highly resistant as similar to
field screening. The present study results were in line
with Venkataravanappa et al. (2015), who found that
the age of seedlings used for transmission offered a
negative correlation with transmission efficiency and
the transmission was increased as the age of seed-
lings decreased on okra seedlings while B. tabaci was
engaged in the transmission of okra enation leaf
curl disease.
Transmission rate of OELCV on different okra
accessions with varying challenged numbers of B.
tabaci under laboratory condition
The insect transmission levels had significantly varied
among the okra accessions, minimum of two whiteflies
per okra plant was found to be effective for virus trans-
mission, with typical symptoms appearing after a mini-
mum incubation period of 10-12 d under caged condi-
tions. The transmission rate (T) was higher on acces-
sions AE 64 followed by Arka anamika whereas the
lower transmission rates were observed on accessions
Upl mona 2 and Co 1 (Table 2). The transmission rate
(T) and estimated transmission rate for single whitefly
(P*) increased with an increase in number of whiteflies
per plant used. The accession Upl mona 2 showed no
transmission with 4 numbers of whiteflies, whereas the
accession AE 64 had a transmission rate (0.20) with 4
numbers of whiteflies (Fig. 2). The increase in numbers
of challenged whiteflies led to a higher rate of OELCV
disease transmission in different varieties. In the case
of Arka anamika and AE 64 the transmission rate was
0.60, 1.00 and 1.00 with 8, 14 and 20 numbers of
whitefly/plant, respectively. Venkataravanappa et al.
(2015), reported that the number of whiteflies used in
transmission and the increase in AAP or IAP had a
positive correlation with transmission efficiency and
thus increased T and P* values. Similarly, Senanayake
et al., (2012) found that eight whiteflies per plant were
sufficient to produce 100% transmission of chilli leaf
curl virus on Capsicum spp. and the inoculated plants
had developed symptoms within 7-10 d post inocula-
tion. Venkataravanappa et al. (2017), while studying
the B. tabaci genetic species (MEAM- 1 and Asia-1)
and OYVMD interactions had indicated that a minimum
of two and three adult B. tabaci per plant respectively,
were necessary to transmit the disease. The minimum
IAP differed among MEAM- 1 (15 min.) and Asia-1 (20
min.) whitefly population to transmit the OYVMD.
Conclusion
In India, the okra crop is highly susceptible to BYVMV
and OELCV disease, probably due to the warm tropical
climate and intensive and continuous crop cultivation,
which supports the whitefly population's survival round
the year. In the present study, the efficiency of trans-
mission of OELCV was the highest (maximum T and
P*, 0.80, 1.00 and 0.08, 0.10) when 7 d old seedlings
were inoculated (Arka anamika and AE 64 respective-
ly). Host plant resistance to the virus is one of the most
practical, economical and environmentally friendly strat-
egies for reducing yield loss in okra. Understanding the
resistance mechanisms of the okra accessions and
interactions between plant viruses and their insect host
can pave the way for novel approaches to protect
L 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
796 bp
Fig. 2. Determination of minimum numbers of B. tabaci
for effective transmission of OELCV on whitefly suscep-
tible AE 64.
Fig. 1. Polymerase chain reaction amplification of the
part of OELCV coat protein gene using specific primers
on DNA from leaf samples of okra accessions collected
from Attur, Salem district ,Tamil Nadu. Lane L - Marker
(100 bp Ladder), Lane 1-7 – Samples.
68
Pasupathi, E. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 63 - 68 (2021)
plants from virus infection. This phenomenon needs to
be explored in the near future.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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tices for managing Bemisia tabaci and associated viral
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(2019). Screening of okra germplasm for resistance to
whitefly, Bemisia tabaci and okra enation leaf curl virus
(OELCV) under field conditions. J. of Phar. and Phytoche.,
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whitefly Bemisia tabaci in transmission of okra enation leaf
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and their management. Ph. D. Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agrl.
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ya, P. (2014). Association of Begomovirus with Okra
(Abelmoschus esculentus L.) leaf curl virus disease in
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Evaluation of physiochemical characteristics of fresh and osmotic
dehydrated fig (Ficus carica L.)
Pandidurai G.*
Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Community Science College and Research
Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
Vennila P.
Department of Post-Harvest Technology Centre, Agricultural Engineering College and
Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 641003 (Tamil Nadu),
India
Amutha S.
Community Science College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore - 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2779
Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: April 17, 2021
Accepted: May 8, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
Fig (Fiscus carica L.), a tropical shrub belongs to the
family of Moraceae. The origin of fig is Middle East and
Western Asia. The fig is grown in tropical and subtropi-
cal region of India. Approximately 800 varieties of Figs
in the world. The ‘Poona’ is the most popular cultivar in
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Ut-
tar Pradesh. (Lavanya et al., 2018). Figs are delicious
and very perishable commodity leads to early senes-
cence, fermentation, and produce quality losses are
fungal decay which limit their shelf life during storage
at ambient temperature. (Colelli and Amodio, 2020).As
Fig possess high amount of moisture content, it is
highly perishable. Manual harvesting is done by twisting
the pedicel or cutting. Harvest can also be done after
the fruits are dropped in the ground. The harvest gap is
usually at 2-3 days interval (manually). The harvest
yield ranges from 180-360 fruits per tree. Harvesting
before optimum maturity results in milky latex exuda-
tion which reduces the acceptability of the fig. The shelf
life of refrigerated fig ranges about 2-3 days and dried
fig ranges about 6-8 months. (Jadhav and Gurav,
2018).
Fig fruit is rich in dietary fiber, minerals like iron, copper
and potassium content. The nutritional and nutraceuti-
cal rich fruits processing rate is very low which makes it
an under-utilized fruit. Hence the need to process fig
fruit should be addressed to provide essential nutrients
and prevent hidden hunger for the vulnerable popula-
Abstract
Fig (Fiscus carica L.) fruits being the rich source of phytochemicals, particularly anti-oxidants serve as a powerhouse of
nutrients and has many medicinal properties. Fig promoting healthy bowel function due to the high level of fiber. Rich in
vitamins A,C,E, and minerals like calcium useful to improve the health status and to balance the pH of the body. Due to its short
-lived nature, it cannot be stored for longer period (2-3 days) because higher postharvest losses. The lag in processing of fig is
mainly attributed to the highly perishable nature of the fig as it posses high moisture content. The objective of the work was to
improve the shelf life and reduce the perishability of fig. Two varieties, namely Local and Timla (Yercud - 1) variety were select-
ed and osmotically dehydrated with different concentration (30, 40 and 50 °brix) of sugar solution. Timla variety contained lower
percentage of seeds (21%) and fibre (2.05 g/100g), higher pulp thickness (1.0 cm), maximum colour values (L - 70.30,
a - 4.65 and b - 12.37), TSS (19°brix) and vitamin C (39.0 mg/100g) than the local variety. Timla variety treated with 50° brix
osmotic solution was found better nutrient retention, drying characteristics and organoleptic properties. The resultant products
had improved shelf life and increased concentration of nutrients, making it suitable for processing and value addition.
Keywords: Osmotic- dehydration, Processing, Variety, Value addition, Water loss
How to Cite
Pandidurai, G. et al. (2021). Evaluation of physiochemical characteristics of fresh and osmotic dehydrated fig (Ficus carica L.) .
Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 13 (SI), 69 - 72. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2779
70
Pandidurai, G. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 69 - 72 (2021)
tion. Hiwale, (2015) Osmotic dehydration is a type of
processing of fruits and vegetables for removal of water
content by immersing in some concentrated sugar or
salt solution, the lower concentration of solute to higher
concentration through semi permeable membrane re-
sults in the equilibrium condition in both sides of mem-
brane by removal of water. (Chavan and Amarowicz,
2012; Niranjan et al., 2018).
The osmotic dehydration is a simple, cost-effective, non
-destructive and energy intensive process with better
retention of physico - chemical and organoleptic char-
acteristics viz., aroma, texture, colour and nutritional
composition and also preventing the fruit decolouration
by enzymatic browning (Niranjan et al., 2018, Sharma
et al., 2003). The water activity of osmotically dehydrat-
ed food products is lowered, resulting in preventing mi-
crobial growth and reducing food spoilage. After osmot-
ic dehydration processes, 50% of the weight was re-
duced in food materials that can be used for further
processing (easy handling, transport and storage) and
value addition to enhance the shelf life and products
available throughout the year. (Yadav and Singh ,
2014, , Eroglu and Yildiz, 2010).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The fig fruit (fresh, firm and ripe) was purchased from
local farmers and disinfected in running tap water. Two
varieties like local (Small size figs having pink flesh and
a deep purple skin that appears black after dried) and
timla (Yercud – 1 Timla variety drought tolerant and
crimson red fruit Suitable for plains and mid-hills) fig
fruits were steam blanched (3-5 min) and pre-sterilized
for facilitating softening and de-bugging respectively.
The fruits were soaked in different concentrations of
sugar solution - 30°brix (T1), 40°brix (T2), and 50 °brix
(T3) with 0.5 % KMS solution for a duration of 24 hrs.
The soaked fruits were drained free of sugar solution,
pressed, dried at 60°C in a cabinet drier as per Pan-
didurai and Vennila (2020). The physio-chemical char-
acteristics of both fresh and osmotically dehydrated fig
fruit were analysed by Ranganna (1977).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The physical characteristics of fig varieties are given in
Table 1. The fig fruit local variety possessed individual
weight - 38.5 g, diameter - 9.7 cm, brown colour in skin,
light pink colour, pulp thickness - 1 cm, seed weight -
18.2 g and colour values L,a,b - 64.18, -1.74, 14.30
respectively. Timla variety fig fruit is reddish-brown in
colour, weight of fruit - 69.0 g, diameter of fruit - 16.9
cm, pulp colour - pinkish red, pulp thickness - 1.0 cm,
seed weight - 14.5g and colour values L,a,b - 70.30, -
4.65, 12.37 respectively.
The chemical constituents of the fig fruit variety, such
as local and Timla having a moisture content was 78.15
and 79.80 per cent, respectively. The TSS content of
fig fruit was 14ºbrix in local variety and in Timla variety
has 19ºbrix. Acidity, pH, and fibre content present in the
local variety shows that fruit has a 0.16 per cent, 5.27,
2.89 g/100g and in timla variety has 0.19 per cent,
5.10, 2.05 g/100g respectively. The fig fruit has a total
sugar and reducing sugar content was 12.88 and 6.86
g/100g in local variety and 18.04 and 8.35 in Timla vari-
ety, respectively. Vitamin C content present in the local
variety was 16.8 mg/100g and Timla variety was 39.0
mg/100g, shown in Table 2.
Mhalaskar et al. (2012) reported that the chemical pa-
rameters of Hisalu (Rubus ellipticus Sm) variety of fig
fruits- moisture content 79.2 %, total acidity 0.17 %, pH
value 5.3. fig fruit contained 20 o brix total soluble sol-
ids, reducing and non-reducing sugar content- 14.98 %,
1.70 %, respectively.
Khapre et al., 2015 investigation revealed the chemical
composition of fig fruits variety (Deanna cultivar). Fresh
Deanna cultivar having 22° brix total soluble solids,
75.3 per cent moisture, 0.23 per cent acidity against 5.4
of pH value and 1.43 per cent dietary fiber content.
They also revealed that reducing sugar 17.43 per cent
and non-reducing sugar 2.7 per cent in fig fruit variety.
Deanna cultivar contained protein 1.75 per cent, fat
0.52 per cent and ascorbic acid 12.95 mg/100g.
Poona fig variety having delicious in nature and dark
Particulars
Varieties of fig
Local Timla
Weight of the fruit (g) 38.5 69.0
Diameter of the fruit (cm) 9.7 16.9
Skin colour of the fruit Brown Reddish brown
Pulp colour of the fruit Light pink Pinkish red
Pulp thickness(cm) 0.6 1.0
Seed weight(g) 18.2 (47%) 14.5(21%)
Colour values L 64.18 70.30
a -1.74 - 4.65
b 14.30 12.37
Particulars
Varieties of fig
Local Timla
Moisture (%) 78.15 79.80
TSS (◦brix) 14 19
Acidity (%) 0.16 0.19
pH 5.27 5.10
Total sugars (g/100g) 12.88 18.04
Reducing sugars (g/100g) 6.86 8.35
Fibre (g/100g) 2.89 2.05
Vitamin C (mg/100g) 16.8 39.0
Water activity (aw) 0.93 0.94
Table 2. Chemical characteristics for fig fruits.
Table 1. Physical characteristics of fig fruit varieties.
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Pandidurai, G. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 69 - 72 (2021)
purple to green in colour. It contained moisture content
(79.11 g/100g), protein (0.75g/100g), total fat
(0.30g/100g), ascorbic acid (2.0mg/100g), sugar
(16.26g/100g) and dietary fiber (2.9g/100g) reported by
(Arvaniti et al., 2019)
From the physico-chemical characteristics, Timla varie-
ty possessed lower percentage of seeds and fibre than
the local variety, higher pulp thickness, maximum col-
our values, TSS, sugars and vitamin C than the local
variety. Hence for the processing of osmotic dehydra-
tion Timla variety was selected for further study.
Drying characteristics of osmatic dehydrated fig
fruit
The drying characteristics such as time taken for dry-
ing, percentage recovery, moisture content, water activ-
ity, colour values and hardness of the fig are given in
Table 3. The results found that the concentration of
sugar syrup increased and the time taken for drying
was also increased. The control (To) had taken a mini-
mum time of 18 hrs and the sample treated with 50°
brix (T3 ) osmotic solution had taken a maximum time
of 23 hrs for drying. Similar to drying time, the percent-
age recovery was greater in higher concentrated os-
motic solution (28% to 49.0%). The moisture content
and water activity of the samples ranged from 6.19% to
9.47 % and 0.613 to 0.744 aw respectively in To, T1, T2
and T3.
Lavanya et al. (2018) did experiments on osmotic dehy-
dration of Fig fruit slices using different sugar solution
concentrations. Finally, they observed that maximum
water loss was observed at 50° brix concentration
(20.72%) when compared to 40° brix (12.26%) and 30°
brix (7.64%). The weight reduction in tray drying after 4
hr the drying rate was gradually decreased and till
reached a constant weight. They concluded that the
quality of osmotic dehydrated Fig fruit slices was best
at 50° brix of sugar concentration.
The colour values of dehydrated fig fruits showed that
T3 retained maximum values than the other treatments.
The hardness of the dehydrated fig fruits done by the
texture analyzer indicated that as the concentration of
sugar syrup increased, the hardness of the dehydrated
fig fruit was decreased. Organoleptic characteristics of
the dehydrated fig fruit done by 9-1 hedonic scale
showed that maximum score values were in the sam-
ple treated with 50° brix (T3). A similar result was found
that osmotic dehydrated bedu variety (Ficus palmate)
of fig fruit, the brix increases (40°Brix, 50°Brix and 60°
Brix) the moisture content was decreased with respect
to processing time and temperature but the amount of
moisture loss decreases depending upon the soaking
time. They finally revealed that fig fruit treated with 40°
Brix sugar solution dried at 60o C for 8 hrs by using a
tray dryer having better retention of nutritional composi-
tion and sensory properties by Niranjan et al. (2018).
The chemical parameters for osmatic dehydrated fig
fruits (Table 4) having moisture - 9.47 per cent, TSS -
80.4º brix, acidity - 0.11 percent, pH - 5.40, total sugar
- 76.04 g/100g, reducing sugar - 4.29 g/100g, fibre -
5.94g/100g, ash - 5.94 g/100g, vitamin C - 10.97
mg/100g, antioxidant - 109.34 mg/g, water activity -
Particulars Variations
To T1 T3
Time taken for drying (hrs.) 18 20 21 23
Percentage recovery 28.0 34.0 40.0 49.0
Moisture content (%) 6.19 6.30 8.95 9.47
Water activity (aw ) 0.613 0.638 0.715 0.744
Colour values
L 67.77 70.55 71.79 7.41
a 2.09 0.79 -1.50 -1.44
14.72 13.87 13.03 12.83
Hardness (N) 84 60 54 46
Table 3. Drying characteristics of osmotic dehydrated fig fruit.
To - Control , T1 - 30° brix , T2 - 40° brix and T3 -50° brix
Particulars Dehydrated fig
Moisture (%) 9.47
TSS(◦ brix) 80.4
Acidity (%) 0.11
pH 5.40
Total sugars(g/100g) 76.04
Reducing sugars(g/100g) 4.29
Fibre(g/100g) 5.94
Ash(g/100g) 1.93
Vitamin C(mg/100g) 10.97
Antioxidant(mg/g) 109.34
Water activity(aw) 0.744
Colour values
L 75.41
a -1.50
b 15.04
Table 4. Chemical characteristics of osmotic dehydrated
fig fruit.
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Pandidurai, G. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 69 - 72 (2021)
0.744 and colour value Lab 75.41, - 1.50 and 15.04
respectively.
Bellary fig variety treated with osmotic sugar solution
showed 13.75 per cent of maximum weight reduction,
23.52 per cent of dried fruit recovery, minimum 83.70
hours for dehydration and also recorded maximum col-
our values L* (40.15), a* (9.06) and b* (19.05) and
sensory characteristics (Bharathkumar et al., 2018).
Naikwadi et al. (2010) earlier reported that fresh dehy-
drated dinkar fig variety showed excellent organoleptic
characteristics for fructose sugar syrup and invert sug-
ar syrup treatments for colour and appearance, texture,
taste and overall acceptability and also dried figs con-
tained about 19% moisture in 55°brix.
Conclusion
The fig fruits treated with 50° brix osmotic solution were
the best treatment for drying characteristics and senso-
ry evaluation. The formulated food products from os-
motically dehydrated fig fruit in different products pro-
vided a value addition for the fruit with nutritional quali-
ty. The products will reach Technology Research Level
5 (TRL-5) for commercialization by meeting all regula-
tory compliance requirements. . The products are cost-
effective from both production and consumption point
of view. There is a massive scope for plausibility to
make the product available throughout the year, which
helps the farmers demand side remains stable with
profitable farmgate prices.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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Draft measurement of five tyne duck foot plough in clay soil
G. Manikandan*
Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering - Regional Centre, Coimbatore - 641007 (Tamil Nadu), India
B. Shridar
Department of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering, Agricultural Engineering College &
Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 641003 (Tamil Nadu)
India
D. Manohar Jesudas
Department of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering, Agricultural Engineering College &
Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 641003 (Tamil Nadu)
India
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2780 Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: April 17, 2021
Accepted: May 8, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
In India, several farm implements are commercially
available for different field operations, such as plough-
ing, sowing, weeding and harvesting. Measurement of
draft for particular implement in the particular soil condi-
tion is necessary for the selection of implements and
power source. Tillage is a very important practice in
agriculture and one of the major energy consumers in
agricultural production; Estimating the amount of fuel
consumption of an agricultural tractor during various
tillage operations will help the selection of the best con-
servation practices for farm equipment (Mankagh,
2019). Draft and energy requirements, various soil con-
ditions are important parameters for measuring and
evaluating performance of tillage implements (Safari
and Gazor, 2014).
Several researchers have developed different models
of three point hitch dynamometers for draft of tillage
implements. Designed the dynamometer, which meas-
ured resultant forces by load cells mounted in two sub-
frames. It was designed with a quick attaching coupler
for inter changeability of category III implement (Barker
et al., 1981). Developed a dynamometer with most us-
ing mounted strain gauge load cells for measuring draft
on tractors. It was concluded that load cell dynamome-
ters of two types are available. The sub frame assem-
bly between tractor and mounted implement are most
commonly used. Later were integral systems of load
sensing elements between tractor and mounted imple-
Abstract
In the present study, the draft requirement of five tyne duck foot plough was studied on clay soil for different soil moisture con-
tent, depth of operation and forward speed of tractor using a specially designed three-point hitch dynamometer. The designed
dynamometer was matched with the tractors having category II or III hitch systems. The data acquisition system adopted for the
dynamometer had NI WSN-3214 Strain Nodes, NI 9792 WSN real-time Gateway and NI LAB View 2013 software. A data logger
program was developed for the three-point hitch dynamometer. The investigation was carried out at that three levels soil mois-
ture content (10-13%, 14-16% and 17-20%), at three different depth of operation (15, 20 and 25 cm) and three levels of the
forward speed of tractor (3, 5 and 7 km h-1). The designed dynamometer performed well in all the levels of the experiment. The
results showed that draft force required for five tyne duck foot plough was increased (408 kg) with an increase in soil moisture
content (17-20%), whereas it was increased (408 kg) with an increase in depth of operation (25 cm) and forward speed of trac-
tor (7 km h-1). The suitable sweep, the forward speed of operation, depth of operation and soil moisture content that influenced
the draft force and energy consumption for tillage operation of duck foot type plough were identified and developed duck foot
plough was better coverage with better soil operation.
Keywords: Clay soil, Data acquisition, Draft, Five tyne duck foot plough, Three-point hitch dynamometer
How to Cite
Manikandan, G. et al. (2021). Draft measurement of five tyne duck foot plough in clay soil. Journal of Applied and Natural
Science, 13 (SI), 73 - 79. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2780
74
Manikandan, G. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 73 - 79 (2021)
ment (Bandy et al.,1986). A load cell was designed for
measuring the forces of each arms. Considering the
point that the lower arms of John Deere 3140 tractor
are two-pieces, the load cells were designed in such a
way that just the final small part of tractor had to be
changed for locating the load cell. The designed load
cell is located in the sliding part of the lower arm, in-
stead of being located in the final part. This method was
simple in construction and accurate. It did not make
any problem in the geometry of tractor implements (.
The designed, constructed and tested new triaxial dy-
namometer was used to measure and locate the posi-
tion of all forces and moments on tillage implements, up
to a maximum force of 10 kN and a maximum moment
of 9 m. The design concept of the facility was based on
four frames attached to each other by load cells and
tillage tool were attached on the inner frame. Additional-
ly, the designed setup operated desirably under field
conditions. Draft measurement was compared to those
predicted by ASABE Standard D497.7 and was found
to be in the standard range Nobakht et al. (2017).
The dynamometer for measuring draft of mounted im-
plements attached to three-point linkage consists of
extension arms (Left and Right), load sensor, inverted T
frame and head bar. To measure bending forces on the
lower links, three load cells attached in sensing bodies.
Prior to field tests, the three-point linkage dynamometer
was calibrated. Sufficient numbers of field tests con-
ducted to measure pull force of an implement. The de-
veloped dynamometer degree of accuracy was com-
pared to dynamometer readings that had strain gauges
in three links. A variation of ± 8 kg was observed during
field trials between developed dynamometer and strain
gauge dynamometer (Tewari et al. 2012).
Tractor operated five tyne duck foot plough is one of
recently popularized implement being used by the farm-
ers for primary tillage operation to plough the field.
There is a lack of detailed study on the draft require-
ment of the tractor operated five tyne duck foot plough,
which may results in low efficiency with more energy
requirement.
The objective of this study was to develop an instru-
mentation system for measurement of draft energy re-
quirement of various primary tillage implements and
measure the draft energy requirement of five tyne duck
foot plough in Tamil Nadu with the developed instru-
mentation system.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A commercially available five tyne duck foot plough was
taken for the draft measurement study (Fig. 1). The
duck foot plough consists of a channel steel rectangular
frame, rigid tines and sweeps. Leaf spring steel sweeps
in the shape of duck foot are used. The sweeps are
fitted fashionably to replace, when worn out. Forged
mild steel was used in tynes. This plough is mostly
used in hard soils for primary tillage operation. The
specifications of the five tyne duck foot plough are giv-
en in Table 1.
Draft measurement system
A designed three-point hitch dynamometer was used
for this present work (Fig. 2). The developed three-
point hitch dynamometer is a universal system in the
manner of it can be used for various categories of im-
plements. The three-point hitch dynamometer consist-
ed of tractor side frame, implement side frame, load
cells and telemetry data acquisition system.
The dynamometer was a double frame unit. The front
side of the tractor side frame was attached to tractor
hitch and rear side of implement side frame was at-
tached to the implement. The hitch points of the imple-
ment side frame were movable for hitching with imple-
ment. The three-point hitch dynamometer can be easily
connected or disconnected with the tractor and imple-
ment. Six load cells were used to measure the draft
forces of implement. The three-point hitch dynamome-
ter attached with all accessories weighed of 130 kg.
The developed three-point hitch dynamometer was
attached to category II or III tractors. The design of
three-point hitch dynamometer hexagonal pattern al-
lowed mounting of Power Take-Off (PTO) driven imple-
ments without torque sensing.
The two lower links and one top link assembly was pro-
vided in the rear side of the implement end frame and
the tractor side of the implement frame provided with
the load cell mounted unit. The weight of the implement
side frame was 60 kg.
The designed three-point hitch dynamometer required
six cylindrical load cells on three orientations. The six
load cells were equally arranged in every direction, i.e.,
three load cells for longitudinal direction, two load cells
for the vertical direction, and a single load cell for lat-
eral direction. The load cells had maximum and mini-
mum capacity of 2000 kg and 500 kg. These load cells
were connected between tractor end frame and imple-
ment end frame with eye rod end bearing.
The six load cells were connected to the Wireless Sen-
sor Network 4-Ch Full Bridge Strain Node, each for
connected three load cell. The NI WSN-3214 Strain
S. No. Description Dimension
1 Number of tynes 5
2 Main frame, mm 2290 × 550
3 Working width, mm 300
4 Weight, kg 280
5 Power requirement, hp 35-55
Table 1. Specification five tyne duck foot plough.
75
Manikandan, G. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 73 - 79 (2021)
Node mounted on top of the three-point hitch dyna-
mometer in implement side frame. The data acquisition
system consisted of NI WSN-3214 Strain Nodes, NI
9792 WSN real-time Gateway, computer running NI
LAB View 2013 software with developed data logger
program. This data acquisition system powered with
12V, 7 Ah DC battery in remote side of the field. The
computer was utilised for running the developed data
logger LAB View program.
The flow diagram for three-point hitch dynamometer
data acquisition system on draft measurement of the
mounted implement is shown in Fig. 3.
Calibration of load cell
The calibration of load cells was done with developed
Lab VIEW program in order to determine the output
quantity on input quantity characteristic. This load cell
characteristic with strain gauges represented the de-
pendence of the load cell's output voltage on the load
itself. A virtual instrument was created in Lab VIEW
software for measuring the output voltage of load cell.
To calibrate the load cell, it is attached with an electron-
ic balance and whole unit mounted in chain jack. The
known load was applied in chain jack, as increasing
manner. The mounted unit loads are verified with elec-
tronic weighing balance (kg) and readings from Lab
VIEW were noted (mV) down. After the procedure fin-
ished, the calibration curves were plotted.
Force and moment components of dynamometer
and Five tyne duck foot plough
The force and moment components in the Cartesian
coordinate system, as shown in Fig. 4 were computed
from the following equations.
Due to small range of lateral force produced by asym-
metrical implements on three-point linkage, it was ne-
glected. Hence, the resultant (RE) derived in a two di-
mensional system instead of three dimensional system.
Resultant force (RE) as below,
L = L1 + L2 + L3 Eq.1
V = V1 + V2 – W Eq.2
W × Xw + L3 × M – L × Yl + (V1+V2) × Xv = 0 Eq.3
RE = Eq.4
W × Xw + L3 × M – R × rr+(V1+V2) × Xv =0 Eq.5
Angle of resultant (θ) in XY plane,
Eq.6
ΣFx, ΣFy and ΣFz were the force components along
the x, y and z axes. L1, L2, L3, V1, V2 and S were the
forces on load cells. a, b and h were the position pa-
rameters of the load cells, and W was the weight of the
sub frame and implement. The Resultant force repre-
sented in equation was the single force, resolution of
horizontal and vertical components on three-point link-
age, acted at a distance of (a), oriented at an angle of
(θ) from the rear axle.
Field test
The factors affecting draft force and energy for tillage
were soil moisture content, soil structure and cone in-
dex (Upadhyaya et al., 1984).
The field test of the three-point hitch dynamometer on
the tractor and implement performance was conducted
Eastern black farm Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore which had clay soil (Fig. 5). Soil samples
were collected at 10 points to measure the soil mois-
ture content,. The soil moisture content was measured
on dry basis, for which the soil samples were weighed,
oven dried at 105°C for 24 h and weighed again.
The tractor was equipped with data acquisition system
and duck foot plough. The field tests were conducted
to analyse the draft requirement of five tyne duck foot
plough at variable soil moisture content i.e, 10 -13%,
14-16% and 17-20%, different depth of operation i.e,
15, 20 and 25 cm and forward speed of operation of
the implement viz.,3, 5 and 7 km h-1 (Jebur and Alsay-
yah, 2017).
The data was stored in Lab view programme for analy-
sis on the duck foot plough draft requirement by using
the associated data acquisition system. The dynamom-
eter was horizontally adjusted parallel to ground sur-
face, before the conduct of the experiment. The data
acquisi-tion system signal was covering up to a dis-
tance range of 30 m.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Prior to measuring the draft of mounted implements by
developed three-point hitch dynamometer, the load
cells mounted in dynamometer were calibrated and
constants derived from calibration procedures were
used to obtain forces in metric units. The horizontal
Fig. 1. Five tyne duck foot plough used for draft
measurement.
76
Manikandan, G. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 73 - 79 (2021)
and vertical forces of the duck foot plough were meas-
ured in the field at different soil moisture content, depth
of operation and speed of travel of the implement. The
average horizontal force and average vertical force
measured were 405 kg and 68 kg (Fig. 6 and 7), where-
as the calculated resultant force was 408 kg (Fig. 8).
Interactive effect of selected levels of variables on
draft in clay soil
It is observed from the Fig.9 and Fig. 10 that the in-
crease in forward speeds from 3 km h-1 to 7 km h-1
showed linear increase in draft for all selected levels of
depth of operation with varies moisture content. Draft
Fig. 2. Developed three point hitch dynamometer.
Fig. 3. Flow diagram for three-point hitch dynamometer
data acquisition system on draft measurement of mounted
implement.
Fig. 4. Force and moment components of three-point hitch
dynamometer.
Fig. 5. Draft measurement of duck foot plough in field
condition.
77
Manikandan, G. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 73 - 79 (2021)
has gradual increase of 30.73 per cent in clay soil at
150 mm depth of operation with various moisture con-
tent. The minimum value of draft in clay soil of 378. 2
kg was registered at 3 km h-1 (Moeinfar et al., 2014) for
the treatment combination respectively. It is observed
from the Fig.9 and Fig. 10 the performance of depend-
ent variable draft exhibited the same trend as observed
with 150 mm depth of operation. In 200 mm depth of
operation, it is observed that the draft values in clay
soil was increased 30.12 per cent for all selected levels
of forward speed and moisture content of soil. The min-
imum value of draft in clay soil of 446.93 kg was regis-
tered at 3 km h-1 (Jebur and Alsayyah, 2017) for the
treatment combination respectively.
It is noticed that clay soil registered higher values than
red soil for all the evaluation parameters that were tak-
en for investigation. Presence of higher percentage of
clay may be one of the prime reasons attributed for the
increased values on the dependent variables for clay soil
compared to red soil. In addition factors affecting the soil
adhesion, soil-metal friction angle, draft and specific draft
include the soil texture, moisture content and porosity,
organic matter content (M. Manoharan 2017 ).
Statistical analysis of variables
The statistical analysis of the data was performed to
assess the significance of the variables viz., forward
speed of operation (S), depth of operation (D), moisture
contents (M) and soil type (C) on the dependent varia-
bles such as, draft.
Experimental statistical design
To statistically verify the influence of different independ-
ent variable on draft all the data were recorded and
analyzed using statistical package AGRESS. The re-
sults obtained from clay soil for the analysis of variance
for draft is given in Table 2.
Fig. 6. Horizontal force of duck foot plough. Fig. 7. Vertical force of duck foot plough.
Fig. 8. Calculated resultant force of five tyne duck foot
plough.
Fig. 9. Soil moisture content vs draft. Fig. 10. Depth of operation vs draft.
78
Manikandan, G. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 73 - 79 (2021)
The Fig. 9 and 10 showed the draft measured in kg at
different soil moisture content and at different depth,
respectively. From the graph, it was observed that the
draft was increased with increase in moisture content
for all forward speed of operation of the implement. The
maximum draft was observed with 17-20 % moisture
content at 7km h-1speed.
It was revealed that the draft was increased with in-
crease in depth of operation of the implement for all
forward speed of the tractor, whereas the maximum
was observed with 25 cm depth at 7 km h-1 speed.
Conclusion
The present study concluded that the developed dyna-
mometer performed well in all the levels of the draft
force measurement experiments. The horizontal and
vertical forces measured were 405 kg and 68 kg and
the calculated resultant force was 408 kg. The draft
was increased with an increase in moisture content for
all forward speed of operation of the implement. The
maximum draft was observed with 17-20 % moisture
content at 7km h-1 speed. The draft was having direct
relationship with depth of operation; while the increas-
ing depth of operation, the draft of the implement was
also increased and attained the maximum value at 25
cm depth of 7 km h-1 forward speed. Hence, reduced
draft techniques have now been identified and recog-
nized as an alternate to bridge the need and better
working quality of tillage operations apart from reducing
energy consumption, minimizing tractive effort and in-
creased area of coverage with better soil operation.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
REFERENCES
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(1986). Measurement of three-point hitch forces on agri-
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(1981). Three-point hitch dynamometer for directional
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Coimbatore, India.
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(2017). "Development of a dynamometer to measure all
forces and moments applied on tillage tools." MAPAN 32
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tional tractors performance during primary tillage in Iran.
Agric Eng Int: CIGR Journal, 16(1), 61－68.
Sl. No. SV DF SS MSS F
1 Depth (D) 2 290031.86 145015.93 496.22**
2 Error (a) 4 1168.95 292.23
3 Moisture Content (M) 2 186659.58 93329.79 729.38**
4 D x M 4 5869.20 1467.30 11.46**
5 Error (b) 12 1535.47 127.95
6 Speed (S) 2 167631.87 83815.93 601.60**
7 D x S 4 4216.14 7594.34 7.56**
8 M x S 4 3255.09 813.77 5.84**
9 D x M x S 8 2454.96 306.87 2.20*
10 Error (c) 36 5015.50 139.31
11 Total 80 668215.99
Table 2. ANOVA on draft of duck foot type plough for clay soil.
C.V. (Treatment): 1.82%; **= significant at 1 % level *= significant at 5 % level ns = not significant
79
Manikandan, G. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 73 - 79 (2021)
10. Tewari, V., N. Ravi, K. Jha, & A. Ashok. (2012). Design
and development of a three-Point-linkage dynamometer
for tillage research. Agricultural Engineering Today 36
(3),33-38.
11. Upadhyaya, S. K., Williams, T. H., Kemble, L. J., & Col-
lins, N. E. (1984). Energy requirements for chiseling in
coastal plain soils. Transactions of the ASAE, 27(6), 1643-
1649.
G. Tamil Amutham*
Department of Agronomy, Agriculture College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore- 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
R. Karthikeyan
Department of Agronomy, Agriculture College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore- 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
N. Thavaprakaash
Department of Agronomy, Agriculture College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore- 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
C. Bharathi
Department Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Agriculture College and Research
Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore- 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2804 Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: May 14, 2021
Accepted: June 3, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
Maize (Zea mays L.) is popularly called as ‘Queen of
cereals’ and ‘miracle crop’ because of its greater yield
potential. A novelty of maize is cultivation predominant-
ly for vegetable purpose as ‘babycorn’. Babycorn is
typically a maize ear produced from regular corn plants
which are harvested earlier, particularly when the silks
have the size of 1-3 cm (Thavaprakaash et al., 2005).
Babycorn is the safest vegetable to eat directly as it is
(Kawatra and Sehgal, 2007). It has a high nutritive val-
ue and its nutritional quality is superior to some of the
high priced vegetables such as tomato, cucumber, cab-
bage and cauliflower (Yodpet, 1979).
Zinc (Zn) is one of the foremost trace elements re-
quired in minimum concentrations for healthy growth
and development of plants and humans. In plants, zinc
plays a vital role in pollen formation, enzyme activation,
healthy root structure, detoxification of free radicals,
resistance to certain pathogens (Peck and Mcdonald,
2010). In human, Zn has an essential role in the regula-
tion of the immune system, neuron sensory functions
and reproductive organs (Hershfinkel et al., 2007).
In the world, nearly 50 percent (%) of cereal have been
growing in low Zn status soil (Graham and Welch,
2008). Zinc deficiency in plants affects the crop quality
and causes Zn deficiency in human diet (Bagci et al.,
2007). In Asia, about 2.50 billion people were suffered
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of agronomic biofortification with zinc on yield, nutritional quality, nutri-
ent uptake and economics of babycorn under irrigated condition. The observations on yield viz., green cob yield, babycorn yield
and green fodder yield and quality parameters (crude protein, total soluble sugars, starch and Zn content) were recorded at
harvest stage. The nutrient uptake was analysed at different growth stages and economic indices viz., the total cost of cultiva-
tion, gross return, net return and benefit cost ratio were worked out for various zinc fertilization treatments. Increased green cob
yield and babycorn yield was recorded higher in soil application of zinc sulphate @ 37.5 kg ha-1 along with a foliar spray of 1.0
% on 20 and 40 DAS. Quality parameters of babycorn viz., crude protein, total soluble sugars, starch and Zn content in corn
were significantly increased with soil application of ZnSO4 @ 37.5 kg ha -1 along with a foliar spray of 0.5% at 20 and 40 DAS
that recorded higher values of these quality characters. Plant nutrient uptake of N, K and Zn in babycorn was significantly in-
creased with the application of ZnSO4 @ 37.5 kg ha -1 in soil with foliar spray of 0.5% at 20 and 40 DAS. Higher net monetary
returns and B: C ratio were obtained with application of ZnSO4@ 37.5 kg ha -1in soil with foliar spray @ 0.5% on 20 and 40 DAS.
Keywords: Babycorn hybrid G-5414, Green cob yield, Zinc uptake, Zinc biofortification
How to Cite
Amutham, G. T. et al. (2021).
Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 13 (SI), 80 - 85. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2804
81
Amutham, G. T. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 80 - 85 (2021)
by zinc deficiencies between the age group of 0-5 years
(Caballero, 2002).
Among the field crops, maize is highly susceptible to
zinc and it’s occupied the third rank in zinc demand
after rice and wheat (Meena et al., 2013). The funda-
mental of agronomic zinc biofortification is keeping an
adequate quantity of available zinc in the soil solution
by soil application and in the leaf tissues by foliar spray,
which maintains sufficient level of zinc in the plant by
encouraging root uptake and transport to the sink
(grains) during reproductive stage of crop.
Agronomic zinc biofortification in babycorn has a great
scope in alleviating zinc related deficiencies in the crop
as well as in human beings by consumption of Zn en-
riched babycorn. Based on this above information the
present study was aimed to investigate the agronomic
biofortification with zinc on yield, nutritional quality, nu-
trient uptake and economics of babycorn.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The field experiment was conducted during the late
Kharif season (September-November) of the year 2018
at Eastern Block farm, Department of Agronomy, Tamil
Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu.
The farm is located in the Western Agro Climatic Zone
of Tamil Nadu at 11o N latitude, 77o E longitude, and at
an altitude of 426.7 m above MSL. During the cropping
period, a total of 324.4 mm rainfall was received over
31 rainy days. Texture of the experimental site was
sandy clay loam belonging to Irugur series and taxo-
nomically known as Typic Ustropepts under USDA clas-
sification. Before start of the field experiment the soil
nutrient status of the experimental field was slightly al-
kaline (8.24) with low soluble salts (0.53 dS m-1), low in
available nitrogen, medium in available phosphorus,
high in available potassium with low in Zn content.
The field experiment was laid out in randomized com-
plete block design (RCBD) with nine treatments and
three replications. The treatments comprised of T1: No
zinc (control), T2: ZnSO4 @ 25 kg ha -1 as soil applica-
tion, T3: ZnSO4 @ 37.5 kg ha -1 as soil application, T4:
Foliar spray of ZnSO4 @ 0.5% on 20 and 40 DAS, T5:
Foliar spray of ZnSO4 @ 1.0% on 20 and 40 DAS, T6:
ZnSO4 @ 25 kg ha -1as soil application + foliar spray @
0.5% on 20 and 40 DAS, T7: ZnSO4 @ 25 kg ha -1 as
soil application + foliar spray @ 1.0% on 20 and 40
DAS, T8: ZnSO4 @ 37.5 kg ha -1 as soil application +
foliar spray @ 0.5% on 20 and 40 DAS, T9: ZnSO4 @
37.5 kg ha -1as soil application + foliar spray @ 1.0% on
20 and 40 DAS. Babycorn hybrid G-5414 was used for
the experimentation with adopted plant spacing of 45
cm x 25 cm.
The blanket recommendation of fertilisers viz., nitrogen
(150 kg ha -1), phosphorus (60 kg ha -1) and potassium
(40 kg ha -1) were applied in the form of urea, single
super phosphate and muriate of potash, respectively. N
and K were applied in two equal splits i.e., one at the
time of sowing and another at 25 days after sowing
(DAS). The full dose of P was applied as basal. As per
the treatment schedule, the recommended quantity of
zinc sulphate was applied as basal and foliar spray of
zinc sulphate @ 0.5% and 1.0% was given at 20 and
40 DAS based on the treatments.
Yield analysis:
Green cob yield
The green cobs from the plants were harvested by five
times and a sum of five pickings of fresh green cobs
weight was taken and expressed as kg ha -1.
Babycorn yield
The green cobs from the plants were harvested, the
weight of fresh green cobs without husk (babycorns)
was taken and expressed as kg ha -1.
Green fodder yield
After the final harvest of green cobs, the left-over green
plants were cut immediately to the ground level and the
green fodder was weighed and expressed in kg ha -1.
Quality analysis:
Crude protein content
Babycorn samples were taken at first picking from each
net plot area and dried at 70⁰C in hot air oven. Those
sample were used for the analysis of total N by Micro-
Kjeldahl method (Humphries, 1956). The N content of
the grain was multiplied with the factor 6.25 to get the
crude protein and expressed in percentage (Dubetz
and Wells, 1968).
Total soluble sugars
Total soluble sugars content were analysed in fresh
corn at first picking by the method of Yemm and Willis
(1954) and expressed in percentage.
Starch content
Starch content was estimated in fresh corn at first pick-
ing using Anthrone method by Hedge and Hofreiter
(1962) and expressed as percentage.
Zinc content in babycorn
Zinc content was estimated in dried babycorn samples
at first picking by Tri acid digestion method and using
Atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Jackson, 1973)
and expressed as ppm.
Plant analysis
The plant samples were collected at various growth
stages (25 DAS, 45 DAS and at harvest) and kept for
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Amutham, G. T. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 80 - 85 (2021)
shade-dried followed by oven-dried. Then ground into a
fine powder using Willey mill and it is used for chemical
analysis of total N, P, K and Zn.
The uptake of nutrients (NPK and Zn) was worked out
using the following formula.
Nutrient uptake (kg/ha) =Percentage of nutrient x Total
dry matter production (kg/ha) /100 ……….Eq. 1
Economic analysis
Economic indices viz., the total cost of cultivation, gross
return, net return and benefit cost ratio were worked out
for various zinc fertilization treatments.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effect of zinc fertilization on yield of babycorn
In the present investigation, zinc fertilization had a sig-
nificant effect on green cob yield and babycorn yield, as
mentioned in Table 1. Soil application of zinc sulphate
at 25 kg ha -1 and 37.5 kg ha -1 and foliar spray (@
0.5% and 1.0%) were statistically similar and increased
the green cob yield to the tune of 19.5 per cent and
21.5 per cent, 24 per cent and 24.6 per cent, respec-
tively as per the successive increment in zinc fertiliza-
tion over control. An increasing trend in babycorn yield
was also observed with increased zinc fertilization. The
increased yield might be due to the beneficial effect of
Zn in the plant system. Better utilization of zinc in plant
resulted in higher leaf area, photosynthetic efficiency,
total dry matter production and yield attribute that led to
increased green cob and babycorn yield.
Application of zinc sulphate in soil @ 37.5 kg ha -1 with
foliar spray of 0.5% on 20 DAS and 40 DAS (T8) rec-
orded the maximum green fodder yield (30492 kg ha -1)
with an increment of 26 per cent over control. The fa-
vourable effect of Zn application on green fodder yield
was attributed to the overall growth and development
under a higher supply of zinc which enhanced the
source to sink relationship and led to an increase in the
green fodder yield.
The results are in accordance with the findings of
Chand and Susheela (2017), who reported that the soil
application of zinc sulphate @ 25 kg/ha with foliar
spray of zinc sulphate at 0.2% on 25 DAS and 40 DAS
was found to produce higher yields viz., corn yield
(1566 kg/ha), cob yield (6311 kg/ha), husk yield (4744
kg/ha) and green fodder yield (27.48 t/ha).
Effect of zinc fertilization on quality parameters of
babycorn
Crude protein content was highly influenced by zinc
fertilization (Table 2). Application of zinc sulphate @
37.5 kg ha -1 in soil and foliar spray of 0.5% on 20 and
40 DAS (T8) recorded higher crude protein (9.83%) to a
tune of 31.2% increase over control. However, the
treatment was statistically on par with treatment T9 and
T7, which recorded the crude protein values of 9.25 per
cent and 9.22 per cent, respectively. The increase in
the crude protein content of the cobs might be due to
increased concentration of nitrogen through higher ni-
trogen uptake as reported by Sharma et al. (2012).
Total soluble sugar content was significantly affected
by zinc fertilization treatments (Table 2). The TSS con-
tent ranged from 1.42 per cent to 1.65 per cent. Zinc
sulphate application in soil @ 37.5 kg/ha along with
0.5% foliar spray at 20 DAS and 40 DAS (T8) recorded
a higher TSS of 1.65% and it was statistically on par
with the treatments T9, T7, T6 and T5. The lowest TSS
of 1.42% was recorded in control (T1). The increased
total sugar content might be due to a better source-sink
relationship, greater balanced absorption and translo-
cation of nutrients to different plant parts resulting in
higher values of sugars of babycorn under higher dos-
es of zinc fertilization.
Zinc fertilization had significantly affected the starch
content also (Table 2). In the present investigation, a
higher value of starch content (8.17%) was recorded
with the application of zinc sulphate @ 37.5 kg ha -1 in
soil with foliar spray of 0.5% on 20 and 40 DAS (T8)
over other treatments but it was statistically on par with
Treatments Green cob yield (kg ha -1)
Babycorn yield (kg ha -1)
Green fodder Yield (kg ha -1)
T1: Control (No Zinc) 14378 3658 24136
T2: ZnSO4 @ 25 kg ha-1
as soil application 16115 4375 25615
T3: ZnSO4 @ 37.5 kg ha-1 as soil application 16328 4369 26121
T4: Foliar spray of ZnSO4 @ 0.5 % on 20 and 40 DAS 16425 4460 26385
T5: Foliar spray of ZnSO4 @ 1.0 % on 20 and 40 DAS 16571 5338 26695
T6: T2 and T4 17189 5317 28160
T7: T2 and T5 17476 5578 28842
T8:T3 and T4 17837 5778 30492
T9: T3 and T5 17916 5989 29706
Sed 787 287 1162
CD (P=0.05) 1669 607 2463
Table 1. Effect of zinc fertilization on yield of babycorn.
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Amutham, G. T. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 80 - 85 (2021)
T9, T7 and T6 treatments. The reason might be due to
the large availability of the micronutrient in soil solution
and its uptake by the crop. Kumar and Bohra (2014)
reported that starch contents in babycorn were signifi-
cantly affected by zinc at 5 kg /ha.
The data of zinc content in corn (Table 2) in the pre-
sent study revealed that higher accumulation of zinc was
recorded (43.9 ppm) in the application of zinc sulphate in
soil @ 37.5 kg ha -1with foliar spray of 0.5% at 20 and 40
DAS (T8). It was followed by zinc sulphate application in
soil @ 37.5 kg ha -1 with foliar spray of 1.0 % at 20 and 40
DAS (T9). The increase in Zn content in corn might be due
to the presence of higher amount of zinc in soil solution by
the application of ZnSO4 and due to its moderate phloem
mobility, it’s might have favourable absorption by babycorn
crop and translocated in the grains during the maturity phase
as also observed by Arabhanvi and Hulihalli (2018).
Effect of zinc fertilization on nutrients uptake of
babycorn
Among the different levels of application of zinc
sulphate tested, combined application of zinc sulphate
of 37.5 kg ha -1 in soil with foliar spray of 0.5% on 20
and 40 DAS (T8) recorded a profound influence on N
uptake during respective growth stages (Table 3). This
might be due to the synergistic effect of Zn on N and
also due to better foraging capacity of roots led to bet-
ter growth and development.
The P uptake had not been significantly influenced
by zinc fertilization at all growth stages. The reason
might be that increased zinc uptake depressed the
root phosphorus uptake and translocation from root
to shoot.
The K uptake had been significantly influenced by zinc
fertilization at all growth stages. Application of zinc
Treatments Crude Protein (%)
Total sugar content (%)
Starch content (%)
Zinc content (mg kg -1)
T1: Control (No Zinc) 7.49 1.42 6.83 32.6
T2: ZnSO4 @ 25 kg ha-1 as soil application 8.16 1.46 7.20 35.8
T3: ZnSO4 @ 37.5 kg ha-1 as soil application 7.94 1.48 7.28 37.9
T4: Foliar spray of ZnSO4 @ 0.5 % on 20 and 40 DAS 7.75 1.49 7.32 39.4
T5: Foliar spray of ZnSO4 @ 1.0 % on 20 and 40 DAS 9.06 1.52 7.38 39.7
T6: T2and T4 8.61 1.56 7.61 41.2
T7: T2and T5 9.22 1.60 7.72 42.5
T8:T3and T4 9.83 1.65 8.17 43.9
T9: T3and T5 9.25 1.63 8.12 43.4
Sed 0.52 0.06 0.35 1.7
CD (P=0.05) 1.10 0.13 0.75 3.6
Table 2. Effect of zinc fertilization on quality parameters of babycorn.
Treatments
Total nitrogen uptake (kg ha-1)
Total phosphorus uptake (kg ha-1)
Total potassium uptake (kg ha-1)
Total zinc uptake (g ha-1)
25 DAS
45 DAS
Harvest 25 DAS
45 DAS
Har-vest
25 DAS
45 DAS
Har-vest
25 DAS
45 DAS
Har-vest
T1 17.8 95.7 124.1 1.3 14.5 22.5 6.6 66.3 95.1 35.4 209.5 286.8
T2 18.5 101.7 162.2 1.1 12.6 22.1 7.1 73.6 111.7 41.9 260.1 335.3
T3 20.2 117.5 167.6 1.2 13.5 21.0 7.3 86.6 111.5 42.7 234.9 385.8
T4 21.0 130.1 176.2 1.2 13.6 21.8 7.7 99.6 121.9 57.0 240.4 422.8
T5 21.7 129.2 180.4 1.1 13.9 21.5 7.8 94.2 129.6 54.9 320.5 439.0
T6 22.3 131.3 187.3 1.2 13.8 22.1 7.8 94.4 141.4 58.5 370.0 504.0
T7 23.2 137.9 192.9 1.2 12.3 21.3 8.8 107.8 151.0 58.7 384.6 507.1
T8 24.0 147.4 207.3 1.1 12.5 21.6 9.4 115.0 158.0 63.5 430.0 544.5
T9 24.0 141.4 195.1 1.1 12.6 21.4 9.3 114.8 158.3 63.6 428.6 567.3
Sed 1.3 8.1 11.3 0.1 1.0 1.3 0.5 6.2 7.2 3.0 10.2 32.0
CD(P=0.05)
2.6 17.2 24.0 NS NS NS 1.0 13.1 15.3 6.4 21.7 67.8
Table 3. Effect of zinc fertilization on plant N, P, K and Zn uptake at different stages of babycorn.
84
Amutham, G. T. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 80 - 85 (2021)
sulphate @37.5 kg ha -1 with foliar spray of either 0.5%
or 1.0 % at 20 and 40 DAS (T8) recorded higher K up-
take during respective growth stages (Table 3). Higher
availability of K was observed and it’s might be due to
synergistic effect between Zn and K. The results con-
form with the finding of Muthumanickam et al. (2015),
who opined that the combined application of K @ 75
kg with Zn @ 7.5kg/ha and B @ 1.0 kg/ha had a sig-
nificant increase in maximum Zn, B and K uptake in
maize grain.
Zinc fertilization had significantly influenced the zinc
uptake in babycorn. Application of zinc sulphate in
soil @ 37.5 kg ha -1 with foliar spray of either 0.5% or
1.0% at 20 and 40 DAS (T8) recorded higher Zn up-
take during the respective growth stages (Table 3).
This might be due to external application of zinc
through soil and foliar application of zn. This zinc con-
centration in the plants which may resulted in better
translocation of the nutrient from source to sink.
Economics
The economics of babycorn as influenced by zinc fertili-
zation in the present study (Table 4) revealed that ap-
plication of zinc sulphate in soil @ 37.5 kg ha -1 with
foliar spray @ 1.0 % at 20 and 40 DAS (T9) incurred
higher cost of cultivation (78612 Rha-1) and attained
higher gross return (417732 Rha-1) and benefit cost ra-
tio of 5.31. Maximum net return (339422 Rha-1) and
benefit cost ratio of 5.33 was attained with application
of zinc sulphate in soil @ 37.5 kg ha -1 with foliar spray
@ 0.5 % at 20 and 40 DAS (T8). This was attributed to
the production of higher green cob and green fodder
yields over other treatments. It is obvious because of the
favourable effect of zinc application in the production of
higher babycorn and green fodder yields. The results of
Palai et al. (2018) found that there was highest net re-
turn (R165442 / ha) with soil application of Zn @ 6 kg
ha-1 + foliar spray @ 0.05% Zn at 25 DAS with seed
treatment @ 0.6% Zn. The B: C ratio was also highest
(4.46) in soil application of Zn @ 6 kg ha-1 + foliar spray
@ 0.05% Zn at 25 DAS.
Conclusion
Increased yield attributes such as the number of cobs/
plant, cob and corn length, cob and corn weight, cob
and corn girth were observed with combined applica-
tion of ZnSO4 @ 37.5 kg/ha in soil with foliar spray @
0.5% at 20 and 40 DAS. Quality parameters of baby-
corn like crude protein, total soluble sugars, starch and
Zn content in corn were significantly influenced soil
application of ZnSO4 @ 37.5 kg/ha with foliar spray of
0.5% at 20 and 40 DAS recorded higher values of
these quality characters. Plant nutrient uptake of N, K
and Zn by the babycorn crop was significantly influ-
enced by the application of ZnSO4 @ 37.5 kg/ha in soil
with foliar spray of 0.5% at 20 and 40 DAS. Higher net
monetary return and B: C ratio were obtained with ap-
plication of ZnSO4 at 37.5 kg/ha in soil with foliar spray
@ 0.5% on 20 DAS and 40 DAS followed by applica-
tion of ZnSO4 at 37.5 kg/ha in soil with foliar spray @
1.0% on 20 DAS and 40 DAS. From the present study,
it could be concluded that applying zinc sulphate to soil
@37.5 kg ha-1 with foliar spray @ 0.5% at 20 and 40
DAS could be a successful practice for achieving high-
er productivity, profitability with bio-fortification of Zn in
babycorn under irrigated condition.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
REFERENCES
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Treatments
Total cost of cultivation
(Rha-1)
Gross return
(Rha-1)
Net return
(Rha-1)
B:C Ratio
T1: Control (No Zinc) 75667 335832 260165 4.44
T2: ZnSO4 @ 25 kg ha-1 as soil application 77217 373530 296313 4.84
T3: ZnSO4 @ 37.5 kg ha-1 as soil application 77992 378802 300810 4.86
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T6: T2and T4 77527 400100 322573 5.16
T7: T2and T5 77837 407204 329367 5.23
T8:T3and T4 78302 417724 339422 5.33
T9: T3and T5 78612 417732 339120 5.31
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Radicle emergence test as a quick vigour test to predict field
emergence performance in rice (Oryza sativa L.) seed lots
Chinnasamy G P*
Department of Seed Science and Technology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore - 641003 (Tamil Nadu) India
Sundareswaran S
Directorate of Seed Centre, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 641003
(Tamil Nadu) India
Renganayaki P R
Department of Seed Science and Technology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore - 641003 (Tamil Nadu) India
Vetrivel M
Department of Crop Physiology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 641003
(Tamil Nadu) India
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2805
Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: May 14, 2021
Accepted: June 3, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the important staple food of
more than 60% of world’s population and it belongs to
the family Poaceae. It is a major cereal crop of high
agronomic and nutritional importance as global rice
production is over 650 million tonnes. In India, rice is
grown in an area of 43.2 million hectares with a produc-
tion of 110.15 million tonnes and productivity of 2.5
tonnes/ha during 2016-17. Tamil Nadu alone contrib-
utes an area of 2.04 million hectares with the produc-
tion of 7.98 million tonnes and it accounts for the
productivity of 3.8 tonnes/ha (Indiastat, 2018-19,
https://www.indiastat.com).
Seed is considered as the prime input in agriculture.
The quality of the seed is most important to produce
vigourous and healthy plants in the field. A key compo-
nent of crop seeds' performance in field largely de-
pends on the seed vigour (Qun et al., 2007).
International Seed Testing Association defined that
‘Seed vigour is the sum of those properties that deter-
mine the activity and performance of seed lots of ac-
Abstract
An experiment was made to standardize the radicle emergence test to predict the field emergence performance in ten different
seed lots [L1 to L4: high vigour lots (> 90 % germination), L5 to L7: medium vigour lots (80-90 % germination) and L8 to L10: low
vigour lots (< 80 % germination)] of rice cv. CO 51. The results showed that the significant differences are observed in physio-
logical and biochemical parameters in different seed lots. The seed vigour was classified into three groups viz., high, medium
and low vigour based on the relationship between mean germination time and field emergence. When the Mean Germination
Time (MGT) was < 34 hours, the field emergence was > 85 per cent, which was considered as high vigour; when the MGT was
34-35 hours, the field emergence was 80-85 per cent, that was considered as medium vigour; when the MGT was > 35 hours,
the field emergence was < 80 per cent, that was considered as low vigour. The radicle emergence test (2mm radicle length)
was highly negatively correlated with mean germination time (-0.930**) followed by mean just germination time (-0.852**) and
electrical conductivity of seed leachate (-0.827**) and it was positively correlated with field emergence (0.894**) followed by
germination (0.878**) and dehydrogenase activity (0.864**). The R2 values between seed vigour parameters and radicle emer-
gence test were significantly higher in 2mm length of radicle emergence when compared with 1mm length of radicle emer-
gence. Finally, the study concluded that 36 hour MGT with the attainment of 2mm radicle emergence percentage could be used
as a quick method to assess rice seed lots' quality by the seed analysts and seed industry.
Keywords: Field emergence, Germination, Radicle emergence, Rice, Vigour
How to Cite
Chinnasamy, G. P. et al. (2021). Radicle emergence test as a quick vigour test to predict field emergence performance in rice
(Oryza sativa L.) seed lots. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 13 (SI), 86 - 93. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2805
87
Chinnasamy, G. P. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 86 - 93 (2021)
ceptable germination in an open array of environments’.
Vigour test provides a reproducible result that accurately
describes the potential for rapid, uniform emergence
under field conditions and describes the ranking of seed
lots (International Seed Testing Association, 2014).
Evaluation of seed vigour is important to predict the
planting value of seed lot. The use of vigour tests, such
as determining their physiological quality by seed-
producing industries, has been increasing. However, the
vigour tests hope to select the seed lots with good stor-
age capacity. The seed lots with same germination per
cent varying vigour in their performance either in stor-
age and field. Hence, the use of good quality seed is
obligatory, which necessitates the evaluation of its qual-
ity before introducing into market. Seed vigour tests
should be inexpensive, rapid, simple, objective, repro-
ducible, and should have high correlation with field per-
formance (International Seed Testing Association,
2016).
The standard germination test is a universal test for
seed quality to evaluate the maximum potential of a
particular seed lot only under a wide range of climatic
conditions. Standard germination test is time consum-
ing and does not always show seed lot potential perfor-
mance, especially if field conditions are not optimal
(Mavi et al., 2016).
Seed lots that do not differ in germination may differ in
deterioration level and may differ substantially in-field
performance; thereby, a vigour test is considered pow-
erful when it classified the seed lots into more groups or
levels (Kolasinska et al., 2000). Radicle emergence test
is considered as a quick test to predict varying vigour
level and field performance of seed lots than the stand-
ard germination test in several crops. Radicle emer-
gence is defined as the appearance of a radicle after
breaking through the seed coat. The radicle emergence
test has been accepted as a valid seed quality test by
the International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) in the
Annual Meeting held at Zurich in June 2011 for Zea
mays (Matthews and Powell, 2011).
The radicle emergence test provides small laboratories
with the opportunity to gain early information to predict
the normal seedlings (Mavi et al., 2016). Farmers easily
practice for radicle emergence test and do not require
sophisticated equipment or highly skilled personnel and
it could be used to shorten the decision period in the
seed industry management.
The present study was undertaken to standardize the
radicle emergence test to predict field emergence per-
formance in rice cv. CO 51 seed lots.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present experiment was conducted to standardize
the radicle emergence test to predict field emergence
performance in ten different seed lots [L1 to L4: high
vigour lots (> 90 % germination), L5 to L7: medium vig-
our lots (80-90 % germination) and L8 to L10: low vigour
lots (< 80 % germination)] of rice. Genetically pure ten
seed lots of rice cv. CO 51 obtained from the Depart-
ment of Rice, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coim-
batore produced the base material for this experimental
study. The laboratory and greenhouse studies were
carried out in the Department of Seed Science and
Technology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coim-
batore, during 2018-2019.
Standard germination test
The germination test was conducted with 100 seeds in
four replications for each lot in the roll towel paper
method. The test conditions of 25 ± 2º C temperature
and 95 ± 2 % RH were maintained in the germination
room. At 14th day end of the germination test period,
the number of normal seedlings were counted and the
mean was expressed as germination percent
(International Seed Testing Association, 2016).
The seeds showing plumule emergence in each lot,
replication wise were counted daily from the third day
after sowing until the germination test. From the number
of seeds germinated on each day, the speed of germina-
tion was calculated as per the method suggested by
Maguire (1962) and the speed of germination results
were expressed in number.
At the time of germination count, ten normal seedlings
were selected at random from each lot replication wise
and the root length was measured from the collar re-
gion to the tip of the primary root. The mean values
were calculated and expressed in centimetre. The
shoot length was measured from the collar region to
the tip of the primary leaves and the mean values were
expressed in centimetre.
For dry matter production, the seedlings selected for
root and shoot length measurements were put inside a
paper cover, first shade dried for 24 h and then dried in
a hot air oven maintained at 80 ± 2°C for 24 h. Then
the seedlings of dry weight was weighed using an elec-
tronic balance and the mean values were expressed in
g 10 seedling-1.
Vigour index values were computed using the following
formula suggested by Abdul-Baki and Anderson (1973).
The mean values were expressed as whole numbers.
Vigour index = Germination (%) x seedling length (cm)
……..Eq. 1
Radicle emergence (RE) test
Radicle emergence test was conducted through Top of
the paper method. Eight replicates of 25 seeds in each
lot were placed on germination paper moistened with
distilled water in petri - dish. The petri - dishes were
kept in germination room maintained at 25±2 °C and
relative humidity of 95 ± 2 %. The number of seeds that
had produced the radicle of 1mm and 2 mm long was
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Chinnasamy, G. P. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 86 - 93 (2021)
recorded from the initiation of radicle emergence at two
hours interval up to 36 hours for each replication
(International Seed Testing Association, 2012).
From the daily count data, the percentage radicle emer-
gence (1mm and 2mm), Mean Just Germination Time
(MJGT) and Mean Germination Time (MGT) was calcu-
lated using the following formula.
Radicle emergence with 1mm length(%) = No. of seeds
with 1mm radicle length / Total no. of seeds sown x
100 …Eq. 2
Radicle emergence with 2mm length (%) = No. of
seeds with 2mm radicle length / Total no. of seeds
sown x 100
…Eq. 3
The first appearance of radicle, which is termed as
Mean Just Germination Time and the Mean Germina-
tion Time, which is the mean lag period, to radical
emergence was calculated using the following formula
proposed by Ellis and Roberts (1980) and expressed in
hours.
MJGT = ƩnD / Ʃn ….Eq. 4
{Where, n= number of seeds germinated (first appear-
ance of the radicle) at time D, D= hours
from the beginning of the germination test, Ʃn= final
number of radicle emergence}
MGT = ƩnD / Ʃn ……Eq. 5
{Where, n= number of seeds germinated (with 2 mm
radicle emergence) at time D, D= hours
from the beginning of the germination test, Ʃn= final
number of radicle emergence}
Electrical conductivity (EC) of seed leachate test
4 replicates of 25 seeds in each seed lot were pre-
washed with distilled water to remove the adhere
chemicals and then soaked in 50 ml of distilled water
for 16 hours. After soaking, the seed steep water was
decanted to obtain the seed leachate. The electrical
conductivity of the seed leachate was calculated in a
digital conductivity meter with a cell constant of one
and expressed as dSm-1(Presley, 1958).
Dehydrogenase enzyme activity (DA) test
4 replicates of 25 seeds in each seed lot were pre-
conditioned by soaking in water for 16 hours. Out of
this, 10 seeds were taken at random and ready by re-
move the seed coat. The seeds were soaked in 0.5%
of 2, 3, 5-Triphenyl tetrazolium chloride solution and
kept in the dark at 400C for 4 hours for staining. After
staining, the seeds were soaked in 10 ml of 2
methaxy ethanol (Methyl cellosolve) solution for 4
hour with intermittent stirring till the extraction of red
colour formazan was terminated. The extract was
decanted and the intensity of colour was read in a
Spectrophotometer at 470 nm. The OD values were
reported as dehydrogenase enzyme activity (Kittock
and law, 1968).
Field emergence (FE) test
Four replicates of hundred seeds in each seed lot were
sown in raised nursery beds and the seedlings that
emerged with normal root and shoot were counted af-
ter 15 days replication, and the mean values were ex-
pressed in percentage.
Field emergence (%) = No. of normal seedlings /
Total no. of seeds sown x 100 ….Eq. 6
Statistical analysis
Data obtained from the experiments were analyzed
using an analysis of variance (ANOVA) as a factorial
combination of treatments. Means were split on the
basis of the least significant difference (LSD) only if F
test of ANOVA for treatments was significant at 0.05
probability level. Values in percent data were arcsine
transformed before analysis. The significance of corre-
lation coefficients was tested by Pearson correlation
method using SPSS software.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Evaluation of physiological seed quality parameters
The present study results in rice seed lots, all the phys-
iological parameters were superior in high vigour seed
lot (L1) to the low vigour seed lot (L9). The per cent in-
crease for all the observed parameters viz., speed of
germination, germination, dry matter production, vigour
index and field emergence were 11, 26, 12, 34 and 27
%, respectively (Table 1).
Similar results were also reported in corn seeds by
Navratil and Burris (1980), who reported that the field
emergence of the seed lots over five sowings seemed
to be largely determined by the time taken to emerge,
which was greatly influenced by temperature but was
also significantly different among the seed lots. Similar-
ly, the study on four seed lots of hybrid corn by
TeKrony and Egli (1991) showed that low vigour seed
lots emerged slowly and resulted in low germination,
dry matter production, vigour index and field emer-
gence.
The highest percentage of radicle emergence with
1mm length was recorded at 34 hours (88 %), whereas
the highest percentage of radicle emergence with 2mm
length was recorded at 36 hours (88 %). Among the
different durations of manual and image analyser
measurements, counting of radicle emergence with
1mm length at 34 hours and counting of radicle emer-
gence with 2mm length at 36 hours were highly corre-
lated with other seed vigour parameters. The results
revealed that the high vigour seed lots recorded short
MJGT and MGT compared to low vigour seed lots. The
MJGT and MGT were minimum in lot 1 (26.64 hours
and 33.12 hours) and the maximum in lot 10 (29.52
hours and 35.56 hours), respectively (Table 2 and
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Chinnasamy, G. P. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 86 - 93 (2021)
Plate 1).
Low vigour seed lots required more time to reach1mm
and 2mm length of radicle emergence when compared
to high vigour seed lots. Reasons for this delay has
been interpreted as variations in the metabolic activity
between the seeds with different vigour levels. The
seed lots with high metabolic activity respond quickly
for imbibition and proceed further for DNA repair, en-
zyme synthesis to break down the food materials.
While low vigour seeds respond slowly (Matthews and
Powell, 2011. These results are in agreement with the
findings of Mavi et al. (2016) in cucurbits and sweet
corn seeds. Radicle emergence test is a good indicator
for predicting field emergence potential, determining
seed quality and classifying seed lots into different vig-
our status was also confirmed in pepper, cabbage, soy-
bean and radish seeds (Demir et al., 2008; Matthews
et al., 2012).
Evaluation of biochemical seed quality parameters
The lowest electrical conductivity of seed leachate was
recorded in lot 1 and the highest was in lot 9 (0.034 and
0.051 dsm-1), respectively and the maximum dehydro-
genase activity was recorded in lot 1 and the minimum
was recorded in lot 9 (0.158 and 0.141 OD value),
respectively (Fig. 1).
Similar results were also reported in groundnut seeds
by Suganthi and Selvaraju (2017). The electrical con-
ductivity of seed leachate was mainly governed by cell
wall permeability. Higher EC indicated higher permea-
bility, respiration rate and metabolic activity (Doijode,
1985). The increase in electrical conductivity might be
due to the loss of selective permeability of cell
membrane by auto oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty
acids, free radical peroxidation via auto-oxidation, lipo-
oxygenase and hydrolytic damage (Francis and
Coolbear, 1984). Similar results were also reported in
groundnut seeds. The dehydrogenase enzyme activity,
which is responsible for the respiration of the seed,
reduces with the ageing of the seeds, which is
also used as a vigour indicator (Suganthi and
Seed lots Speed of germination
Germina-tion (%)
Root length (cm)
Shoot length (cm)
Dry matter production (g 10 seed-ling-1)
Vigour index
100 seed weight (g)
Field emer-gence (%)
L1 8.3 96 (78.46) 22.8 10.5 0.073 3197 1.69 89 (70.63)
L2 8.2 95 (77.08) 22.4 10.1 0.071 3086 1.68 87 (68.86)
L3 8.2 91 (72.54) 22.2 10.4 0.069 2964 1.67 85 (67.21)
L4 8.1 94 (75.82) 22.3 10.3 0.070 3064 1.66 87 (68.86)
L5 8.0 87 (68.86) 22.6 10.0 0.069 2840 1.66 80 (63.43)
L6 7.9 88 (69.73) 22.9 10.3 0.070 2918 1.66 83 (65.65)
L7 8.0 89 (70.63) 21.8 10.4 0.068 2872 1.65 84 (66.42)
L8 7.9 79 (62.72) 21.8 10.2 0.066 2528 1.65 73 (58.69)
L9 7.5 76 (60.66) 21.8 9.4 0.065 2371 1.64 70 (56.79)
L10 7.5 78 (62.02) 21.0 10.0 0.062 2418 1.64 74 (59.34)
Mean 8.0 87 (68.86) 22.2 10.2 0.068 2826 1.66 81 (64.15)
Sed 0.11 1.3 0.30 0.16 0.0012 26.5 0.018 0.70
CD (P=0.05) 0.23 2.6 0.62 0.32 0.0024 54.1 NS 1.42
Figure in parenthesis indicates arcsine value
Table 1. Evaluation of seed quality parameters in rice seed lots.
Fig. 1. Evaluation of electrical conductivity (dsm-1) and
dehydrogenase activity (OD value) in rice seed lots.
90
Chinnasamy, G. P. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 86 - 93 (2021)
Selvaraju, 2017).
Correlation between radicle emergence and seed
vigour parameters
Correlation analysis was carried out to assess the rela-
tionship between seed vigour parameters viz., speed
of germination, germination (%), dry matter production
(g 10 seedlings-1), vigour index, mean just germination
time (h), mean germination time (h), electrical conduc-
tivity of seed leachate (dsm1), dehydrogenase activity
(OD Value), hundred seed weight (g), field emergence
(%) and 1 and 2 mm radicle emergence percent in ten
different seed lots.
Among the various seed vigour parameters studied,
dehydrogenase activity (0.951**), germination
(0.905**), vigour index (0.895**), hundred seed weight
(0.895**), field emergence (0.886**), speed of germina-
tion (0.841**) and dry matter production (0.841**) had
highly significant positive correlation with the
percentage of radicle emergence with 1mm length at
34th hour followed by 28th hour. Whereas, the electrical
conductivity of seed leachate (-0.943**), mean germi-
nation time (-0.931**) and mean just germination time
(-0.902**) had a significant negative correlation with
the percentage of radicle emergence with 1mm length
at 34th hour followed by 28th hour. However, the
Seed lots
MJGT
(h)
MGT
(h)
Manual measurement Image analyser measurement
Radicle emer-
gence with 1mm
length @ 34h (%)
Radicle emer-
gence with 2mm
length @ 36h (%)
Radicle emer-
gence with 1mm
length @ 34h (%)
Radicle emer-
gence with 2mm
length @ 36h (%)
L1 26.64 33.12 94 (75.82) 100 (89.71) 95 (77.08) 99 (84.26)
L2 27.12 33.12 90 (71.56) 98 (81.87) 92 (73.57) 98 (81.87)
L3 26.88 33.60 88 (69.73) 96 (78.46) 89 (70.63) 95 (77.08)
L4 26.88 33.36 90 (71.56) 98 (81.87) 91 (72.54) 97 (80.02)
L5 28.56 34.56 86 (68.02) 88 (69.73) 85 (67.21) 89 (70.63)
L6 27.84 34.80 88 (69.73) 84 (66.42) 87 (68.86) 84 (66.42)
L7 28.08 34.32 88 (69.73) 84 (66.42) 88 (69.73) 84 (66.42)
L8 29.04 35.28 86 (68.02) 78 (69.73) 86 (68.02) 78 (62.02)
L9 29.04 35.76 84 (66.42) 74 (59.34) 83 (65.65) 73 (58.69)
L10 29.52 35.52 84 (66.42) 76 (60.66) 84 (66.42) 78 (62.02)
Mean 27.96 34.34 88 (69.73) 88 (69.73) 88 (69.73) 88 (69.73)
SEd 0.370 0.535 1.04 1.79 1.22 2.10
CD (P=0.05) 0.756 1.094 2.12 3.67 2.50 4.29
Figure in parenthesis indicates arcsine value; MJGT- Mean just germination time (h); MGT- Mean germination time (h)
Table 2. Comparison of radicle emergence to 1 and 2mm length through manual and image analyzer measurement in
rice seed lots.
1mm radicle length at 34 h 2mm radicle length at 36 h
Plate 1. Radicle emergence with 1mm and 2mm length in rice seed lots.
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Chinnasamy, G. P. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 86 - 93 (2021)
speed of germination, germination, vigour index and
electrical conductivity of seed leachate and field
emergence had no correlation with the percentage of
radicle emergence with 1mm length at 30 and 32 hour
(Table 3).
Similarly, the speed of germination (0.913**), field
emergence (0.894**), germination (0.878**), hundred
seed weight (0.875**), vigour index (0.873**), dehydro-
genase activity (0.864**) and dry matter production
(0.810**) had highly significant positive correlation with
the percentage of radicle emergence with
2mm length at 36th hour followed by 30, 32, and 34
hour. Whereas, Mean germination time (0.930**), mean
just germination time (-0.852**) and electrical conduc-
tivity of seed leachate (-0.827**) had highly significant
negative correlation with the percentage of radicle
emergence with 2mm length at 36th hour followed by
30, 32, and 34 hour. However, the electrical conductivi-
ty of seed leachate had no correlation with the percent-
SOG GER DMP VI MJGT MGT EC DA HSW FE RE 28h
RE 30h
RE 32h
RE 34h
SOG 1
GER .907** 1
DMP .921** .909** 1
VI .925** .992** .943** 1
MJGT -.872** -.940** -.885** -.936** 1
MGT -.897** -.970** -.851** -.946** .945** 1
EC -.863** -.966** -.858** -.954** .904** .942** 1
DA .785** .931** .801** .905** -.905** -.954** -.923** 1
HSW .860** .866** .893** .881** -.855** -.880** -.861** .834** 1
FE .873** .989** .873** .983** -.926** -.943** -.973** .914** .827** 1
RE 28h .778** .831** .801** .841** -.711* -.785** -.782** .710* .849** .813** 1
RE 30h .575 .616 .656* .627 -.709* -.674* -.551 .688* .804** .567 .714* 1
RE 32h .441 .458 .500 .479 -.587 -.473 -.326 .568 .356 .426 .218 .586 1
RE 34h .841** .905** .841** .895** -.902** -.931** -.943** .951** .895** .886** .670* .646* .463 1
Table 3. Correlation between seed vigour parameters and radicle emergence with 1mm length (%) in rice seed lots.
** Significant at 0.01 level, * Significant at 0.05 level , SOG – Speed of germination, GER – Germination (%), DMP – Dry matter produc-
tion (g/ 10 seedling), VI–Vigour index, MJGT–Mean just germination time (h),MGT – Mean germination time (h), EC – Electrical conduc-
tivity of seed leachate (dsm-1), DA – Dehydrogenase activity (OD value), HSW – Hundred seed weight (g), FE – Field emergence
(%),RE – Radicle emergence (%)
SOG GER DMP VI MJGT MGT EC DA HSW FE RE 30h
RE 32h
RE 34h
RE 36h
SOG 1
GER .907** 1
DMP .921** .909** 1
VI .925** .992** .943** 1
MJGT -.872** -.940** -.885** -.936** 1
MGT -.897** -.970** -.851** -.946** .945** 1
EC -.863** -.966** -.858** -.954** .904** .942** 1
DA .785** .931** .801** .905** -.905** -.954** -.923** 1
HSW .860** .866** .893** .881** -.855** -.880** -.861** .834** 1
FE .873** .989** .873** .983** -.926** -.943** -.973** .914** .827** 1
RE 30h .857** .908** .888** .926** -.849** -.876** -.837** .901** .842** .884** 1
RE 32h .759* .751* .826** .775** -.785** -.786** -.669* .791** .900** .685* .874** 1
RE 34h .752* .708* .738* .719* -.798** -.777** -.603 .781** .743* .643* .838** .914** 1
RE 36h .913** .878** .810** .873** -.852** -.930** -.827** .864** .875** .894** .872** .853** .862** 1
Table 4. Correlation between seed vigour parameters and radicle emergence with 2mm length (%) in rice seed lots.
** Significant at 0.01 level , * Significant at 0.05 level, SOG – Speed of germination, GER – Germination (%), DMP – Dry matter produc-
tion (g/ 10 seedling), VI – Vigour index, MJGT – Mean just germination time (h), MGT – Mean germination time (h), EC – Electrical con-
ductivity of seed leachate (dsm-1), DA – Dehydrogenase activity (OD value), HSW – Hundred seed weight (g), FE – Field emergence
(%), RE – Radicle emergence (%)
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Chinnasamy, G. P. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 86 - 93 (2021)
age of radicle emergence with 2mm length at 34th hour
(Table 4).
The current findings are in accordance with the results
of Larsen et al. (1998), who found that mean germina-
tion time was highly correlated with time to emergence,
plant growth and yield in field trials of oilseed rape. Bet-
ter performance was seen for seed lots with an earlier
rate of germination. According to Powell (1988), the low
vigour seed lots with high mean germination time pro-
duced smaller and more variable seedlings and exhibit-
ed deteriorated seed characteristics resulting from ei-
ther imposed ageing treatments or natural ageing.
Mean germination time was significantly correlated to
field emergence in three Italian rye grass species in all
four sowing conditions and accounted for more than
80% of the variation in final field emergence. The seed
lots with lower field emergence percentage were also
slower to emerge and the mean germination time was
highly correlated with 2mm radicle emergence (Naylor,
2003).
Relationship between the radicle emergence and
field emergence
In the present study, the radicle emergence and field
emergence relationship were evaluated. In rice seed
lots, the highest R2 value (0.7855) was observed in 34th
hours counting of radicle emergence with 1mm length
followed by 28, 30, 32 hours and the highest R2 value
(0.7951) was observed in 36th hours counting of radicle
emergence with 2mm length followed by 30, 32 and 34
hours (Fig. 2). A similar correlation between radicle
emergence count and field emergence percentage was
also reported by Luo et al. (2015) for the prediction of
vigour potential in several crops viz., sweet corn, rad-
ish, brinjal and canola.
Classification of seed lots based on mean
germination time and field emergence
From the results, the seed vigour was classified into
three group’s viz., high, medium and low vigour based
on the relationship between mean germination time and
field emergence. When the MGT was < 34 hours, the
field emergence was exceeded 85 per cent, which was
considered as high vigour; when the MGT was 34-35
hours, the field emergence was 80-85 per cent, which
was considered as medium vigour; When the MGT was
> 35 hours, the field emergence was below 80 per cent,
which was considered as low vigour (Table 5). The cur-
rent results similar to the findings of Suganthi and Sel-
varaju (2017) who suggested that in groundnut seeds,
when field emergence exceeded 85 per cent, the elec-
trical conductivity was < 13 µS cm-1 g-1 and the seeds
were considered as high vigour; when field emergence
was between 70 - 85 per cent, the electrical conductivi-
ty was between 13 - 26 µS cm-1 g-1 and it would be con-
sidered as medium vigour; and when field emergence
fell below 70 per cent of the seeds are considered as
low vigour with electrical conductivity values of > 26
µS cm-1 g-1 .
Conclusion
Radicle emergence test is a quick test to predict differ-
ent vigour level, field emergence potential and ranking
seed lots. The radicle emergence test (2mm radicle
length) was highly negatively correlated with mean ger-
mination time followed by the electrical conductivity of
seed leachate and mean just germination time. It was
Seed quality classification
Mean germina-tion time (h)
Field emergence (%)
High vigour < 34 > 85
Medium vigour 34 - 35 80 – 85
Low vigour >35 < 80
y = 0.5375x - 19.548R² = 0.6602
y = 0.8288x - 13.901R² = 0.322
y = 0.452x + 36.002R² = 0.1813
y = 0.5055x + 46.953R² = 0.7855
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 20 40 60 80 100
Ra
dic
le e
merg
en
ce w
ith
1m
m le
ng
th (
%)
Field emergence (%)
RE28h
RE30h
RE32h
RE34h
Table 5. Classification of seed lots based on mean
germination time and field emergence in rice seed lots.
Fig. 2. Relationship between radicle emergence with
1mm (a) & 2mm (b) length and field emergence in rice
seed lots.
a
b
93
Chinnasamy, G. P. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 86 - 93 (2021)
positively correlated with field emergence followed by
germination and dehydrogenase activity. The R2 values
between seed vigour parameters and radicle emer-
gence test were significantly (P=0.05) higher in 2mm
length of radicle emergence when compared with 1mm
length of radicle emergence. Finally, the study conclud-
ed that 36-hour MGT with the attainment of 2mm radi-
cle emergence percentage could be used as a quick
method to assess rice seed lots' quality by the seed
analysts and seed industry.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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Yield and quality improvement in Bt cotton through foliar application of
trifloxystrobin and tebuconazole
G. Karuppusamy*
Department of Crop Physiology, Agriculture College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Coimbatore-641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
C. N. Chandrasekhar
Department of Crop Physiology, Agriculture College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Coimbatore-641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
P. Jeyakumar
Department of Crop Physiology, Agriculture College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Coimbatore-641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
M. Gunasekaran
National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban-622303 (Tamil Nadu), India
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2806
Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: May 14, 2021
Accepted: June 3, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
Cotton is a white fibrous agricultural product that has a
wide variety of uses from textile production to creating
paper, producing oil and food products. It is the most
important global cash crop and controls the economy of
many nations. Fungicides remain a vital solution to the
effective control of plant diseases, which are estimated
to cause yield reductions of almost 20 per cent in major
food and cash crops worldwide. Today, fungal patho-
gens can be effectively controlled by broad-spectrum
fungicides such as the strobilurin group which also
serves as growth regulator for improvising the yield.
They have a suppressive effect on other fungi, reduc-
ing competition for nutrients; they inhibit electron trans-
fer in mitochondria, disrupting metabolism and prevent-
ing growth of the fungi (Ammermann et al., 2000).
Trifloxystrobin belongs to the strobilurin group of fungi-
cide which is a mesostemic and broad-spectrum fungi-
cide with preventive and specific curative activity. It
displays rain-fastness property, translocates by superfi-
cial vapour movement and also has translaminar activi-
ty. Similarly, Tebuconazole is a systemic triazole fungi-
cide that is used widely in agricultural practices to man-
age phyto-pathogenic fungi such as Curvularia spp.,
Fusarium spp., etc. It is reported to kill the target organ-
Abstract
In agriculture, fungi can cause serious damage, resulting in critical losses of yield, quality and profit. Fungicides help in reducing
the damage caused by fungus, reduce the yield loss and play a major role in quality improvement. The present investigation
was carried out at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University to evaluate the influence of trifloxystrobin 50% + tebuconazole 25%
(Nativo 75WG) on the yield and quality improvement on Bunny hybrid Bt cotton. Nativo 75WG was applied on the leaves of
cotton plants at 40-60 (DAS) and 60-80 (DAS) at the concentration of 250, 300, 350 g/ha and Carbendazim @ 500 g/ha. The
observations recorded were related to yield and quality attributes in all treatments. The application of Nativo @ 300 g/ha
showed a significant increase in boll weight (4.86 g), lint yield per boll (3.86 g boll-1) and lint per plant (138.48 g plant -1) than
other treatments. With respect to seed cotton yield and harvest index (0.37 %), the Nativo @ 300 g/ha registered a higher yield
(20.2 %) and HI than control under the irrigated situation. Foliar application of treatments during the flowering stage (40-60
DAS) and boll formation stages (60-80 DAS) had increased the quality parameters such as fiber length (2.5% staple length, 50
% staple length) and fiber strength. Further, the foliar spray of Nativo @ 300 g/ha applied to bunny hybrid Bt cotton had result-
ed in a higher yield (2920.15 kg ha-1) due to an increase in leaf area index, greenness of leaf and higher dry matter production
of the plant.
Keywords: Boll, Fiber, Leaf area index, Tebuconazole, Trifloxystrobin
How to Cite
Karuppusamy, G. et al. (2021). Yield and quality improvement in Bt cotton through foliar application of trifloxystrobin and
tebuconazole. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 13 (SI), 94 - 99. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2806
95
Karuppusamy, G. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 94 - 99 (2021)
isms by disrupting the membrane functions through ster-
ol biosynthesis inhibition (Debashis et al., 2012) Nativo
75 WG is a water dispersible granular formulation con-
taining 25 per cent w/w trifloxystrobin and 50 per cent
w/w tebuconazole by M/S Bayer Crop- Science (Patil et
al., 2018; Bag et al., 2016; Sahoo et al., 2011).
From intense research made in the last decade on the
fungicidal properties of strobilurins and triazoles on the
metabolism of pathogenic fungi, positive influences on
host physiology and consequently on yield formation
have been recognized in plants (Beck et al., 2000).
The objective of this research was to evaluate the effect
of trifloxystrobin + tebuconazole fungicides on the yield
and quality of Bt cotton.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A field experiment was conducted to study the effect of
trifloxystrobin + tebuconazole on Bunny hybrid Bt cot-
ton. Spraying with Nativo 75WG at different concentra-
tion along with Carbendazim (T1- control, T2- tri-
floxystrobin + tebuconazole @ 250 g/ha, T3- tri-
floxystrobin + tebuconazole @ 300 g/ha, T4- tri-
floxystrobin + tebuconazole @ 350 g/ha, T5- car-
bendazim @ 500 g/ha) was carried out in 40 DAS, 60
DAS, 80 DAS and 120 DAS. The leaf area was meas-
ured with Leaf Area Meter (Model LI 3100, Li-Cor, Inc.
Nebraska, and U.S.A.) and expressed in cm2 per plant,
and Leaf area index (LAI) was calculated using the
following formula as suggested by Ashley et al. (1965)
and using the crop DMP recorded during the respective
stages, as suggested by Watson. (1958).
The weight of ten fully opened bolls collected from the
plot was recorded and expressed as mean boll weight
in g boll-1. Circumference of boll was measured by us-
ing thread in center diameter of boll the boll girth was
measured and expressed in cm. The weight of lint from
the yield of first picking for each replication of all treat-
ments was estimated and the mean value was deter-
mined and expressed as g boll-1 and lint yield per plant
(g plant-1). The seed cotton yield was recorded and the
mean values expressed in kg ha-1. Harvest index was
calculated by using Economic yield and Biological yield
(Yoshida, 1971). Fiber characters were determined by
“High Volume Instrument” using the standard test meth-
ods (Sundaram, 1979).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Total dry matter production (g plant-1)
Among the different treatments, plants with Nativo @
300 g/ha (T3) on 120 DAS (Table 1) recorded highest
TDMP recording 13.5 per cent over control, which rela-
tively explained the effect or efficiency of the Nativo
treatment. Higher TDMP was recorded in Nativo treat-
ed plants than the control plants by the application of
strobilurin combined with triazole as reported earlier by
Lima et al. (2012) in banana, Ruske et al. (2003) in
wheat and Rezende et al., 2018 in maize. The exoge-
nous application of triazole compounds significantly
altered the total biomass accumulation and partitioning
patterns in sesame (Mehmood et al., 2021). Enhanced
nutrient and water translocation within the plants under
triazole compounds application increase the biomass
production of plants (Kamran et al. 2018; Kuai et al.
2015). Translocation of assimilates to the growing re-
productive parts is the major constraint in crop produc-
tion, which can overcome by the physiological effects of
fungicide. In the present investigation, the TDMP in Bt
cotton showed a significant increase at 60 DAS, 80
DAS and 120 DAS.
Leaf area (cm2 plant-1)
The steady increase in leaf area was observed at all
growth stages. After the fungicide application, the leaf
area was significantly increased at 80 and 120 DAS
(Table 2). Impact of fungicide concentrations on leaf area
showed an increase of 40.6 per cent at 120 DAS with Na-
tivo @ 300 g/ha. Similar results induced by triazoles
could be the reason for reduced leaf expansion (Gopi
et al., 2005). In winter wheat plants, addition of stro-
bilurins to epoxiconazole increase green leaf area (GLA)
Treatment 40 DAS 60 DAS 80 DAS 120 DAS
T1-Untreated control 64.19 120.42 189.84 368.21
T2-Nativo @ 250 g/ha 64.21 124.75 197.56 378.20
T3-Nativo @ 300 g/ha 64.33 125.33 214.74 418.09
T4-Nativo @ 350 g/ha 64.44 124.20 204.60 385.76
T5-Carbendazim @ 500 g/ha 63.88 123.24 194.67 376.60
Mean 64.21 123.59 200.28 385.37
SE(d) 0.59 1.14 1.89 3.66
CD (P=0.05) NS 2.48 4.12 7.98
Table 1. Effect of Nativo (trifloxystrobin + tebuconazole) on total dry matter production (g plant-1) in Bunny hybrid Bt
cotton (Average value of 5 observations from 4 replications of treatments).
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Karuppusamy, G. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 94 - 99 (2021)
or increase yield compared with epoxiconazole alone
(McCartney et al., 2007 and Dietz et al., 2019 in oats).
Leaf area and shoot, root and total plant dry masses were
higher in triazole treated chestnut (Aesculus hippocasta-
num) trees than in control chestnut (Aesculus hippocasta-
num) trees. Finally triazole treated trees than by untreated
trees, resulting in increasing total leaf area (Glynn and
Kelly , 2008). Simarly, Triazole compounds treated
plants have darker green foliage and more chlorophyll
content in plants (Jiang et al., 2019; Tesfahun 2018).
The results of the present study indicated that the influ-
ence of Nativo on leaf area improvement.
Leaf area index (LAI)
In Nativo @ 300 g/ha (T3) at 120 DAS, leaf are index
increased significantly (Table 3) by the combination of
trifloxystrobin and tebuconazole, with a record of 40
per cent against untreated control. The increase LAI
observed in the present study might be due to signifi-
cant increasing in leaf area in response to combination
of strobilurin and triazole fungicide (Soumya et al.,
2017; Pal et al., 2016). Similar to our results, a signifi-
Treatment 40 DAS 60 DAS 80 DAS 120 DAS
T1-Untreated control 6084.22 7245.70 8183.54 8618.46
T2-Nativo @ 250 g/ha 6027.43 7347.00 9146.62 10458.22
T3-Nativo @ 300 g/ha 6088.94 7540.20 10797.90 12122.91
T4-Nativo @ 350 g/ha 6004.24 7426.70 9283.21 11707.12
T5-Carbendazim @ 500 g/ha 6048.83 7368.20 8562.74 9587.70
Mean 6050.73 7385.56 9194.78 10498.88
SE(d) 55.58 68.29 90.88 102.67
CD (P=0.05) NS 148.79 198.01 223.71
Table 2. Effect of Nativo (trifloxystrobin + tebuconazole) on leaf area (cm2 plant-1) in Bunny hybrid Bt cotton (Average
value of 5 observations from 4 replications of treatments).
Treatment 40 DAS 60 DAS 80 DAS 120 DAS
T1-Untreated control 1.13 1.34 1.52 1.60
T2-Nativo @ 250 g/ha 1.12 1.36 1.69 1.94
T3-Nativo @ 300 g/ha 1.13 1.40 2.00 2.24
T4-Nativo @ 350 g/ha 1.11 1.38 1.72 2.17
T5-Carbendazim @ 500 g/ha 1.12 1.36 1.59 1.78
Mean 1.12 1.37 1.70 1.95
SE(d) 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02
CD (P=0.05) NS 0.03 0.03 0.04
Table 3. Effect of Nativo (trifloxystrobin + tebuconazole) on Leaf area index (LAI) in Bunny hybrid Bt cotton (Average
value of 5 observations from 4 replications of treatments).
Treatment Boll weight
(g )
Boll girth
(cm)
lint yield boll-1
(g boll-1)
lint yield plant-1
(g plant-1)
T1-Untreated control 4.42 11.80 3.18 112.40
T2-Nativo @ 250 g/ha 4.64 12.40 3.48 126.12
T3-Nativo @ 300 g/ha 5.18 12.78 3.86 138.48
T4-Nativo @ 350 g/ha 4.86 12.52 3.67 132.42
T5-Carbendazim @ 500 g/ha 4.78 12.32 3.37 124.50
Mean 4.78 12.36 3.51 126.78
SE(d) 0.05 0.12 0.03 1.21
CD (P=0.05) 0.10BG 0.25 0.07 2.64
Table 4. Effect of Nativo (trifloxystrobin + tebuconazole) on Boll weight per boll (g), boll girth per boll (cm), lint yield per boll (g
boll-1), lint yield per plant (g plant-1) in Bunny Hybrid Bt cotton (Average value of 5 observations from 4 replications of
treatments).
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Karuppusamy, G. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 94 - 99 (2021)
cant increase in LAI was observed by Fleitas et al.,
2018 in wheat, Muhammad and Honermeier (2012) in
rape seed and soybean (Swoboda and Pedersen,
2009) by the application of fungicide (triazole and stro-
bilurin).
Yield and quality attributes
In the present study, Nativo @ 300 g/ha (T3) ranked
first among all the treatments under irrigated condition,
which showed maximum increased in yield compo-
nents (Table 4), and Nativo @ 300 g/ha (T3) recorded
the highest seed cotton yield over the control with an
increase of 20.2 per cent (Table 5). Harvest index also
indicated that the efficiency of the plant to divert photo-
synthates to economic parts in biomass production.
This present investigation was supported by the finding
of fungicide application particularly strobilurins improved
grain yield through improvements in both crop biomass
and harvest index and the relationship with higher green
leaf area duration of the flag leaf (Ruske et al., 2003). The
addition of triazole with strobilurin increased the green
leaf area index and seed yield in mustard (Muhammad
and Honermeier 2012), Souza et al., 2020 in cotton;
Bingham et al ., 2021 in barley and Mehmood et al.,
2021 in sesame. A significant improvement in yield and
yield components were noticed in Nativo @ 300 g/ha
treated Bt cotton. The increased translocation of assim-
ilates from the source to the developing sink is an indi-
cation for increased yield.
The quality characters such as 2.5% staple length, 50
% staple length and fiber strength were examined for
the combined effect of trifloxystrobin and tebuconazole
(Nativo) in Bt cotton. Among these five treatments, Na-
tivo @ 300 g/ha (T3) recorded higher values than the
control. The per cent increase due to fungicide applica-
tion over control is 5 and 7.4 per cent for 2.5% Staple
length and 50% staple length, respectively (Table 6). In
the present investigation, the fiber strength out turn has
registered higher value in fungicide application than in
control. The Nativo @ 300 g/ha (T3) had a higher value
for fiber strength over the control increasing 4.0 per
cent. Majumdar et al. (2010) reported that fungicides
(trifluralin) recorded significantly higher fiber yield (74.7
–78.9%) over the control, while studying the effect of
Treatment Seed cotton yield (kg ha-1) Harvest index
T1-Untreated control 2430.42 0.34
T2-Nativo @ 250 g/ha 2640.32 0.35
T3-Nativo @ 300 g/ha 2920.15 0.37
T4-Nativo @ 350 g/ha 2830.44 0.37
T5-Carbendazim @ 500 g/ha 2550.20 0.34
Mean 2674.31 0.35
SE(d) 25.45 0.00
CD (P=0.05) 55.44 0.01
Table 5. Effect of Nativo (trifloxystrobin + tebuconazole) on seed cotton yield (kg ha-1) and harvest index in Bunny hybrid
Bt cotton (Average value of 5 observations from 4 replications of treatments).
Treatment 2.5% staple length (mm) 50% staple length (mm) Fibre strength (g tex-1)
T1-Untreated control 32.82 14.90 20.33
T2-Nativo @ 250 g/ha 34.12 15.20 20.65
T3-Nativo @ 300 g/ha 34.42 16.00 21.12
T4-Nativo @ 350 g/ha 34.33 15.86 21.00
T5-Carbendazim @ 500 g/ha 34.00 15.00 20.67
Mean 33.94 15.39 20.75
SE(d) 0.31 0.14 0.19
CD (P=0.05) 0.68 0.31 0.42
Table 6. Effect of Nativo (trifloxystrobin + tebuconazole) on 2.5% staple length, 50% staple length and fibre strength (g
tex-1) in Bunny hybrid Bt cotton (Average value of 5 observations from 4 replications of treatments).
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Karuppusamy, G. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 94 - 99 (2021)
fungicides application on fiber yield in jute (corchorus
olitorius). Similarly, the application of triazole com-
pounds increased seed weight in canola and maize,
while it has the tendency to reduce the seeds number
per capsule at higher application concentrations
(Kamran et al. 2018; Kuai et al. 2015). Muhammad and
Honermeier (2012) reported that combined application
of fungicides (triazole and strobilurin) with interaction of
nitrogen appeared to delay the senescence, avoid
lodging and improve quality components of winter
rapeseed.
Conclusion
A significant improvement in yield and yield compo-
nents was noticed in Nativo @ 300 g/ha treated Bt
cotton. The increased translocation of assimilates from
the source to the developing sink is an indication of
increased yield. Quality attributes such as fiber length
(2.5% staple length and 50% staple length) and fiber
strength were significantly (P < 0.05) enhanced by the
combination of trifloxystrobin and tebuconazole. The
present study demonstrated the preservative effect of
trifloxystrobin 50% + tebuconazole 25% (Nativo
75WG) fungicide in improving Bt cotton yield and
qualityn.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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Life cycle and morphometry of Rugose spiraling whitefly, Aleyrodicus
rugioperculatus Martin (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) on coconut
Saranya M.
Department of Agricultural Entomology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
-641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
Kennedy J.S.*
Department of Agricultural Entomology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
-641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
Jeyarani S.
Department of Agricultural Entomology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
-641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
Anandham R.
Department of Agricultural Microbiology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
-641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
Bharathi N.
Department of Plant Molecular Biology and Bioinformatics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore-641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2807
Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: May 14, 2021
Accepted: June 3, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
Rugose Spiraling Whitefly (RSW), Aleurodicus ru-
gioperculatus Martin (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) was first
described as a pest of coconut in Belize and Mexico
during 2004 (Martin, 2004) and In 2009, RSW was rec-
orded as a pest of gumbo limbo (Bursera simaruba L)
in Miami-Dade County (South Florida, USA) (Stocks
and Hodges 2012). In India, it was first observed in the
coconut farms of the Pollachi area of Tamil Nadu and
Palakkad area of Kerala during July-August 2016. Per-
cent infestation of RSW, 25-40℅ and 40-60℅ were
recorded in banana and coconut leaves, respectively
(Selvaraj et al., 2017).
RSW has a broad range of host plants (96), including
ornamentals, palms, weeds, and native and invasive
plant species (Stocks and Hodges, 2012). In Florida,
22% of palm species, 16% of gumbo limbo, 10% of
Calophyllum spp., 9% of avocado, 4% of black olive,
and 3% of mango varieties were infested by RSW dur-
ing 2009- 2012 (Francis et al., 2016). In India,
incidence and damage of RSW was recorded on 12
plant species viz., coconut (Cocos nucifera), banana
(Musa spp.), sapota (Manilkara zapota), guava
(Psidium guajava), mango (Mangifera indica), Indian
almond (Terminalia catappa), water apple (Syzygium
Abstract
The present study investigated the biology and morphometric analysis of rugose spiralling whitefly (RSW), Aleyrodicus rugioper-
culatus on coconut under mini net house condition at Department of Agricultural Entomology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
-Coimbatore during 2019-2020. The biology of rugose spiralling whitefly was studied by clip cage method and morphometrics
were done using Leica image analyser. Total lifecycle of rugose spiraling whitefly was 56.23 ± 2.20 days. Developmental period
of egg, nymphal, pupal and adult period was 8.47 ± 0.26, 17.46 ± 0.76, 10.30 ± 0.29 and 20.00 ± 1.00 days, respectively.
In morphometrics, Length and width of egg (0.31 ± 0.01 mm and 0.11± 0.02 mm), nymphal (0.94 ± 0.01 mm and 0.82 ± 0.01
mm), pupal (1.23 ± 0.01 mm and 1.00 ± 0.01 mm) was recorded. A nymphal parasitoid, Encarsia guadeloupae can be potential
natural enemy for effective management of rugose spiraling whitefly.
Keywords: Biology, Coconut, Encarsia guadeloupae, Morphometrics, Rugose spiraling whitefly
How to Cite
Saranya M. et al. (2021). Life cycle and morphometry of Rugose spiraling whitefly, Aleyrodicus rugioperculatus Martin (Hemiptera:
Aleyrodidae) on coconut. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 13 (SI), 100 - 104. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2807
101
Saranya M. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 100 - 104 (2021)
samarangense), ball tree (Calophyllum inophyllum),
betel vine (Piper betle), rubber fig (Ficus elastica), but-
terfly palm (Dypsis lutescens) and ruffled fan palm
(Licuala grandis) (Selvaraj et al., 2017).
RSW sucks the plant sap and it leads to phytotoxic ef-
fect on coconut. RSW secretes white waxy material and
a profuse amount of honeydew, which favours the sooty
moldy fungal growth and negatively influences the
plant's photosynthesis, thus indirectly affecting the qual-
ity of nuts. Elango and Nelson (2020) recorded twenty
host plants of RSW in Tamil Nadu, among which coco-
nut and banana plants supported all the life stages of
RSW. The present study was aimed to was aimed to
investigate the biology and morphometric analysis of
RSW, A. rugioperculatus on coconut.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Mass culturing of RSW
Initially, RSW-infested coconut (Cocos nucifera L) leaf-
lets were collected at the Tamil Nadu Agricultural Uni-
versity (TNAU) orchard (11.0123° N, 76.9355° E), Co-
imbatore, Tamil Nadu, India, and released onto mud
potted (41 cm diameter) plants of coconut which were
kept in a separate mini net house (270 × 150 × 210 cm
with a nylon net mesh sized of 120 micron). RSW rear-
ings were maintained in the Insectary, Department of
Agricultural Entomology at 31 ± 2 °C, 60-75℅ RH under
a natural light condition.
Biology of A. rugioperculatus on different host
plants
A pair of adult whiteflies (male and female) was put into
a clip cage (2 cages per plant) with dimensions of 3 cm
diameter × 3 cm height and placed on a potted coconut
plant which was kept for 24 h inside different mini net
houses. The following day, two egg spirals were ob-
served on the coconut plant. Totally thirty eggs (15
eggs/egg spiral) were considered to study the biology of
A. rugioperculatus on each host plant. Each egg was
taken as a replication. White waxy fluff covering the egg
spiral was gently blown off using a straw to facilitate the
visualization of eggs, and excess eggs were removed
using a very small insect pin. After hatching, the first
nymphs moved a millimetre distance from the egg case
and permanently settled on the leaf surface. After set-
tling, nymphs reached the phloem of the host plants
and remained sedentary until they reached the adult
stage. The developmental time for each life stage of
RSW was recorded (Boughton et al., 2015)
Morphometry of A. rugioperculatus
The whitefly exposure techniques described above
were used; clip cages with whiteflies were placed on
each potted coconut plant's leaf portion to oviposit for
24 h. Freshly laid egg spiral was observed for life stag-
es development. Then immature stages of RSW were
excised daily and examined under 40x binocular stereo
microscope. Measurements on eggs, nymphal stages,
pupae and adults were made using Leica image ana-
lyser (Leica M205C) using LAS X software.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Biology and morphometry of A. rugioperculatus on
coconut
RSW has egg, nymphal, pupal and adult stage (Plate
1). Total developmental time of A. rugioperculatus was
56.23 ± 2.20 days. Developmental time and morpho-
metric measurements were included in Table 1 and 2.
Egg
Adults were laid smooth, transparent, whitish yellow
and elliptical shape eggs in spiral manner on undersur-
face of the leaves. Egg spiral was covered with white
flocculant material and each egg spiral contained 29
eggs. Egg period of RSW was 8.47 ± 0.26 days. Eggs
were 0.31 ± 0.01 mm in length and 0.11± 0.02 mm in
width.
First nymphal stage
Nymphs were elliptical in shape and yellowish in colour.
It has functional legs, moved short distance to find a
suitable site for feeding and lack their eggs. The first
nymphal stage was called a crawler. The first nymphal
period of RSW was 5.80 ± 0.19 days. First nymphal
were 0.34 ±0.01 mm in length and 0.18 ± 0.01 mm
width.
Second nymphal stage
Nymphs were sedentary and oval, transparent and yel-
lowish in colour and has the initiation of white waxy
covering on dorsal outline of the body. Second nymphs
were 0.53±0.01 mm in length and 0.79 ± 0.02 mm in
width. The second nymphal period was 5.03 ± 0.34
Developmental stages Duration (days)
(Mean ± SE)
Egg 8.47 ± 0.26
First nymphal stage 5.80 ± 0.19
Second nymphal stage 5.03 ± 0.34
Third nmphal stage 6.63 ± 0.20
Fourth or Pseudopupal stage 10.30 ± 0.29
Egg - Adult emergence 36.23 ± 1.51
Adult Longevity 20.00 ± 1.00
Total development period 56.23 ± 2.20
Table 1. Biology of A. rugioperculatus on coconut.
102
Saranya M. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 100 - 104 (2021)
Egg First nymphal stage (crawler) Second nymphal stage
Third nymphal stage Pupal stage Adult
Plate 1. Life stages of rugose spiraling whitefly.
b
a
Plate 2. Key characters of RSW by SEM micrograph: Operculum of RSW- corrugated or wrinkled or rugoseness,
because of this character common name is called rugose spiralling whitefly; Lingula- Triangular in shape.
103
Saranya M. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 100 - 104 (2021)
days.
Third nymphal stage
Nymphs were sedentary and yellowish in colour. Enor-
mous number of white waxy rods covered on dorsal
margin of the body. Waxy rods produces from wax
gland which is present in the abdominal segments.
Third nymphal period was 6.63 ± 0.20 days and their
body measurements were 0.94±0.01 mm in length and
0.82 ± 0.01 mm in width
Fourth nymphal or pseudopupal stage
Nymphs were sedentary and yellowish in colour. Body
densely covered with white waxy material. Operculum
corrugated and lingula was triangular in shape (Plate
2). Pupal period was 10.30 ± 0.29 days. Pupal was
1.23 ± 0.01 mm in length and 1.00 ± 0.01 mm in width
Adults
Adult survived for 20.00 ± 1.00 days. Adult emerged
from pupa through T shape exit hole. Pair of three
brown spots on wings. Males had pincer like structure
at their abdomen
Studying the biology of RSW provide knowledge to
reduce the spread of this whitefly in the future (Taravati
et al. 2016). The present study results reported that
developmental period of RSW from egg to adult was
36.23 ± 1.51 days. Similarly, Elango et al. (2019) re-
ported the developmental period needed for RSW was
37.00 days on coconut. The developmental time of
RSW on the white bird paradise plant was 31.1 days,
as reported previously by Boughton et al. (2015).
Shorter developmental time of RSW in coconut (37.6
days) than in banana (48.7 days) or Indian shot plants
(42.9 days) under caged conditions. The developmen-
tal time of RSW greatly depended on host plant char-
acters and environmental factors. In host plant charac-
teristics includes physical (waxy coating, fibrous lami-
na, hairiness of leaves) and chemical characters influ-
enced the developmental duration of the RSW. Host
plant which favours the development and shortens the
developmental time of RSW may be avoided as inter-
cropped with coconut (Pradhan et al., 2020). Encarsia
guadeloupae is a nymphal parasitoid, can be consid-
ered as a potential candidate for the management of
RSW.
Conclusion
It was concluded that the developmental time of RSW
from egg to adult was 36.23 ± 1.51 days and adults
were survived up to 20.00 ± 1.00 days. Understanding
the bionomics and reproduction potential of RSW would
help assess the host-parasitoid interaction for biocon-
trol management of RSW.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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Developmental stages Morphometry
Length (mm) Width (mm)
Egg 0.31 ± 0.01 0.11 ± 0.02
First nymphal stage 0.34 ±0.01 0.18± 0.01
Second nymphal stage 0.53 ± 0.01 0.79 ± 0.02
Third nmphal stage 0.94 ± 0.01 0.82 ± 0.01
Fourth or Pseudopupal
stage 1.23 ± 0.01 1.00 ± 0.01
Table 2. Morphometric analysis of developmental stages
RSW on coconut.
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Analysis on knowledge level of recommended plant protection
technologies in areca nut (Areca catechu) cultivation in Salem district of
Tamil Nadu
V. Mohanraj*
Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore - 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
R. Velusamy
Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology, Agricultural College and Research
Institute, TNAU, Madurai - 625104 (Tamil Nadu), India
K. Prabakaran
Department of Agricultural Economics, Agricultural College and Research Institute, TNAU,
Madurai - 625104 (Tamil Nadu), India
A. Beaulah
Department of Horticulture, Agricultural College and Research Institute, TNAU,
Madurai - 625104 (Tamil Nadu), India
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2808
Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: May 14, 2021
Accepted: June 3, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
Areca nut (Areca catechu) is one of the important cash
crops in India and it is noted from the pre-vedic period,
areca nut is extensively used in Hindu religious rites of
birth, marriage, nuptial and also offered to gods for ven-
eration in the form of tamboola it also offered to guests
to mark their hospitality. And also Indian Ayurveda text
refers to areca nut as traditional medicine (Krishisewa,
2017). In India, it is widely used for chewing and masti-
cation with betel leaves. The alkaloids extracted from
the nuts have common medicinal properties such as
astringent, antihelmintic, narcotic and vermifuge. India
ranks first in terms of both area and production of areca
nut and also accounts for 54.07 per cent of its world
production (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2017).
The major areca nut growing countries in the world are
India, China, Myanmar, Indonesia, Thailand and Bang-
ladesh. The major states growing areca nut was Karna-
taka, Kerala, Assam, Meghalaya, West Bengal, Mizo-
Abstract
Areca nut (Areca catechu) is one of the important cash crops in India. India ranks first in terms of area and production of areca
nut and accounts of 54.07 per cent of its world production. The harvesting of nuts commence on the Tamil month of ‘Thai’ (Mid-
January to Mid-February) and spread over six months in carrying out the post-harvest practices and marketing of nuts. This
study was purposively conducted in Salem district 2018-2019 and occupies first position in area (2,421 hectares) of areca nut in
Tamil Nadu. The Peddanackenpalyam, Valapddy, Gengavalli and Attur blocks were selected based on the 87.28 per cent of the
area under areca nut in this district with a sample size of 120 areca nut farmers selected by using a proportionate random sam-
pling technique. Most of the respondents (80.00 per cent) had knowledge level of medium to high level of knowledge on the
recommended plant protection technologies in areca nut cultivation. It was mainly due to the medium to the high level of infor-
mation seeking behaviour and social participation. The study revealed that the areca nut growers differed widely in their social
characteristics. Most of the respondents had a medium to a high level of knowledge on recommended technologies in areca nut
cultivation. This finding stressed the importance of formulating different extension strategies for different audiences by the
change agency system.
Keywords: Areca nut, Disorder, Knowledge level, Pest and disease, Plant-protection
How to Cite
Mohanraj, V. et al. (2021). Analysis on knowledge level of recommended plant protection technologies in areca nut (Areca
catechu) cultivation in Salem district of Tamil Nadu. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 13 (SI), 105 - 109. https://
doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2808
106
Mohanraj, V. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 105 - 109 (2021)
ram and Tamilnadu. In Tamilnadu total area under are-
ca nut was 6,884 ha. in this Salem district constitutes
35 per cent of the area under areca nut cultivation.
A report on “co-operative marketing to help areca nut
farmers in Salem” indicated that the quantity of nuts
harvested from the trees dropped to 50 per cent due to
drought in that area (Ananth, 2016). The farmers in
these areas started to replant the areca nut in the farms
which are affected by drought. For these reasons, the
study was conducted in Salem district to know about
the farmers practicing the recommended technologies
and their practices for drought mitigation activities.
More than 30,000 farm workers, including women, also
engaged directly or indirectly in the harvesting and pro-
cessing of nuts. The harvesting of nuts commence on
the Tamil month of ‘Thai’ (Mid-January to Mid-February)
and spread over six months in carrying out the post-
harvest practices and marketing of nuts. The aim of the
present study was to find out the knowledge level of
recommended protection technologies of the farmers in
areca nut cultivation.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This study was purposively conducted in Salem district
of Tamil Nadu. This district occupies first position in
area (2,421 hectares) of areca nut in Tamil Nadu. Sa-
lem district consisted of 20 blocks, from this Ped-
danackenpalyam, Valapady, Gengavalli and Attur
blocks were selected based on the 87.28 per cent of
area under areca nut in this district. Fig. 1 shows that
visual representation of study area selection. The total
sample size of 120 areca nut farmers was selected by
using a proportionate random sampling technique and
given in Table 1. The formula used is as follows:
ni = [Ni/N] × n ….Eq.1
Where,
Ni = number of respondents to be selected from ith
block.
Ni = total number of respondents in the ith block.
N = total number of respondents in the four blocks.
n= sample size.
The teacher-made knowledge test was employed
District Blocks Number of areca nut growers No. of respondents selected
Salem
Peddanackenpalayam 1050 52
Valapady 715 36
Gengavalli 420 21
Attur 220 11
Total 2405 120
Source: Assistant Director of Horticulture office Peddanackenpalayam, Valapady, Gengavalli, Attur
Fig. 1. Map showing the study area of Salem district in Tamil Nadu.
Table 1. Distribution of areca nut growers in the selected blocks.
107
Mohanraj, V. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 105 - 109 (2021)
among the advisory committee members to frame the
interview schedule. Data was collected with the help of
a well-structured interview schedule and pre-tested in a
non-sampling area. The data gathered were quantified
and tabulated for statistical analysis. The Percentage anal-
yses were used for analysis and interpretation of data.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In this article, knowledge denotes the respondent’s lev-
el of understanding of improved plant protection tech-
nologies in the areca nut cultivation. To measure re-
spondents' knowledge level, they were asked straight
questions regarding symptoms and management prac-
tices of plant protection technologies.
Overall knowledge level on plant protection
technologies
The overall knowledge level of respondents is im-
portant to know the understandability of respondents in
the view of recommended plant protection technolo-
gies. The dichotomized responses are analyzed by
cumulative frequency method to categorize their
knowledge level into low, medium and high category.
Fig. 2 shows that most of the respondents (80.00 per
cent) had a knowledge level of medium to a high level
of knowledge on the recommended plant protection
technologies in areca nut cultivation. This knowledge
level of the respondents is due to the majority of the
respondents had a medium to a high level of infor-
mation seeking behaviour and social participation
(Jaganathan and Nagaraja, 2015 and Jergin et al.,
2018).
I. Knowledge on symptoms and control measure of
pest attack
The present study inferred from Table 2 that 93.33 and
57.50 per cent of respondents had knowledge of the
attack of mite’s infestation and control measure for a
mite infestation, respectively (Vinayak, 2014 and Jergin
et al., 2018). Half of the respondents (50.83 per cent)
had knowledge of spindle bug infestation and 31.67 per
cent of them had knowledge of the control measure on
spindle bug infestation. The majority of the respond-
ents (90.83 per cent) had knowledge on the symptoms
of inflorescence caterpillar and slightly more than half
of the respondents (52.50 per cent) had knowledge on
the control measure of inflorescence caterpillar
(Lakshmisha, 2000). Most of the respondents (71.67
per cent) had knowledge of symptoms of nematode
Table 2. Distribution of respondents on the knowledge level of recommended practices of symptoms of pest
attack and management practices in areca nut.
I Knowledge on symptoms and control measure of pest attack
S.no Technology Number Per cent
1 Symptoms of mite infestation 112 93.33
2 Control measure for mite 69 57.50
3 Symptoms of spindle bug infestation 61 50.83
4 Control measure for spindle bug 38 31.67
5 Symptoms of Inflorescence caterpillar infestation 109 90.83
6 Control measure for Inflorescence caterpillar 63 52.50
7 Symptoms of Nematode infestation 86 71.67
8 Control measure for Nematode 61 50.83
9 Symptoms of scale infestation 87 72.50
10 Control measure for scale 53 44.17
11 Symptoms of mealy bug infestation 43 35.83
12 Control measure for Mealy bug 19 15.83
13 Symptoms of areca nut borer infestation 101 84.17
14 Control measure for areca nut borer 38 31.67
15 Symptoms of snails infestation 46 38.33
16 Control measure for snails 3 2.50
17 Symptoms of root grub infestation 120 100.00
18 Control measure for root grub 116 96.67
19 Symptoms of pentatomid bug infestation 41 34.17
20 Control measure for pentatomid bug 21 17.50
108
Mohanraj, V. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 105 - 109 (2021)
attack and half of the respondents (50.83 per cent) had
knowledge on control measure on nematode infesta-
tion. Regarding scale attack, 72.50 and 44.17 per cent
of respondents had knowledge on symptom on scale
attack and control measure respectively. In mealybug
pest, 35.83 and 15.83 per cent of respondents had
knowledge on mealy bug infestation and control meas-
ure. The areca nut borer infestation and control meas-
ure was known by 84.17 and 31.67 per cent of re-
spondents. The knowledge on snail infestation and
control measure was by 38.33 and 2.50 per cent re-
spondents only (Sajeev et al., 2018). The root grub
infestation in areca nut cultivation was known by cent
percent of respondents and management practices by
96.67 per cent of respondents, respectively. The Pen-
tatomid bug infestation and control measure knowledge
was known by 34.17 and 17.50 per cent of respond-
ents respectively (Babanna, 2002).
II. Knowledge of disease attack and control
measure
It was observed from the above table 3 that 70.83 per
cent of respondents had knowledge of the bud rot dis-
ease and 23.33 per cent of respondents had
knowledge of bud rot disease management (Sajeev et
al., 2018). Cent per cent of the farmers had knowledge
of the foot rot symptoms and 97.50 per cent of them
had knowledge on the control measure of foot rot dis-
ease (Badhe and Tambat, 2009). The yellow leaf dis-
ease symptoms were known by cent percent of re-
spondents and 98.33 per cent of respondents known
management practices of yellow leaf disease. Regard-
ing the leaf spot disease, 95.00 and 43.33 per cent of
farmers had knowledge of the leaf spot symptoms and
control measures. Half of the respondents had
knowledge of the inflorescence dieback symptoms
(50.83 per cent) and management practices (50.00 per
cent), respectively. Half of the respondents (50.00 per
cent) had knowledge of bacterial leaf stripe symptoms
but only 11.67 per cent of respondents had knowledge
of bacterial leaf stripe management (Nagappa et al.,
2016).
III. Knowledge on disorders and management
practices
Table 4 reveals that the nut crack disorder symptoms
and management practices knowledge was known by
94.17 and 25.84 per cent of respondents, respectively.
Cent per cent of respondents had knowledge of stem
breaking symptoms and 99.17 per cent of them had
knowledge of stem breaking management practices
(Aneani et al., 2013 and Bellary et al., 2010). The band/
Fig. 2. Overall knowledge level of respondents on plant
protection technologies.
II Knowledge on disease attack and control measure
S.no Technology Number Per cent
1 Symptoms of bud rot/mahali 85 70.83
2 Control measure for bud rot/mahali 28 23.33
3 Symptoms of foot rot/anabe 120 100.00
4 Control measure for foot rot/anabe 117 97.50
5 Symptoms of yellow leaf disease 120 100.00
6 Control measure for yellow leaf disease 118 98.33
7 Symptoms of leaf spot 114 95.00
8 Control measure for leaf spot 52 43.33
9 Symptoms of inflorescence dieback 61 50.83
10. Control measure for inflorescence dieback 60 50.00
11. Symptoms of bacterial leaf stripe 60 50.00
12. Control measure for bacterial leaf stripe 14 11.67
Table 3. Distribution of respondents on knowledge level of recommended practices of symptoms of disease attack and
management practices in areca nut.
109
Mohanraj, V. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 105 - 109 (2021)
hidimudinge symptoms and management practices
were known by 81.67 and 83.33 per cent of respond-
ents, respectively.
Conclusion
It was concluded that the majority of the farmers in
Salem district, Tamilnadu state had knowledge of the
pest symptoms on mite infestation, caterpillar infesta-
tion and root grub infestations. In disease symptoms,
cent per cent of respondents had knowledge on the
foot rot and leaf disease followed by disorders on stem
breaking and band. The farmers had more knowledge
on the pest attack, disease symptoms and disorders
than control measure. This level of knowledge on the
plant protection technologies was influenced by the
medium to high level of information seeking behavior
of the respondents. Future trainings are also needed
from the state departments to enhance the improved
package of practices to the farmers on plant protection
measures.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I feel great pride and privilege in expressing my pro-
found sense of gratitude and infinite indebtedness to
my esteemed chairman of my advisory committee Dr.
R. Velusamy and express my sincere thanks and gra-
cious faithfulness the members of my advisory commit-
tee. I wish to wholeheartedly express thanks to my
beloved parent.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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Table 4. Distribution of respondents on knowledge level of recommended practices of symptoms of disorders and
management practices in areca nut.
III Knowledge on disorders and management practices
S.no Technology Number Per cent
1 Symptoms of nut crack 113 94.17
2 Control measure for nut crack 31 25.83
3 Symptoms of Stem breaking 120 100.00
4 Control measure for Stem breaking 119 99.17
5 Symptoms of Band/Hidimundige 98 81.67
6 Control measure for Band/Hidimundige 100 83.33
Determination of active ingredients in commercial insecticides using
spectral characteristics of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
B. Asan Mohamed
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore – 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India.
P. Janaki*
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore – 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India.
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2809
Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: May 14, 2021
Accepted: June 3, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is the world's major conservative movement,
with over half of the total population being reliant upon
agriculture for their livelihood. Pesticides empower the
amounts and the nature of yields and food to be con-
trolled and restrict the numerous human illnesses trans-
mitted by insect or rodent vectors. In any case, despite
their numerous benefits, pesticides are the absolute
generally poisonous, residual and versatile substances
in nature. Their unnecessary use deleteriously affects
people and nature; their essence in food is especially
hazardous. With their ecological security, the capacity
to bio-accumulate and harmfulness, pesticides may put
the human body in more danger of illness and harm
(Fenik et al., 2011).
The enrollment, assembling and offer of a pesticide
plan infer various controls among which its assess-
ment, security and creation are the most significant. To
portray a pesticide, it is important to have the option to
decide its composition and chemical and physical prop-
erties. The main advantages of Near Infra-Red spec-
trometry are its nondestructive nature, the possibility to
analyze products in real-time, the low cost of equip-
ment maintenance, the fast response times and the
possibility to measure directly solid samples, with no
sample pre-treatment(Moros et al., 2006). Chromato-
graphic methods have been the most broadly utilized
techniques today. Regardless, the dynamic standards
of the samples permit us that vibrational spectrometry-
based systems could be utilized as a genuine option in
the quality control of commercial pesticide formulations.
Commercially available pesticides are being availed
through different chemical formulations such as granu-
lar, wettable powder, liquid formulations etc. As the
determination of these pesticides entails special extrac-
Abstract
Pesticides have become a basic necessity for yield development. This might be credited to the quickly expanding population,
which has presented weight on the food creation industry.Fourier Transform Infra-red Spectroscopy utilizes sample with less
course of action, less time consuming, simple, fast, non-destructive and environmental friendly infrared-based method. It makes
use of Smart iTR window and pellets use on omnic transmission window. In FTIR the peaks formed for the representative sam-
ple are from 800 cm-1 to 4000 cm-1 of wavenumbers against the % transmittance. The FTIR spectra obtained for pesticide for-
mulations were on par with the NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology) spectra library. Comparing the commer-
cial-grade spectra with the Spectrabase, NIST library and Bio-rad software showed the peak ranges for different functional
groups of the compound and can be examined with KnowItAll software’s ProcessItIR and AnalyseItIR. We can obtain the active
principle of the peak, peak intensities. This method can be viewed as genuine choices to long and tedious chromatographic
strategies as a rule suggested for quality control of commercially accessible pesticide formulations and check for adultered for-
mulations that harm agricultural produce.
Keywords: FT-IR, Functional groups, Pesticides, Quality control, Wave numbers
How to Cite
Asan Mohamed, B. and Janaki, P. (2021). Determination of active ingredients in commercial insecticides using spectral
characteristics of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 13 (SI), 110 - 123.
https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2809
111
Asan Mohamed, B. and Janaki, P. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 110 - 123 (2021)
tion procedures which demand costly solvents, time
consumable procedures and some other technical as-
pects to ascertain. By using FTIR spectroscopy, the
easy, effective and short time determination of commer-
cial-grade pesticide formulations can be carried out
without any processing of samples like in GC-MS, LC-
MS, etc. (Armenta et al., 2007)
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) is a fast and micro-
destructive spectroscopy method widely applied in the
measurement of solid (Post et al., 1995), liquid (Van de
Voort et al., 2004), and gas (Esler et al., 2000). This
technique is used to identify the compounds' functional
groups through different strategies, and FTIR works at
a different range of spectra. For the identification of
spectra of pesticides active ingredients, mostly the ATR
-FTIR is used at mid-range. The connection between
ATR-FTIR spectroscopy and other comparative strate-
gies, of all the things considered known as vibrational
spectroscopy (Lee et al., 2017).
FTIR method was found advantageous for Folpet and
Metalaxyl, respectively, found comparable with liquid
chromatography results with UV detection and involves
a considerable decrease in solvent consumption
(Quintas et al., 2003). Cyromazine determined with FT-
IR and FT-Raman procedure were found statistically
compared with reference liquid chromatography proce-
dure and showed the FTIR methods were appropriate
for quality control in commercial pesticide formulations
(Armenta et al., 2004). The waste generation in FT-IR
for diuron determination was 3.4 ml CHCl3, in flow injec-
tion analysis 9.3ml CHCl3 per sample and those meth-
ods consume less organic solvent than an HPLC meth-
od, which involves the use of 39 mL of acetonitrile per
sample (Armenta et al., 2005b). By utilizing FTIR spec-
trometry, the immediate assurance of malathion in com-
mercial pesticide formulations can be completed, with
no pre-treatment of tests, with reproducibility and preci-
sion practically identical to those measured utilizing GC
–FID, besides, decreasedtime and volume of chlorinat-
ed solvents utilized (from 35 ml of CHCl3 to 2 ml) in the
analysis (Quintás et al., 2004b).
The most well-known practice in the direct examination
of solids by IR spectrometry is the utilization of disks
arranged from the samples mixed in dry KBr. This
method stays away from the utilization of any sort of
dissolvable and does not require the analyte to be solu-
ble. Be that as it may, it makes inconvenience for the
assurance of the bandpass and for the most part, re-
quires the utilization of an internal standard. That is the
purpose behind the limited quantity of papers found in
writing utilizing direct estimations on KBr plates
(Armenta et al., 2005c)
To stimulate the determination of pesticides active in-
gredients with easy processing methods, less time con-
suming, environmentally friendly and reduced cost-
effective techniques need to be recognized and adopt-
ed. Using the spectral characteristics to analyze the
active ingredient in commercial pesticides is the best
alternative to the ransom and time-consuming chroma-
tography technique. Hence the present study was per-
formed to investigate the applicability of FTIR technique
and get the spectral region of sensitivity for the quick
determination of active ingredient in various commer-
cially available pesticides at Tiruchirappalli.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Commercial grade chemicals used
Commercially available pesticides belonging to 21
groups/classes viz., abamectin, ketonenols, neonico-
tinoid, organochlorine, organofluorine, organophos-
phates, phenylpyrazole, pyrethroids, quinazoline and
thiourea were analysed in FTIR to identify the active
ingredients. The powdered and liquid formulations of
pesticides were analyzed using transmission window
and ATR-Diamond window, respectively. Spectra ob-
tained for each pesticide formulation was processed
using Bio-rad software and also compared with the
Spectrabase and NIST library. The formulations utilized
in the study are presented in Table 1.
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR)
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) is a
technique which is used to obtain an infrared spectrum
of absorption, emission, photoconductivity or Raman
scattering of a solid, liquid or gas. An FTIR spectrome-
ter simultaneously collects spectral data in a wide spec-
tral range. The instrument FTIR spectrometry used was
Nicolet iS10 using OMNIC spectra software. Two win-
dows were used for sample analysis, such as Smart-
iTR window and Omnic transmission window. Here the
Spectral data were collected by a Bio-Rad Excalibur
3000 MX FTIR spectrometer and a helium-purged
MTEC 300 photoacoustic cell. All the spectra were rec-
orded over the 4000 – 400 cm-1 region at a spectral
resolution of 8 cm-1 and with the 1024 scans co-added.
The KBr was used as a pelleting material with pow-
dered and granule formulations and liquid formulations
were directly fed in the iTR window.
FTIR procedure
The details of the conditions under which the spectra of
insecticides formulations obtained are presented in
Table 2.
Omnictransmission window
The powder formulations of insecticides were com-
pressed into a thin pellet for analyzes by FTIR. For the
preparation of pesticide pellet samples, IR transparent
material, namely KBr was mixed at the ratio of 2:1 in a
mortar and pestle for 5 - 10 minutes. Then the mixture
was converted into pellets by pressing the prepared
112
Asan Mohamed, B. and Janaki, P. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 110 - 123 (2021)
mixture with a hydraulic or hand press into a hard disk.
A total laboratory hydraulic press creating a power
(force) around 15 tons was used to make a pellet of
ideally 0.5 to 1 mm thick, which was then placed in a
transmission holder and scanned.
Attenuated total reflectance window
ATR can be used to analyze free-flowing aqueous solu-
tions, viscous liquids, coatings, ecological materials.
This technique is often the preferred method for liquid
analysis because it simply requires a drop of liquid to
be placed on the crystal. In the present study, the ATR
window was used for the analysis of liquid pesticide
formulations using the Diamond platform. A drop of the
compound was placed on the platform in which the in-
fra-red light was present and locked with the screw.
Software Omni was used to get the spectrum which
was compiled with instrument provides the compound
spectrum within 30 to 40 seconds of their intact. It pro-
vides the spectrum in absorbance, transmission and
other properties.
Processing and comparison of sample spectra with
database
The sample spectra obtained from FTIR were com-
pared with the NIST library and processed using the
Bio-Rad KnowItAll software. The NIST (National Insti-
tute of Standards and Technology) provides Standard
Reference Data, which spread a wide scope of logical
orders including nuclear and sub-atomic material sci-
ence, synthetic and precious stone structures, liquids,
material properties, biotechnology, optical character
acknowledgement and more. SpectraBase is a free
online spectral vault from Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc.
The sample spectra can be processed through a huge
number of spectra, including natural mixes, inorganic
mixes, and polymers. The KnowItAll programming of-
fers far-reaching answers for IR, Raman, NIR, NMR,
MS, UV-Vis, and chromatography the flow chart of the
determination procedure were given in Fig. 1. The
product joined with the world's biggest spectral library,
enables scientific experts to separate significantly more
prominent information from their phantom information.
The results of sample spectrabase processed are pre-
sented and discussed here.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Results obtained are presented and discussed below.
Abamectin
It was observed that Emamectin 5% SG contained
amines and alcohols as functional groups and have
NH, NH2, and NH3 salts. The analyzedSpectra(Fig. 2a)
Fig. 1. Flow Chart of the determination procedure.
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Asan Mohamed, B. and Janaki, P. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 110 - 123 (2021)
showed bands at 1340-1250 cm-1
by medium symmet-
ric primary amine NH3 salt, secondary amine salt of NH
at 2800-2000 cm-1 and NH2 at 850-750 cm-1. Alcohol
group showed strong stretching of hydrogen-bonded
OH at 3300-3280 cm-1. It has NH2 peak intensity of
69.76% at 759.82 cm-1 (Fig. 2b).
Ketoenols
Spiromesifen derives from a 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene
and a 3,3-dimethylbutyric acid. The commercial com-
pound spectrum(Fig. 3a) examined with the bio-rad’s
know-it-all software showed the peak ranges shown in
Fig. 3b. Spiromesifen spectrum had absorption bands at
2959-2952 and 2866-2853 cm-1 due to asymmetric and
symmetric stretching of CH bond in cyclopentyl group. It
contained C=C bond variable stretching of alkane
CCCH=CHCC groups at 1680-1620 cm-1. The intensity of
the peak at 1022.09 cm-1 showed 100% in ProcessItIR.
Neonicotinoids
Acetamiprid is a N-[(6-chloropyridin-3-yl) methyl]-N’-
cyano-N-methylethanimidamide. FTIR analysis results
of acetamiprid 20% SP (Fig.4a) showed the presence
of C-Cl bond stretching at 830-600 cm-1. The amine
bonds of NH2 and NH was located at 1620-1560, 850-
750 and 2800-2000 cm-1 (NH). The peak at 1531.34
cm-1 due to N-H in plane deformation has 100% inten-
sity which was very strong and characteristic of N atom
attached to C atom of aromatic ring. The out-of-plane N
-H deformation vibration at 900- 600 cm-1 was masked
by absorption features of aromatic ring(Fig. 4b).
Imidacloprid is a systemic insecticide utilized as a foliar
spray for the control of different sucking pests and oth-
er important bugs of cotton, paddy, chillies, sugarcane,
sunflower, okra and mango. FT-IR spectra (fig. 5a)
showed strong CH stretching at 2800-2900 cm-1 and
2690-2775 cm-1. The signature bands(fig.5b) of 1667-
1680, 1650-1550 and 830-600 cm-1 due to strong
stretching of C=O bond, nitrile group (C-N=C) and hal-
ogen group C-Cl was seen in the spectra. The peak
intensity is 100% at 1667.64 cm-1 and 32.03% at
1566.88 cm-1. Quintás et al. (2004a) reported -NO2
symmetric stretching band at 1300 – 1250 cm-1.
Thiacloprid is a member of thiazolidines, a nitrile and a
monochloropyridine. It derives from a 2-chlorop yri-
dine and a cyanamide. The Thiacloprid 21.7 % SC
spectrum (Fig.6a) examined in the KnowItAll software
(Fig.6b) showed the presence of nitrile group C-N=C
with strong stretched vibration C=N bond at 1550-1650
cm-1. Spectrum also had strong stretching of halogen C
-Cl bond at 600-830 cm-1. The peak intensity observed
with the spectrum showed 68.79% intensity at 1627.63
cm-1 and 100% at 652.59 cm-1 and confirmed the pres-
ence of nitrile and halogen functional groups.
Thiamethoxam is a xenobiotic and a neonicotinoid in-
secticide. It is an oxadiazane, a member of 1,3-
thiazoles, an organochlorine compound and a 2-
nitroguanidine derivative.Thiamethoxam 30% FS spec-
trum (Fig.7a)examined with the bio-rad’s software
(Fig.7b)showed medium stretching of C-N bond amine
group at 1310-1360 cm-1 and strong stretching of C-Cl
bond halogen group at 600-830 cm-1. The observed
peak intensity of 99.99% at 652.59 cm-1 and 46.13% at
1634.86 cm-1 showed the halogen and nitrile bonds
vibration.
Organochlorines
Dicofol is a nonflowable fluid (or waxy strong), extend-
ing from dim to yellow-earthy color and is a viable aca-
ricide controls mites, spider parasites on different
yields. Dicofol 18.5% EC (Fig.8a) spectrum processed
with ProcessItIR (Fig.8b) of the bio-rad software
showed strong stretching bond of halogen group C-Cl
in 830-600 cm-1. It also had bands at 3400-3200 cm-1
and 1480-1410 cm-1 due to strong stretching and defor-
mation of OH bond of (R)2CH-OH, respectively. It
showed the 100% intensity of C=O group stretching at
1094.41 cm-1. Results are equated with the NIST
spectrum.
Organofluorines
Flubendiamide is 1-N-[4-(1,1,1,2,3,3,3-heptafluoropro
pan-2-yl)-2-methylphenyl]-3-iodo-2-N-(2-methyl-1-
methylsulfonylpropan-2-yl)benzene-1,2-dicarboxamide.
The commercial formulations of 39.35% SC (Fig.9a)
spectrum showed the presence of the P group, sulphur
compounds and amine groups. The NH bond occurred
in the range of 2320-2700 cm-1, PH2 bond stretching in
the range of 2271-2440 cm-1 and sulphur bonds like
SO2, S-O and S-C occurs at 1342-1352 cm-1, 891-910
cm-1 and 600-700 cm-1(Fig.9b).
Organophosphates
Acephatebelongs to methamidophos is a mixed diacyl-
amine, a phosphoramide, an organic thiophosphate
and an organothiophosphate insecticide in which one of
the hydrogen is replaced by an acetyl group. Acephate
raw sample spectrum (Fig.10a) obtained from FTIR
showed C=O stretching at 1697.36 cm-1, and sharp and
strong absorption of P=O stretching frequency at
1219.71 cm-1 and were attributed to the presence of
C=O and P=O bonds in the structure. As compared to
the positions of the bonds in the spectrum of acephate,
the presence of C=O (carbonyl) and P=O groups was
confirmed in the structure of acephate. Fig.10e showed
that the bands at 1697.05 cm-1 and 1034.14 cm-1 had
an intensity of 32.98 and 100.00% was obtained using
ProcessIt IR. The present results were comparable with
the spectra of NIST library.
Chlorpyrifos is a crystalline organophosphate insecti-
cide used on grain, cotton, field, fruit, nut and vegetable
crops, and well as on lawns and ornamental plants.
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Asan Mohamed, B. and Janaki, P. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 110 - 123 (2021)
Class / Group
Active in-gredients
Formula-tions
Molecular formula
IUPAC name Purpose
Abamectin Emamectin 5% SG C56H81NO1
5 4”-deoxy-4”-methylamino derivative
Treatment of heartworm, hook-worm, threadworm, and whipworm
Ketoenols Spi-romesifen
22.9% SC
C23H30O4
[2-oxo-3-(2,4,6-trimethylphenyl)-1-oxaspiro[4.4]non-3-en-4-yl] 3,3-dimethylbutanoate
Control red spiders mite, white fly in tomato, chilli, brinjal, cotton and oth-er crops.
Neonicotinoid
Acetamiprid 20%SP C10H11ClN4 N-[(6-chloropyridin-3-yl)methyl]-N’-cyano-N-methylethanimidamide
Foliar-feeding pests such as Aphids, Whiteflies, Leafhoppers, and Plant bugs.
Imidaclo-prid
17.8% SC
C9H10ClN5
O2
(NE)-N-[1-[(6-chloropyridin-3-yl)methyl]imidazolidin-2-ylidene]nitramide
Control aphids, thrips, whiteflies, scale, termites, turf and soil insects and some beetles.
Thiacloprid 21.7% SC
C10H9ClN4
S
[3-[(6-chloropyridin-3-yl)methyl]-1,3-thiazolidin-2-ylidene]cyanamide
Control of a variety of sucking and chewing insects like aphids and whiteflies
Thiameth-oxam
30% FS C8H10ClN5
O3S
(NE)-N-[3-[(2-chloro-1,3-thiazol-5-yl)methyl]-5-methyl-1,3,5-oxadiazinan-4-ylidene]nitramide
Controls Stem borer, gall midge, leaf folder, brown plant hopper, Thrips in rice and also sucking pest in cotton
Organochlo-rine
Dicofol 18.5%EC C14H9Cl5O 2,2,2-trichloro-1,1-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethanol
Used against red spider mite in cu-cumbers, ornamentals, and other fruits and vegetables.
Organofluo-rine
Flubendia-mide
39.35% SC
C23H22F7IN
2O4S
1-N-[4-(1,1,1,2,3,3,3-heptafluoropropan-2-yl)-2-methylphenyl]-3-iodo-2-N-(2-methyl-1-methylsulfonylpropan-2-yl)benzene-1,2-dicarboxamide
Controls lepidopteron pests in rice, cotton, corn, grapes, other fruits and vegetables
Organophos-phate
Acephate 75%SP C4H10NO3
PS
N-[methoxy(methylsulfanyl)phosphoryl]acetamide
Used on food crops, citrus trees, as a seed treatment also kills cock-roaches, crickets, firebrats earwigs, pillbugs, sowbugs, pantry pests, and wasps.
Chlorpyri-fos
20% EC C7H7Cl3NO
3PS
dimethoxy-sulfanylidene-(3,5,6-trichloropyridin-2-yl)oxy-lambda5-phosphane
Control cutworms, corn rootworms, cockroaches, grubs, flea beetles, flies, termites, fire ants, and lice
Dimethoate 30% EC C5H12NO3
PS2
2-dimethoxyphosphinothi-oylsulfanyl-N-methylacetamide
Used against sucking insects like aphids, leafhoppers, and thrip
Ethion 50% EC C9H22O4P2
S4
diethoxyphosphinothi-oylsulfanylmethylsulfanyl-diethoxy-sulfanylidene-λ5-phosphane
Used to kill aphids, mites, scales, thrips, leafhoppers, maggots and foliar feeding larvae.
Monocroto-phos
36% SL C7H14NO5
P
dimethyl [(E)-4-(methylamino)-4-oxobut-2-en-2-yl] phosphate
Control sucking, chewing and boring insects and spider mites on cotton, sugarcane, peanuts, ornamentals, and tobacco
Profenofos 50% EC C11H15Br-ClO3P
4-bromo-2-chloro-1-[ethoxy(propylsulfanyl)phosphoryl]oxybenzene
Control over all sucking pests and foliar feeding larvae and control of mites on a variety of crops
Triazophos 40% EC C12H16N3O
3PS
diethoxy-[(1-phenyl-1,2,4-triazol-3-yl)oxy]-sulfanylidene-lambda5-phosphane
Controls Aphids, thrips, midges, bee-tles, larvae, cutworms, and other soil insects in cereals, sugarbeets, sug-arcanes, maize, soybeans, coffee, and grasslands.
Quinalphos 25% EC C12H15N2O
3PS
diethoxy-quinoxalin-2-yloxy-sulfanylidene-lambda5-phosphane
Toxic against bollworms on cotton and stem borer, green leaf hopper, hispa on rice
Table 1. Details of insecticides formulations selected for the study.
Contd…..
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Phenylpyra-zole
Fipronil 5% SC C12H4Cl2F6
N4OS
5-amino-1-[2,6-dichloro-4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-4-(trifluoromethylsulfinyl)pyrazole-3-carbonitrile
Used to control ants, beetles, cock-roaches, fleas, ticks, termites, mole crickets, thrips, rootworms, weevils, and other insects
Pyrethroids
Cyperme-thrin
10% EC C22H19Cl2NO3
[cyano-(3-phenoxyphenyl)methyl] 3-(2,2-dichloroethenyl)-2,2-dimethylcyclopropane-1-carboxylate
To kill insects on cotton and lettuce, and to kill cockroaches, fleas, and termites in houses and other build-ings.
Lambda Cyhalothrin
5% EC C23H19ClF3
NO3
[(R)-cyano-(3-phenoxyphenyl)methyl] (1S,3S)-3-[(Z)-2-chloro-3,3,3-trifluoroprop-1-enyl]-2,2-dimethylcyclopropane-1-carboxylate
To control aphids, Colorado beetles and butterfly larvae
Quinazoline Fenzaquin 10% EC C20H22N2O 4-[2-(4-tert-butylphenyl)ethoxy]quinazoline
Used against a broad spectrum of mites in grapes, pome fruit, citrus, peaches, cucurbits, tomatoes, cotton and ornamentals
Thiourea Diafenthi-uron
50% WP C23H32N2OS
1-tert-butyl-3-[4-phenoxy-2,6-di(propan-2-yl)phenyl]thiourea
It is toxic to cardamom borer, Cono-gethes punctiferalis,Guenee, Indian bees.
Table 1. Contd…..
Insecticides Measurement mode
Wave number range (cm-1)
Baseline (cm-1) Sample through-put (hr-1)
Waste genera-tion
Acephate KBr disks 1700-1025 1750- 500 5-6 10-20 mg
Acetamiprid KBr disks 1532-600 2200-500 5-6 10-20 mg
Chlorpyrifos ATR 1022-580 1500-600 8-9 0.5-1 ml
Cypermethrin ATR 2200-1500 1500 8-9 0.5-1 ml
Diafenthiuron KBr disks 1740-1160 1200-500 5-6 10-20 mg
Dicofol ATR 1480-600 3000-600 8-9 0.5-1 ml
Dimethoate ATR 1070-580 1400-600 8-9 0.5-1 ml
Emamectin KBr disks 2800-1250 2500-3500 5-6 10-20 mg
Ethion ATR 2865-1375 1500-1000 8-9 0.5-1 ml
Fenzaquin ATR 3080-1430 1600-1300 8-9 0.5-1 ml
Fipronil ATR 1625-600 1800-600 8-9 0.5-1 ml
Flubendiamide ATR 2700-910 3000-800 8-9 0.5-1 ml
Imidacloprid ATR 1680-1550 1600-600 8-9 0.5-1 ml
Lambda Cyhalo-thrin
ATR 1300-1110 1500-900 8-9 0.5-1 ml
Monocrotophos ATR 1680-1200 1700-1100 8-9 0.5-1 ml
Profenofos ATR 1485-600 1400-600 8-9 0.5-1 ml
Quinalphos ATR 1090-810 1100-800 8-9 0.5-1 ml
Spiromesifen ATR 1680-1020 1200-100 8-9 0.5-1 ml
Thiacloprid ATR 1650-1550 1600-1400 8-9 0.5-1 ml
Thiamethoxam ATR 1635-1310 1500-900 8-9 0.5-1 ml
Triazophos ATR 1525-1020 1500-600 8-9 0.5-1 ml
Table 2: Insecticide determination using FTIR Spectrometry in ATR and KBr method.
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The halogen group showed a strong stretching of C-Cl
bond at 830- 600 cm-1 and P=S bond showed variable
strong stretching at 800-580 cm-1. In most instances,
when used alone, strong absorption at the cited re-
gions was considered to be related to the stretching
vibration of only a C-O- link. Another absorption fea-
ture of the spectrum that should be taken into consid-
eration was C-O- absorption band, which was indica-
tive of an ether group. For example, the absence of
characteristic absorption features of those functional
groups that contained the C-O- link (alcohol groups,
ester groups, etc.) increases the probability of the C-O-
absorption as indicative of an ether group. On equating
chlorpyriphos 20%EC (Fig.10b)spectra with the NIST
spectra and KnowitAll (Fig.10f) software, peak at
1022.57 cm-1
shows 100% intensity and at 1410.67 cm-1 shows 69.13%. The absorption bands of C-N stretch-
ing, C-Cl stretching and P-S stretching for chlorpyri-
phos was also reported by Armenta et al. (2005a).
Dimethoate is a broadly utilized organophosphate bug
spray and acaricide. Dimethoate 30% EC IR (Fig.10c)
spectrum analyzed with bio-rad software (Fig.10g)
showed that it had the strong stretching of P=S bond in
the range of 800 to 580 cm-1 and the intensity was of
97.24 % at 783.92 cm-1. 100% intensity is available at
1070.30 cm-1 band, which is corroborated with NIST
library spectrum. Medium bending and stretching of
NH and C-N bonds were observed at 1440-1490 and
1310-1350 cm-1.
Ethion is used on a wide variety of food, fiber and orna-
mental crops, including greenhouse crops, lawns and
turf. Ethion 50% EC (Fig.10d) contained P=S group and
has a stretching at 800-580 cm-1 and string symmetric
CH group at 2863-2843 cm-1, medium symmetric CH
group at 1380-1375 cm-1. The intensity ranges from
48.87% to 82.95% in the area of P=S group as ob-
served by ProcessItIR (Fig.10h) and Spectrabase. Sim-
ilar vibration features of ethion at 720 and 1718 cm-1
due to P=S vibrations and S–P=S stretching, respec-
tively was reported by Yang et al. (2019).
Monocrotophos 36% SL spectra showed (Fig. 11a)
signature bands (Fig. 11e) of N-H stretching vibration
near 3270 cm-1, very strong C=O stretching vibration at
1680-1630 cm-1, strong intensity of NH deformation and
C-N stretching at 1570-1515 cm-1 and mixed C-N
stretching and N-H bending at 1310-1200 cm-1. Varia-
ble stretching of P-O-R bond was observed at 1050-
970 cm-1.
Profenofos (Fig. 11b) derived from a 4-bromo-2-
chlorophenol showed antisymmetric stretching of CH
bond at 2936-2916 cm-1, symmetric stretching of CH
bond at 2863-2843 cm-1, and deformation of CH bond
at 1485-1445 cm-1 in aromatic 1,2,3 trisubstituted ring.
Strong stretching of halogen bonds of C-Br and C-Cl at
Fig. 2. IR spectra of Emamectin (a- Original spectrum; b). Processed spectrum by KnowitAll).
Fig. 3. IR spectra of Spiromesifen (a). Original spectrum; b). Processed spectrum by KnowitAll).
(b) (a)
(b) (a)
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Asan Mohamed, B. and Janaki, P. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 110 - 123 (2021)
500-550 and 830-600 cm-1 respectively was also seen
in spectra(Fig.11f). It showed 100% intensity at
1472.87 cm-1 for CH bond of alkanes.
Quinalphos (derives from a quinoxalin-2-ol)spectrum
(Fig.11c)peak bands at 800-580, 810-870, 990-1090
and 2340-2790 cm-1 showed the presence of P=S
group stretching, S-O bond stretching, S=O bond and
O-H bond stretching, respectively (Fig.11g). The 100%
peak intensity was obtained at 1023.05 cm-1.
Triazophos is an acaricide,derived from a 1-phenyl-1H-
1,2,4-triazol-3-ol. Triazophos 40% EC spectrum
(Fig.11d)was compared with the spectrabase and bio-
rad software (Fig.11h). It showed variable stretching of
P=S bond at 580-800 cm-1, strong bending of an aro-
matic ring at 690-710 cm-1 and strong antisymmetric C-
H bond of alkanes at 2952-2972 cm-1. It showed 100%
intensity at 1019.38 cm-1, 94.93% at 1524.73 cm-1 and
86.61 % at 1329.92 cm-1.
Phenylpyrazoles
Fipronil is utilized to control ants, beetles, cockroaches,
bugs, ticks, termites, mole crickets, thrips, rootworms,
weevils, and different bugs. Fipronil 5% SC (Fig.12a)
contains variable to medium stretching of aromatics
ring group in the range of 1430 – 1625 cm-1 and halo-
gen groups of C-Cl and C-F groups in the range of 830-
600 cm-1 and 1300-900 cm-1 of strong and variable
stretching. The peak intensity at 711.12 cm-1 showed
Fig. 4. IR spectra of Acetamiprid (a). Original spectrum; b). Processed spectrum by KnowitAll).
Fig. 5. IR spectra of Imdiacloprid (a). Original spectrum; b). Processed spectrum by KnowitAll).
Fig. 6. IR spectra of Thiocloprid (a). Original spectrum; b). Processed spectrum by KnowitAll).
(b) (a)
(b) (a)
(b) (a)
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Asan Mohamed, B. and Janaki, P. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 110 - 123 (2021)
100% by C-Cl group and 1070.30 cm-1 has an intensity
of 23.06%. The commercial spectra were compared
with the spectrabase and bio-rad software (Fig.12b)
also. Two major absorption peaks at 1633 and 1319 cm-1for fipronil was reported due to stretching vibrations of
C–N bond and deformation vibrations of N–H bond,
respectively(Qiu et al., 2013)
Pyrethroids
Cypermethrin is an engineered pyrethroid spray used
to kill cockroaches, bugs, and termites in houses and
different structures. Cypermethrin 10% EC (Fig.13a)
Processing bybio-rad software (Fig.13b) shows the
peak area from 860 - 2200 cm-1 which indicates the
presence of C-Cl bond and the amine group in it. The
finger print bands of cypermethrin at 865, 1454, 1586
cm-1 due to deformation vibrations of the cyclopropane
ring, R-CH2-CN deformation structure and C-C
stretching of the aromatic rings as proposed by
Segal-Rosenheimer and Dubowski (2007) was
observed in this study. Additional important represent-
ing band of the molecule was observed at 1124 cm-1
and is related to the CN-O stretching of the cyanate
group. Segal-Rosenheimer and Dubowski (2007) re-
ported that the absorption bands at 1742, 1587,1488,
1449 and 1076 cm−1, due to carbonyl stretching, C-C
stretching in chloroalkenes, ring vibration of benzene,
CH2 deformation in R–CH2–CN structure and (C O)–O–
stretching, respectively for pure certified standard cy-
permethrin.
Fig. 7. IR spectra of Thiomethoxam (a). Original spectrum; b). Processed spectrum by KnowitAll).
r
Fig. 8. IR spectra of Dicofol (a). Original spectrum; b). Processed spectrum by KnowitAll).
Fig. 9. IR spectra of Flubendamide (a). Original spectrum; b). Processed spectrum by KnowitAll).
(b) (a)
(b) (a)
(b) (a)
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Asan Mohamed, B. and Janaki, P. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 110 - 123 (2021)
r
Fig. 10. IR spectra of Acephate, Chlorpyrifos, Dimethoate and Ethion.( 1).Original spectrum: a, b, c, d; 2).Processed
spectrum by KnowitAll: e, f, g, h.
(h) (g)
(f) (e)
(d) (c)
(b) (a)
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Asan Mohamed, B. and Janaki, P. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 110 - 123 (2021)
Fig. 11. IR spectra of Monocrotophos, Profenofos, QuinalphosandTriazophos.(1).Original spectrum: a, b, c, d; 2).
Processed spectrum by KnowitAll: e, f, g, h).
(h) (g)
(f) (e)
(d) (c)
(b) (a)
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Cyhalothrin, is a cyano-(3-phenoxyphenyl)methyl] 3-
(2,2-dichloroethenyl)-2,2-dimethylcyclopropane-1-
carboxylate. Commercial product spectrum (Fig.14a
and 14b) showed the presence of aliphatic hydrocar-
bons, halogen groups, sulphur and phosphorus com-
pounds. Symmetric stretching of CH bond and defor-
mation was observed at the band of 2900-3000 and
1490-1430 cm-1respectively. The halogen C-F
bond was present at 1350-1120 cm-1 and 780-680 cm-
1 bands. The symmetric stretching of R-N=S=O at
1180-1110 cm-1 and P=N bond stretching at 1300-
1100 cm-1 was observed as signature bands for
cyhalothrin.
Quinazolines
Fenzaquin, a 4-[2-(4-tert-butylphenyl)ethoxy]quinazo
line is the active ingredient of Fenzaquin10% EC
(Fig.15a). FTIR Spectrum contains aromatics o-di-
substituted ring (Fig.15b) in the peak range of 1430-
1625 cm-1, CH group stretching at 3079-3010 cm-1. The
peak intensity was 56.97% at 1495.53 cm-1 and 56.88%
at 1454.06 cm-1 due to variable, medium stretching of
aromatic string.
Thioureas
The absorbance FTIR spectra of diafenthiuron 50% WP
in the wavenumber region from 4000 to 900 cm−1 was
Fig. 12. IR spectra of fipronil (a). Original spectrum; b). Processed spectrum by KnowitAll).
Fig. 13. IR spectra of cypermethrin(a). Original spectrum; b). Processed matching spectrum by spectrabase.
Fig. 14. IR of cyhalothrin (a). Original spectrum; b). Processed spectrum by KnowitAll).
(b) (a)
(b) (a)
(b) (a)
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Asan Mohamed, B. and Janaki, P. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 110 - 123 (2021)
Fig. 15. IR spectra of Fenzaquin (a). Original spectrum; b). Processed spectrum by KnowitAll).
Fig. 16. IR spectra of Diafenthiuron (a). Original spectrum; b). Processed spectrum by KnowitAll).
(b) (a)
(b) (a)
shown in Fig.16a. In this Fig. 16b, the diafenthiuron
spectrum has absorption bands at 3360-3100, 1740-
1715, 1300-1160, 1200-1050 due to medium stretching
of thioamide bond N=H, strong stretching of unsaturat-
ed ester bond C=O, strong stretching of unsaturated
ester bond C-O, medium stretching bond C=S, respec-
tively. The ProcessItIR spectrum showed 100% intensi-
ty at 1075.60 cm-1and 1034.14 cm-1 has 90.96%.
Sample spectra provide the characteristic bands of the
active principles additionally than some small bands
coming from inert and solvent components of the pesti-
cide formulations.
Conclusion
The suitability of the vibrational spectrometry for the
determination of active ingredients in solid and liquid
pesticide formulations at MIR regions indicated signa-
ture absorption bands of 1667-1680, 1650-1550, 1340-
1250, 800-580 and830- 600 cm-1, respectively, for C=O,
C-N=C, N-H, P=S and halogen bonds. Also, absorption
bands of few pesticides were comparable spectra with
the available NIST library and Spectrabase. Hence
FTIR spectrometry for the direct determination of com-
mercial pesticide formulations can be carried out with-
out any pre-treatment of samples. So the proposed
procedure was environmentally friendly for quality con-
trol analysis of formulated pesticides. These pesticide
molecules provided specific characteristic absorption
bands in the mid-IR, located at different wavenumbers
providing the qualitative representation of the com-
pounds. This work's principal target has been the ad-
vancement of quick and environmentally friendly tech-
niques for the assurance of pesticides in agrochemical
definitions utilizing vibrational spectroscopy like FTIR
and extending to determine pesticide residue in plant
and food material. This can be achieved after calibrat-
ing the signature bands for each compound.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I express my deep sagacity and gratitude to the Dean,
Project Director (COE-SSH) and the Professor & Head,
Dept. of SS&AC, ADAC&RI, Trichy for permitting me to
carry out this work in the Soil Health Analytical lab
(SHAL) of Centre of Excellence in Sustaining Soil
Health.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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Phytochemicals characterization of nutraceutical enriched fruits and
nuts spread
C. Rohini*
Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Community Science College and Research
Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai - 625104 (Tamil Nadu), India
P. S. Geetha
Department of Differently Abled Studies, Community Science College and Research Institute,
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai - 625104 (Tamil Nadu), India
R. Vijayalakshmi
Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Community Science College and Research
Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai - 625104 (Tamil Nadu), India
M. L. Mini
Department of Biotechnology, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Madurai - 625104 (Tamil Nadu), India
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2810
Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: May 14, 2021
Accepted: June 3, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
Spread is an edible paste that is added to other foods,
which are generally consumed with bread, toasts and
similar pastries such as pancakes and pistas. The fat
content is more in the spread and it imparts shortening,
richness, tenderness, improves mouthfeel, flavour and
perception (Pareyt et al. 2009). The spread can be
made with fruit pulp and enhanced with edible seed
powders. The pumpkin, cucumber seeds are generally
considered waste but are found to have many medical
values and health benefits. The pumpkin belongs to the
family of Cucurbitaceae. It is utilized as uncooked,
cooked and roasted for domestic purpose. Pumpkin
seeds are a rich source of protein, fibers, minerals such
as iron, zinc, calcium, magnesium, manganese, copper
and sodium, polyunsaturated fatty acid, phytosterol and
vitamins. Health benefits of pumpkin seeds like reduc-
Abstract
The present study aimed to formulate a nutraceutical enriched fruits and nuts spreads and analyze the presence of phytochemi-
cals in the formulated spread. The pumpkin seeds and cucumber seeds were roasted at 150° C for 15 mins and made into pow-
der. The seed powder was mixed to the pulp of β-carotene rich fruits like mango, papaya and muskmelon in order to make fruits
and nuts spread. Treatments like Mango with pumpkin seed powder (T1), Papaya with pumpkin seed powder (T2), Muskmelon
with pumpkin seed powder (T3), Mango with cucumber seed powder (T4), Papaya with cucumber seed powder (T5) and Musk-
melon with cucumber seed powder (T6). The fruits and nuts spreads were analyzed for the presence of phytochemicals β-
carotene, polyphenols, tannins, flavonoids and antioxidant activity. The formulated fruits and nuts spreads were packed in poly-
propylene boxes, glass bottles and stored under refrigerated condition at 4°C. β-carotene content was found to be high
(634.21μg/g) in Mango with Pumpkin seed powder spread (T1), tannin content was higher (52.61 mg/g) in Papaya with Pumpkin
seed powder spread (T2), flavonoid components were higher (3.25 mg/g) in Mango with Pumpkin seed powder spread (T1), and
polyphenols content were found to be high (59.33 mg/g) in Papaya with Cucumber seed powder spread (T5). The antioxidant
property was high in the Mango with Pumpkin seed powder spread (T1) when compared to all other treatments. Pumpkin seeds
comprised of excellent amount of bioactive compounds. The pumpkin seed incorporated spread showed a high level of phyto-
chemicals when compared to other spreads. This was ready to eat spread which had 3 months of shelf life under refrigerated
condition is preferred for people of all age groups.
Keywords: Cucumber seeds, Nutraceutical compounds, Phytochemicals, Pumpkin seeds
How to Cite
Rohini, C. et al. (2021). Phytochemicals characterization of nutraceutical enriched fruits and nuts spread. Journal of Applied and
Natural Science, 13 (SI), 124 - 129. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2810
125
Rohini, C. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 124 - 129 (2021)
tion in blood glucose, cholesterol levels, increased im-
munity and better functioning of the liver, prostate gland
and gall bladder. Other established benefits include
support for learning disabilities, depression, inflamma-
tion, cancer management and inhibition of parasites.
Pumpkin seeds have high pharmacological activities
such as antidiabetic, antifungal, antibacterial, anti-
inflammation, and antioxidant properties due to their
high nutritional health protective values (Nkosi et al.
2006). Cucumber seeds are rich in bioactive com-
pounds with nutracetical properties. It is an underuti-
lized crop and considered as an agro waste
(Montesano et al. 2018). The cucumber seeds have
more protein, fat, minerals and calcium. It is an excel-
lent coolant and diuretic in the summer seasons. It
served as cooling, tonic, diuretic and anthelmintic ef-
fects. It has significant impact in diseases such as oste-
oporosis, osteoarthritis, cervical spondylosis. A seed of
cucumber has cardiac glycosides, terpenoids, carbohy-
drates and saponins. The cardiac glycosides are used
as anti-inflammatory properties (Shah and Seth 2011)
and protect against lethal endotoxemia. Phytosterols
also found in the seeds which has a significant hypo-
cholesterolemic effects (Ezeodili et al., 2017). Cucum-
ber seed contains more amounts of flavonoids, which is
a cheap source of flavonoids. The flavonoids act as an
antimicrobial, antioxidant, cytotoxicity, anti inflammatory
as well as anti-tumour activity (Saxena et al., 2003).
Antioxidant compounds such as phenoilc acids, poly-
phenols and flavonoids free radicals like peroxide, hy-
droperoxide or lipid peroxyl inhibit the oxidative stress
that causes to degenerative disease (Nahak et al.,
2014). Triterpenoid glycosides compound is found in
the cucumber seeds which is responsible for the antiox-
idant and antiulcer activity (Gill and Bali et al., 2012).
The mangoes (Mangifera indica L.) most important
fruits, have more taste, aroma, and a good source of
nutritional values (Ibarra et al., 2015). Mango contains
sugars, fiber, minerals, vitamins and antioxidants
(Tharanathan et al., 2006). It contains different types of
volatile organic molecules such as terpenes, furanones,
lactones and esters. It gives flavors to the fruits. Mango
also contains vitamins A, C, β– Carotene, Xanthophylls,
Cis-9 and cis-15-octa decadienoic (Swaroop et al.,
2018). It has maximum amounts of polyphenols, micro-
nutrients found in plants which are used for specific
health benefits. Polyphenols such as mangiferin, gallic
acid, gallotannins, quercetin, isoquercetin, ellagic acid
and β –glucogallin are used in an adequate amount.
Mango pulp gives more amounts of phytochemicals
which has an anti-inflammatory role in several chronic
pathological disorders associated with inflammatory
responses. It has more bioactive compounds which are
used as anti diabetic and anticancer effects (Shahidi et
al., 2017). Papaya fruits are a good source of nutrients
include provitamins A, carotenoids, vitamin C, β- caro-
tene, lycopene, dietary minerals and dietary fiber. It is
an iron and calcium rich fruits. Papain is also called as
papaya proteinase enzyme present in the fruits. It pos-
sesses different types of carotenoids namely β- caro-
tene, lycopene, anthraquinones and glycosides, which
has medicinal properties like anti-inflammatory, hypo-
glycemic, anti-fertility, hepatoprotective, wound healing,
anti-hypersensitive and anti-tumor activity. Ripe papaya
fruit is a laxative that assures of regular bowel move-
ment (Yogiraj et al., 2014). Muskmelon is a good
source of vitamins A and C, minerals such as potassi-
um, phosphorus and iron (Parveen et al. 2012, Pri-
yanka et al., 2015). It has a soft, sweet juicy flesh with
a musk like odor, but it is a highly perishable fruit
(Aranceta, 2004). Muskmelon is known to have medici-
nal properties such as analgesic, anti-inflammatory,
anticancer, antioxidant (Milind and Kulwant, 2011). The
aim of the study was to formulate a nutraceutical en-
riched fruits and nuts spread and to analyze the bio-
chemical compounds in the spreads.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The fruit pulp or puree was extracted from the fruits like
mango, papaya and muskmelon. Pumpkin seeds and
cucumber seeds were machine dehulled and roasted at
150°C for 30 mins to remove the hard coating and to
mask the raw odour of the seed. The roasted seeds
were made into powder form. The fruit pulp was mixed
with seed powder to get a thick consistency of spreads.
The various treatments, i.e., a combination of fruits and
nuts, are given in Table 1. The standardized composi-
tion of seed powders (25%) and sugar were incorpo-
rated with fruit pulp (75%) to get a desirable consisten-
cy of fruits and Nuts spread based on the previous ex-
periments. The fruits and nuts spreads were pasteur-
ized at 60°C for 30mins to increase the quality of the
product and the prepared products were organoleptical-
ly evaluated and kept under the refrigerated condition
at 4°C for further analysis.
β-carotene
About 2-5g of food sample was taken and pulped well
into smooth consistency using acetone and blended
until the residue was colourless. The acetone extracts
were pooled and transferred to a separating funnel con-
taining about 20ml of distilled water and mixed. Carote-
noid pigments get transferred from the lower aqueous
layer to the upper petroleum ether layer. The upper
layer was collected by using a separating funnel and
then added petroleum ether (20ml) and mixed well to
extract the β – Carotene. The procedure was repeated
three to four times until the colour of the extract be-
came colourless. The petroleum ether extract was
pooled and washed once with 20 ml distilled water in
order to remove alkalinity. Filtered it into a conical flask
126
Rohini, C. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 124 - 129 (2021)
through cotton wool over which anhydrous sodium sul-
phate was sprinkled to get water free solution. The final
volume was made up to 50ml with petroleum ether and
determined the solution's absorbance at 450nm in a UV
- visual spectrophotometer using petroleum ether as
blank.
Calculation
µg carotenoids / 100 gm = OD value × Total volume of
extract × 100 / 0.2592 × weight of the sample …. Eq.1
Phenol
About 0.5- 1 g of sample was weighed and grinded with
a pestle and motor in 10 time volumes of 80% ethanol,
centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 20 mins. The saved the
supernatant was evaporated it to dryness. Dissolved
the residue in a known volume of distilled water (5
ml).different aliquots (0.2-2ml) was pipette out into test
tubes. Make up the volume in each tube to 3ml with
distilled water. 0.5 ml of Folin-ciocateau reagent was
added. After 3mins 2ml of 20% Na2 CO3 solution was
added to each tube. Mixed thoroughly. Placed the
tubes in boiling water for 1 min, cooled and measured
at 650nm.prepared a standard curve using different
concentrations of catechol. The standard curve finds
out the concentration of phenols in the test sample and
expresses as mg phenols/100 g material.
Tannins
About 0.5 g of the powder sample was weighed and
transferred to a 250ml conical flask.75ml of water was
added. Heated the flask gently and boil for 30mins.
Centrifuged at 2000 rpm for 20 min and collected the
supernatant in 100ml volumetric flask and made up the
volume. 1ml of the sample extract was transferred to a
100ml volumetric flask containing 75 ml water. 5ml of
Folin Ciocalteau reagent was added, then 10ml of sodi-
um carbonate solution and dilute to 100ml with water.
Shaked well. Read the absorbance at 700nm after
30min. Prepared a standard graph by using 0- 100µg
tannic acid. Calculate the tannin content of the samples
as tannic acid equivalents from the standard graph.
Total flavonoids
Total flavonoids content of fruits and nuts spreads
were determined using the Colorimetric method de-
scribed by Willet (2002), with some modifications.
Aqueous ethanol extracts (0.5 ml), 10% aluminium
chloride (0.1 ml), 1 M potassium acetate (0.1 ml),
and distilled water (4.3 ml) were mixed. After incuba-
tion at room temperature for 30 min, the absorbance
was measured at 415 nm using a spectrophotome-
ter. Quercetin was used to make the calibration
curve. The calculation of total flavonoids content in
the extracts was carried out in triplicate and the re-
sults were averaged.
Determination of total antioxidant activity
DPPH assay
The radical scavenging activity of samples was deter-
mined by the 2, 2,-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH)
radical scavenging assay. DPPH is a purple colored
stable free radical that reacts with compounds that can
donate a hydrogen atom. This method is based on the
scavenging of DPPH through the addition of a radical
species or an antioxidant that decolorizes the DPPH
solution. The degree of discolouration indicates the
scavenging potential of the antioxidant compounds.
Different aliquots (0.2 - 1 ml) of methanol extracts of
each sample were pipetted out into test tubes and
made up the volume in each test tube to 1ml with
methanol. Then 2 ml of freshly prepared DPPH solution
(0.1 mM) in methanol was added. The tubes mixed
thoroughly and allowed to stand in the dark at room
temperature. The absorbance decrease was deter-
mined after 30 min at 517 nm using a spectrophotome-
ter. Methanol (1 ml) replacing the plant extract serve as
a negative control and methanol (2 ml) replacing the
DPPH reagent serve as sample blanks. The percent-
age of radical scavenging activity (% RSA) or percent-
age inhibitions of DPPH of the methanolic extract of the
samples were calculated by the following formula.
{A(C) – (A(S)}
% RSA = X 100 …..Eq . 2
A(C)
Where A(C) - absorbance of negative control, A(S)- ab-
sorbance of sample
Then graphs were plotted between the percentages of
radical scavenging activity and the different concentra-
tions of methanolic extracts of samples. Ascorbic acid
was used as a standard (positive control) and the per-
centage radical scavenging activity of the different con-
centration of the ascorbic acid standard was estimated
by the same method and formula used for the samples.
Then graphs were plotted between the percentage of
radical scavenging activity and the different concentra-
tions of standards, then the slopes of the standard
graph were calculated and the radical scavenging ac-
tivity of the samples was expressed as mg of ascorbic
acid equivalent 100 g-1 of sample in fresh and dry
weight basis. (Muruganantham et al 2016)
Statistical analysis
The statistical analysis was performed by AGRES-
AGDATA for one way analysis of variance. The results
are the average of the four replicates and their Stand-
ard deviation.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Phytochemical analysis
Table 2 shows phytochemicals for the presence of β –
Carotene, tannin, flavonoids, polyphenols and antioxi-
127
Rohini, C. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 124 - 129 (2021)
dant activity were analyzed in the fruits and nuts
spreads. Pumpkin seed and cumber seeds contained
more nutritional compounds and fruits like mango, pa-
paya and muskmelon contained more phytochemicals.
β – Carotene
The carotenoid content ranged from 301.93 μg/g to
623.21 μg/g in all treatments. The mango with pumpkin
seed powder spread β-carotene content (623.21 μg/g)
and the lowest was found in muskmelon with cucumber
seed powder spread (301.93 μg/g) with respect to the
content of these substances in the pulp (Table 2). Silva
et al. (2014) reported that the carotene retention of
mango fruit powder was 196.15 μg/g. Renna et al.
(2013) reported that the boiling step before the final cook-
ing during carrot jam processing probably improved β -
carotene retention in a jam. Rozan (2017) also stated that
the addition of turmeric as an ingredient of jam formulation
significantly improved carotenoid retention.
Tannin
Tannin content tends to decrease in fruits and nuts
spreads after processing. Among the treatments, the
tannin content was more in the papaya with pumpkin
seed powder spread about 52.61mg/g and the lowest
value was 31.20mg/g noticed in muskmelon with
cucumber seed powder spread. (Table 2). Sinha et al.
(2012) was observed that upon cooking, the formation
of condensed tannins decreased the antioxidant activity
of the phenolic fraction. During ambient storage, white-
fleshed cloudy guava nectar deteriorates in quality due
to nonenzymatic browning reactions through the in-
volvement of ascorbic acid and tannins (Chen et al.
1994). In this study, tannin content decreased during
processing and did not affect the storage characteris-
tics of processed spread
Flavonoids
Flavonoids content of the fruits and nuts spreads
ranged between 1.05 mg/g to 3.25 mg/g. Noticeable
amount of rise in flavonoids was seen in all the treat-
ment. A higher amount of flavonoid was noticed in
mango with pumpkin seed powder spread combination
of fruits and nuts spreads. It was about 3.25mg/g and
muskmelon with cucumber seed powder spread shows
the least amount of flavonoids found was around
Treatment Fruits (75%) + seed powder (25%)
T1 Mango + Pumpkin seed powder
T2 Papaya + Pumpkin seed powder
T3 Muskmelon + Pumpkin seed powder
T4 Mango + Cucumber seed powder
T5 Papaya + Cucumber seed powder
T6 Muskmelon + Cucumber seed powder
Table 1. Combination of fruits and nuts spread.
Treatment β-Carotene(μg/g) Tannin (mg/g) Flavonoids (mg/g) Poly phenols (mg/g )
T1 623.21±0.87f 48.93 ±0.46d 3.25±0.03f 56.21 ±1.58b
T2 501.75 ±0.80d 52.61±0.96e 2.71 ±0.01d 58.03 ±0.71c
T3 324.54±0.66b 34.62 ±0.65b 1.65 ±0.06b 44.98 ±1,31a
T4 604.75 ±0.34e 44.73 ±0.79c 3.04 ±0.03e 57.85 ±1.88c
T5 487.53 ±0.61c 50.17±1.05d 2.15 ±0.06c 59.33±1.08d
T6 301.93±0.03a 31.20 ±0.34a 1.05±0.01a 45.86 ±0.65a
Table 2. Phytochemicals of fruits and nuts spreads.
*Values are means of 4 replicates; *Means in the same column followed by different superscripts are significantly different at P<0.05
Combination of fruits and nuts spreads
Fig. 1. Antioxidant activity of fruits and nuts spreads (%
RSA).
128
Rohini, C. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 124 - 129 (2021)
1.05mg/g (Table 2). Wall-metrano et al. (2020) evaluat-
ed that the flavonoids content of mango pulp was
4.0mgQE/g. Sinha et al. (2012) stated that the factors
like modification of the structure of the flavonoid are
substitution by different sugars are acids may deeply
affect the biological activity of flavonoids, and in a
sense, different processing of the fruits may also influ-
ence the beneficial properties or human health.
Poly phenols
The polyphenol content of papaya with cucumber seed
powder spread was 59.33mg/g which was considered
to the higher than other treatments. The muskmelon
with pumpkin seed powder spread showed a very low
amount of polyphenol content of 44.98mg/g (Table 2).
During jam cooking, the cell structure is ruptured and
the sensitive compounds, especially phenols, become
susceptible to non-enzymatic oxidation (Patras et al.
2010). Lobo et al. (2017) showed that mango pulps
total phenol content is 46.18 – 116.93 mg gallic
acid/100 g. Rozan et al. (2017) investigated that the
reduction in individual phenolic compounds was com-
patible with the decrease of total phenolic content. Ex-
cept for catechin, sinapic and cinnamic acid, turmeric
addition to carrot during jam processing resulted in a
significant increase in phenolic compounds.
Antioxidant activity
Fig. 1 shows about 20 to 40 percent of antioxidant ac-
tivity increased in all the treatments. Higher percentage
of (40%) antioxidant activity was found in mango with
pumpkin seed powder spread whereas minimum level
of antioxidant activity like 20% noted in muskmelon
with pumpkin seed powder spread. Abbasi et al. (2017)
reported that the antioxidant capacity of mango pulp
was 66.53%. Montesano et al. (2018) reported that
highest antiradical capacity was recorded for the
pumpkin powders incorporated beverage and the low-
est value was determined for the carrot powder incor-
porated sample.
Conclusion
The pumpkin seeds and cucumber seeds were con-
sidered underutilized seeds but they had more nutri-
tional values, bioactive compounds and nutraceutical
properties. The components were used in the spread
to increase the nutraceutical value of the spread. The
spreads were highly preferred for all age groups and
preferred them as best ready to use food. The fruits
and nuts spread contain more amounts of bioactive
compounds.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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Performance of cotton genotype TCH 1819 to high density planting
system under winter irrigated condition at the Western agroclimatic
zone of Tamil Nadu
R. Sowmiya*
Department of Agronomy, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore- 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
N. Sakthivel
Department of Agronomy, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore- 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2811
Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: May 30, 2021
Accepted: June 14, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
Cotton, the clothing fiber since ancient times has
played an important role in the history and civilization of
mankind. It is the main cash crop grown for its fiber and
seed oil in the world. The crop has occupied the largest
area in India. The area under cotton is 129.57 lakh hec-
tares, and production is 371 lakh bales and productivity
is 486.76 kgs per hectare. The productivity is low com-
pared to the world average (768 kgs per hectare)
(https://cotcorp.org.in/national_cotton.aspx). Cotton is
extremely sensitive to adverse environmental condi-
tions and field management. The current day cotton
varieties are of long duration, tall-growing, and with
long sympodial growth. This leads to an increase in the
cost of cultivation because of more manual pickings
(Gunasekaran et al., 2020). To improve productivity,
optimize profit, and select management strategies un-
der rising production costs, the alternative way is a high
-density planting system. It is the manipulation of row
spacing, plant density, and the spatial arrangement of
cotton plants for obtaining higher yields. In simple
terms, it is growing cotton densely than what is being
practiced. This planting system produces fewer bolls
than conventionally planted cotton but retains a higher
percentage of total bolls in the first sympodial position
Abstract
Plant population is an important attribute in crop management practice. Increasing the plant density by decreasing the crop row
spacing was an alternative strategy to optimize crop profit. Hence, the field trial was conducted at Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore, during the winter season of 2017 – 18 to study the effect of row spacing on the growth and yield of
cotton genotype TCH 1819. The experimental design was Randomized Block Design (RBD) with seven spacing
treatments viz., T1: 60 x 15 cm (1,11,111 plants ha-1), T2: 60 x 20 cm (83,333 plants ha-1), T3: 75 x 15 cm (88,888 plants ha-1),
T4: 75 x 20 cm (66,666 plants ha-1), T5: 75 x 30 cm (44,444 plants ha-1), T6: 90 x 15 cm (74074 plants ha-1), T7: 90 x 20cm
(55,555 plants ha-1) and was replicated thrice. Plant densities showed a significant (p=0.05) difference for all the characters
studied. The higher plant density of 1,11,111 plants (60 x 15 cm) observed significantly (p=0.05) maximum plant height (103.14
cm), Leaf Area Index (LAI) (4.35), Dry Matter Production (DMP) (8125 kg/ha), Crop Growth Rate (CGR) (6.58 g/m2/day), root
length (41.46 cm), root dry weight (14.94 g/plant), and chlorophyll index (48.24). The number of sympodial branches per plant
(17) and bolls per plant (22 bolls) was found significant in the wider spacing of 75 x 30 cm. The narrow spacing of 60 x 15 cm
noted the highest seed cotton yield (2565 kg/ha), net return (R65706.62), and B: C (2.32) ratio, followed by the spacing of 75 x
15 cm due to more plant density per unit area (m2). So, maximum yield in cotton can be achieved by decreasing the row
spacing and increasing the plant population per unit area.
Keywords: Growth, High density Planting system, Root characteristics, Seed cotton yield
How to Cite
Sowmiya, R. and Sakthivel, N. (2021). Performance of cotton genotype TCH 1819 to high density planting
system under winter irrigated condition at the Western agroclimatic zone of Tamil Nadu. Journal of Applied and Natural
Science, 13 (SI), 130 - 134. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2811
131
Sowmiya, R. and Sakthivel, N. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 130 - 134 (2021)
and a lower percentage in the second position (Vories
and Glover 2006). The High Density Planting System
(HDPS) besides providing better light interception, effi-
cient leaf area development, and early canopy closure
which will shade out the weeds and reduce their com-
petitiveness (Wright et al., 2011) also provides synchro-
nized flowering, uniform boll bursting and early
cut-off (Gunasekaran et al., 2020). Hence, HDPS is the
solution to improve productivity and profitability,
increase input use efficiency, and minimize the risks
associated with current cotton production in India.
Therefore, the trial was conducted to find optimum crop
geometry and know the yield potential of cotton geno-
type TCH 1819.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The evaluation of cotton genotype TCH 1819 under
HDPS was carried out during 2017 – 2018 in winter
irrigated season at Eastern block farm, Department of
Farm Management, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore situated in the North-Western Agro-Climatic
Zone of Tamil Nadu at 11°N 76°57´E longitude and at
an altitude of 426.7 meters above MSL. The soil of the
field was sandy clay loam in texture, low in available
nitrogen (224 kg.ha-1), medium in available phosphorus
(13.5 kg.ha-1) and available potassium (250 kg.ha-
1). The rainfall during the cropping period is 558 mm,
which was received in 23 rainy days. The mean maxi-
mum temperature ranges from 28.5 to 32.4oC and the
mean minimum temperature ranges from 16.1 to
24.0oC. The experiment was designed in randomized
block design which was replicated thrice with seven
spacing treatments [T1: 60 x 15 cm (1,11,111 plants ha-
1), T2: 60 x 20 cm (83,333 plants ha-1), T3: 75 x 15 cm
(88,888 plants ha-1), T4: 75 x 20 cm (66,666 plants ha-
1), T5: 75 x 30 cm (44,444 plants ha-1), T6: 90 x 15 cm
(74074 plants ha-1), T7: 90 x 20cm(55,555 plants ha-1)].
The field was ploughed once with disc plough followed
by cultivator twice. Rotavator was used to break the
clods and then ridges and furrows were formed. The
crop was sown on August 23, 2017, by dibbling seeds
at a depth of 4 to 5 cm as per spacing in treat-
ments. Fertilizer dose of 100:50:50 kg NPK.ha-1 was
applied. The entire dose of phosphorus, 50 percent of N
and K was applied as band placement 5 cm away and 5
cm below the seed row as basal placement. The re-
maining ½ N and K were top-dressed at 40 - 45
DAS. Pre-emergence herbicide pendimethalin @ 1.0
kg.ha-1 was sprayed to prevent the growth of
weeds. Hand weeding was carried out at 40
DAS. First irrigation was given at the time of sowing to
ensure uniform germination and life irrigation was given
on the third day after sowing. The subsequent irriga-
tions were scheduled at 7-10 days intervals depending
upon the field moisture condition. The sucking pest
incidence was noticed during the cropping sea-
son. Initially, imidacloprid @ 2 ml per litre was
sprayed. At later stages, Acephate @ 4 ml per litre was
sprayed against whitefly incidence as and when re-
quired. Harvesting of kapas was commenced on 135
DAS and pickings were taken at weekly intervals. The
number of bolls on labelled plants from each plot was
noted at each picking and expressed per
plant. Harvested bolls from each treatment were
weighed and expressed in kg.ha-1 (Crop Production
Guide, 2012).
Data on different parameters viz., growth and yield
attributes were statistically analyzed as described by
Gomez and Gomez (1984). Wherever the results are
significant, critical differences were worked out at a five
percent level.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Data about the growth and yield attributes of the cotton
genotype TCH 1819 as influenced by the various
spacing treatments are presented in Table 1.
Growth attributes
Plant geometries influenced all crop traits viz., plant
height, Leaf Area Index (LAI), Crop Growth Rate
(CGR), root length, root dry weight, Chlorophyll index,
Dry Matter Production (DMP).
Plant height
Plant geometries showed no significant difference with
plant height at 30 DAS and thereafter, the difference in
plant height was observed for various spacing treat-
ments. The highest plant height was observed with a
narrow spacing of 60 x 15 cm. The maximum height
was because of the competition for solar radiation for
the photosynthetic process. This was in confirmation
with the results of Ram and Giri (2006), Singh et
al. (2007) and Munir et al. (2015). In that, the availabil-
ity of horizontal space for the individual cotton plant in
narrow rows reduced due to which intense interplant
competition for nutrient and light suppressed node
appearance and plants grew taller in respect of vertical
space.
Leaf area index (LAI)
Leaf area is the photosynthetic surface that plays an
important role in production. Leaf area index increased
gradually up to 90 DAS and reached a maximum of
4.35. The leaf area was higher in the narrow spacing
of 60 x 15 cm was due to increased plants per unit land
area. The increased LAI was due to more plants per
unit area: thereby, more leaves lead to more LAI. This
agreed with the findings of Udikeri and Shashidhara
(2017) that the total dry matter production of cotton and
supply of required photosynthates for the developing
132
Sowmiya, R. and Sakthivel, N. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 130 - 134 (2021)
bolls largely depends on leaf area and leaf area index.
Crop growth rate (CGR)
Crop growth rate indicates dry matter production. It is
used for the estimation of the production efficiency of
the crop. CGR recorded at a narrow spacing of
60 x 15 cm was significantly higher than other plant
densities adopted. The Crop Growth Rate (CGR) was
8.73 at 60-90 DAS at a higher plant density of 60 x 15
cm. A similar observation of higher CGR at the initial
stage at higher plant density was reported by Manju-
natha et al. (2010a).
Root length
The length of the root per unit volume of soil is an im-
portant parameter. The root length was measured with
minimal root disturbance. The genotype TCH 1819
showed significant differences in root length at all the
stages of crop growth. The longest root was observed
at a higher plant density (60 x 15 cm) over the rest of
the treatments. This is due to congestion of plant per unit
area which induced more vertical growth of the root.
Root dry weight
Plant geometries had an effect on root dry weight. In-
creased plant densities (60 x 15 cm) provided higher
root dry weight. This is due to competition among
plants for resources in higher densities, thus resulting
in higher nutrient uptake and, finally greater root dry
weight.
Root volume
The root volume was significantly influenced by plant
densities. The wider spacing of 90 x 20 cm recorded
the highest root volume, which may be due to more
space and less competition in the rhizosphere region.
Chlorophyll index
The effect of spacing on the chlorophyll index was sig-
nificant in all stages of the crop. The SPAD values
showed higher (49.68) at a narrow spacing of
60 x 15 cm. Chlorophyll maintenance and consequently
photosynthesis durability in stressful conditions are
among physiological indicators of stress resistance
(Zhang et al., 2006).
Dry matter production
Dry matter accumulation is the index of growth put
forth by crop. Higher dry matter production was ob-
served with the narrow spacing of
60 x 15 cm. Increased dry matter production in narrow
spacing may be due to more accumulation of dry mat-
ter in leaves, stem, and reproductive parts. Similar re-
sults were found by Darawsheh et al. (2007) that higher
dry matter production of cotton at narrow spacing may
be related to the better distribution of plant population Tre
atm
en
t s
pa
cin
g (
cm
) P
lan
t h
eig
ht
(cm
) L
ea
f a
rea
in
de
x (
LA
I)
Cro
p g
row
th
rate
(C
GR
) (g
/m2/d
ay)
Ro
ot
len
gth
(c
m)
Ro
ot
dry
w
eig
ht
(g/p
lan
t)
Ro
ot
vo
l-u
me
(cc
)
Dry
ma
tte
r p
ro-
du
cti
on
(D
MP
)
(kg
.ha
-1)
Ch
loro
ph
yll
In
de
x
No
. o
f b
oll
s/m
2
Se
ed
co
tto
n
yie
ld
(kg
.ha
-1)
T1 –
60
x 1
5
91
.60
3.6
1
8.7
3
28
.85
6.5
8
17
.03
61
50
49
.68
14
3
25
65
T2 –
60
x 2
0
82
.48
3.3
6
7.4
4
27
.00
5.8
9
14
.20
48
27
47
.86
12
0
22
98
T3 –
75
x 1
5
79
.58
3.4
7
7.0
0
28
.46
5.0
2
15
.00
50
05
45
.84
12
6
24
53
T4 –
75
x 2
0
74
.01
3.0
0
6.6
2
28
.82
4.9
2
15
.66
39
73
44
.67
10
8
21
12
T5 –
75
x 3
0
73
.36
2.6
7
6.7
5
24
.97
3.8
9
18
.04
31
62
40
.36
88
14
68
T6 –
90
x 1
5
70
.80
3.1
9
7.1
8
27
.49
5.6
8
18
.19
43
41
43
.43
11
2
21
84
T7 –
90
x 2
0
68
.56
2.9
0
5.4
5
26
.92
6.5
3
18
.58
35
60
41
.45
95
18
96
SE
d
3.5
3
0.2
3
0.2
6
1.3
7
0.7
12
1.5
5
30
3.2
3
2.5
1
5.2
3
75
.23
CD
(p=
0.0
5)
7.7
0
0.5
1
0.5
7
2.9
8
1.5
51
3.3
8
66
0.7
4
5.4
7
11
.39
16
3.9
3
Ta
ble
1.
Influ
en
ce o
f p
lant
geom
etr
y o
n g
row
th a
nd
yie
ld a
ttrib
ute
s o
f co
tto
n a
t 9
0 D
AS
an
d s
ee
d c
otto
n y
ield
(D
ata
is a
ve
rag
ed
fro
m 5
pla
nts
/tre
atm
en
t).
T1 –
60 x
15 c
m (
1,1
1,1
11 p
lants
.ha
-1);
T2 –
60 x
20 c
m (
83,3
33 p
lants
.ha
-1);
T3 –
75 x
15 c
m (
88,8
88 p
lants
.ha
-1);
T4 –
75 x
20 c
m (
66,6
66 p
lants
.ha
-1);
T5 –
75 x
30 c
m (
44,4
44 p
lants
.ha
-1);
T6 –
90 x
15 c
m (
74,0
74 p
lants
.ha
-1);
T7 –
55,5
55 p
lants
.ha
-1)
133
Sowmiya, R. and Sakthivel, N. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 130 - 134 (2021)
in the NR (Narrow Row) system, which may be more
effective to intercept the light.
Yield attributes
The yield attributing character viz., number of sympodi-
al branches per plant, number of bolls per plant was
positively influenced by the wider spacing of 75 x
30 cm while the seed cotton yield was highest (2565 kg
ha-1) in the narrow spacing of 60 x 15 cm followed
by 75 x 15 cm (2453 kg.ha-1).
Seed cotton yield
The ultimate seed cotton yield is the manifestation of
yield contribution characters. The seed cotton yield
was higher in the narrow spacing of 60 x 15 cm. Wider
spacing registered more bolls and yield per plant, but a
higher plant population compensated the yield per
plant in narrow spacing, though there were fewer bolls
and yield per plant. This is similar to the results of
Kalaichelvi (2008), Krishnaveni et al. (2010), Manju-
natha et al. (2010b), Brar et al. (2013), Kumar et al.
(2017) and Gunasekaran et al. (2020) who also worked
under a high-density planting system in cotton and re-
ported an increase in yield under closer spacing than in
wider spacing levels.
Economics
The gross monetary return (R 115425 ha-1), net mone-
tary return (R 65706 ha-1) and B: C (2.32) ratio was
highest with a narrow spacing of 60 x 15 cm followed
by 75 x 15 cm (2.25). The returns were higher in the
narrow spacing of 60 X 15 cm due to the higher plant
population per unit area. These results are in accord-
ance with the report of Meena et al. (2017) that maxi-
mum net return (R57553 ha-1) and B: C ratio (2.50) was
at 90 x 45 cm closer spacing over 90 x 60 cm spacing
(R45690 ha-1) and 90 x 90 cm (R40565 ha-1) wider
spacing.
Conclusion
The high-density planting system showed that the nar-
row spacing of 60 x 15 cm produced positively high
crop growth viz., maximum plant height (103.14 cm),
Leaf Area Index (LAI) (4.35), Dry Matter Production
(DMP) (8125 kg/ha), Crop Growth Rate (CGR) (6.58 g/
m2/day), root length (41.46 cm), root dry weight (14.94
g/plant), and chlorophyll index (48.24) and yield
(2565 kg.ha-1) with highest B: C ratio of 2.32 of the cot-
ton genotype TCH 1819. So, by adopting HDPS, the
yield per unit area can be maximized as well as profit.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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Trained neural network to predict paddy yield for various input
parameters in Tamil Nadu, India
G. Vanitha*
Department of Computer Science, School of Post Graduate Studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore - 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
J. S. Kennedy
Dean, School of Post Graduate Studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
- 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
R. Prabhu
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, School of Post Graduate Studies, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
S. K. Rajkishore
Department of Environmental Sciences, School of Post Graduate Studies, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2812 Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: May 30, 2021
Accepted: June 14, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is the backbone of the Indian economy.
Paddy crop rules the roost in it. The advancement in
technology has led to forecasting and predicting weath-
er conditions, resulting in an increase of yield. Various
input parameters like land use, soil PH, soil moisture,
fertilizers and pesticides used, the quantity of seed per
hectare, etc., play a vital role in predicting the crop
yield. Plenty of research and study has been carried out
using statistical techniques like regression model, agro-
meteorological models and statistical models for the
prediction of crop yield.
Nowadays, Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), a
technique in data mining, has been put into use in the
agricultural field for better decision making of
policymakers and agricultural scientists for providing
consultancy services to the farmers. Raorane and
Kulkarni (2012) developed innovative approaches to
predict the influence of different meteorological param-
eters on the crop yield using a decision tree induction
approach based on long term meteorological data.
Dahikar and Rode (2014) suggested the applicability of
neural network technology for forecasting crop diseas-
es. IACAT (2015) provided an outline of the work in
forecasting ANN, neural network modelling and general
Abstract
The major objective of the present study was to explore if Artificial Neural Network (ANN) models with back propagation could
efficiently predict the rice yield under various climatic conditions; ground-specific rainfall, ground-specific weather variables and
historic yield data. The back propagation algorithm will calculate each expected weight using the error rate as the activity level
of a unit was altered. The errors in the model during the training phase were solved during the back-propagation. The paddy
yield prediction took various parameters like rainfall, soil moisture, solar radiation, expected carbon, fertilizers, pesticides, and
the long-time paddy yield recorded using Artificial Neural Networks. The R2 value on the test set was found to be 93% and it
showed that the model was able to predict the paddy yield better for the given data set. The ANN model was tested with learn-
ing rates of 0.25 and 0.5. The number of hidden layers in the first layer was 50 and in the second hidden layer was 30. From
this, the testing value of R square was 0.97. The observations with the ANN Model showed that i) the best result for the test set
was R2 value of 0.98, ii) the two hidden layers kept with 50 neurons in the first layer and 30 neurons in the second one, iii) the
learning rate was of 0.25. With all these configurations, maximum yield is possible from the paddy crop.
Keywords: Artificial neural networks, Multilayer perceptron, Root mean square error
How to Cite
Vanitha, G. et al. (2021). Trained neural network to predict paddy yield for various input parameters in Tamil Nadu, India.
Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 13 (SI), 135 - 141. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2812
136
Vanitha, G. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 135 - 141 (2021)
model of the ANNs used for forecasting. According to
their study, ANNs were found to be superior to the
statistical models.
Kalpana et al. (2014) understood that statistical proce-
dures like regression, statistical image analysis, density
function and principal component analysis can be used
to get these findings after studying the relevant litera-
ture on ANNs. He has explained the learning algorithm
and has made a comparative analysis between statisti-
cal and neural network models in terms of terminology
representations and applications. Gandhi et al. (2016)
compared the concept of Multilayer Perceptron (MLP)
with the normal statistical techniques. The errors from
statistical techniques were comparatively higher than
those errors from the back-propagation algorithm of
MLP.
Dakshayini (2017) applied the ANN technique for pre-
dicting the severity affectation of anthracnose diseases
in legume crop. Artificial Neural Networks, being self-
adaptive, data driven can identify and learn correlated
patterns between input data sets and corresponding
target values through training. In fact, Artificial Neural
Network models have been developed for paddy data
for the past 20 years based on the advice of paddy ex-
perts working in the agricultural domain, and the pre-
sent study takes into account such development. The
paddy production depends on various input factors like
the quantity of seeds sown, rainfall, soil moisture, solar
radiation, expected carbon, fertilizers, pesticides, etc.
Hence, crop yield prediction (Barla et al., 2010; Chawla
et al., 2016) becomes a harder task. Here arises the
reliability of Artificial Neural Networks, which can handle
multi-variate nonlinear, non-parametric statistical ap-
proaches more efficiently. Artificial Neural Network
models are more effective and reliable as compared to
the other linear regression models for predicting the
paddy yield. The main aim of the present work is to
build an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) model with
back propagation that could efficiently predict the rice
yield under various climatic conditions; ground-specific
rainfall, ground-specific weather variables and historic
yield data.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Primary data collection
The data set covered the paddy yield in Tamil Nadu
district from the year 1990 to 2010 as shown in Table 1.
In this implementation, sixteen input parameters and
one output parameter were considered. Artificial Neural
Networks (ANN) using back propagation algorithm is
the most typical and widely-used model in all neural
network models. It is a computational tool that acts as a
biological neuron system with three layers (Li and Tian,
2003): Input layer, Hidden layer and Output layer. The
input layer accepts the input data given to the model
and the predicted value after computation will be pro-
duced in the output layer. The hidden layer, contains
perceptron which plays a major role in transferring the
input values into desired output. A certain weightage is
applied to each perceptron and it is adjusted to get
nearer to the desired output value. Data flow across the
layers over the weighted connections. This unidirection-
al neural network is also known as Feed Forward Neu-
ral Network. The Artificial Network Network (ANN) was
used to train and test the dataset available after pre-
processing.
Back-propagation is just a way of propagating the total
loss back into the neural network to know how much of
the loss every node is responsible for and subsequently
updating the weights to minimise the loss by giving the
loss nodes with higher error rates lower weights and
vice versa. (Davey, 2011 and Deshpande and Karypis,
2004).
The errors in the model during the training phase are
solved during the back-propagation. The back-
propagation algorithm is advantageous because the
hidden units have no target values since the input units
are trained using the errors of the previous layers. The
training phase will continue to work until the errors in
the weights are getting reduced and minimized (Lilley,
2007; Dermo, 2009 and Dubey, 2011).
Artificial neural network model development
The dataset consisting of 100 records were collected.
The first step was to pre-process them by removing
duplicate, unpredictable and misplaced values. This
data pre-processing (Dakshayini, 2017) was again di-
vided into training set, validation set and test set. For
this dataset 75 records were reserved as training set,
15 records were occupied as validation set and the
enduring 10 records were tested as test set. The train-
ing set was used to train the network until the maximum
value of R2 was grasped. The validation set was used
to generalize the network. The test set was finally used
to measure the performance of the network for uniden-
tified values in the dataset.
The flow diagram (Fig.1) shows the complete steps
involved in the prediction process. The input parame-
ters included soil parameters, crop data from the initial
stage. The pre-processing of data was done in order to
reduce the anomalies and duplicate entries. Nearly,
75% of data were taken as Training dataset, 15% for
Validation dataset and remaining 10% as Test dataset.
After all the training, test and validation part was com-
pleted, finally the prediction was carried out.
The proposed algorithm involved is shown in the follow-
ing steps:
Step 1: Pre-processed the data set of 100 records by
removing redundant and missing values.
Step 2: Divided the data set into 75% training set (75
records), 15% as the validation set and the remaining
137
Vanitha, G. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 135 - 141 (2021)
10% as a test set.
Step 3: Used Levenberg Marquardt algorithm for train-
ing the data set.
Step 4: Used log sig transfer function for hidden layers
and purelin transfer functions for output layer.
Step 5: The feed forward back-propagation network
was developed by varying the following conditions:
Number of hidden layers from 1 to 2
Number of neurons in hidden layers from 20 to 100
Learning rates as 0.25 and 0.5
Choose the network weights as random
Step 6: Repeated step 5 until the neural network model
with the increased test accuracy and lower error predic-
tion is obtained.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Fig. 2 shows the statistic value R2, used as the meas-
ure of accuracy, which was calculated using Equation 1
(Kalpana, R., 2014):
R2 = 1 – (n-1/n-p) (SSE/SST) ………. (1)
where,
SSE is the sum of squared error, SSR was the sum of
squared regression, SST was the sum squared total, n
was the number of observations and p was the number
of regression coefficients. The error was computed us-
ing Equation 2 (Kalpana, R., 2014):
Error = (|A – B|/|A|) x 100 …... (2)
where A is the actual yield and B is the predicted yield
obtained from the prediction model. The lower the val-
Fig. 1. Flow diagram of the ANN model.
Se
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138
Vanitha, G. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 135 - 141 (2021)
ANN results for 2 hidden layers and LR = 0.25
No. of neurons in 1st layer No. of neurons in 2nd layer
Training (R2) Validation (R2) Testing (R2)
20 20 0.99 0.69 0.62
30 0.99 0.69 0.80
40 0.1 0.83 0.95
50 0.99 0.86 0.80
60 0.1 0.67 0.43
70 0.1 0.83 0.55
80 0.89 0.72 0.38
90 0.89 0.95 0.65
100 0.1 0.36 0.46
30
20 0.99 0.64 0.89
30 0.97 0.52 0.79
40 0.1 0.02 0.64
50 0.99 0.48 0.79
60 0.89 0.66 0.89
70 0.94 0.47 0.58
80 0.1 0.90 0.56
90 0.93 0.72 0.50
100 0.99 0.90 0.56
40
20 0.99 0.90 0.56
30 0.1 0.79 0.85
40 0.99 0.65 0.85
50 0.99 0.87 0.95
60 0.1 0.90 0.56
70 0.99 0.72 0.50
80 0.87 0.90 0.56
90 0.1 0.65 0.85
100 0.99 0.87 0.95
50
20 0.99 0.99 0.90
30 0.91 0.65 0.56
40 0.1 0.52 0.79
50 0.59 0.02 0.64
60 0.1 0.48 0.79
70 0.98 0.66 0.89
80 0.99 0.47 0.58
90 0.99 0.56 0.82
100 0.99 0.14 0.17
Table 2. ANN results for 2 hidden layers and LR = 0.25.
139
Vanitha, G. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 135 - 141 (2021)
ANN results for 2 hidden layers and LR = 0.5
No. of neurons in 1st layer
No. of neurons in 2nd layer
Training (R2) Validation (R2) Testing (R2)
20 20 0.86 0.95 0.76
30 0.94 0.79 0.93
40 0.83 0.68 0.79
50 0.1 0.87 0.75
60 0.99 0.82 0.56
70 0.1 0.35 0.84
80 0.1 0.32 0.46
90 0.99 0.82 0.60
100 0.99 0.08 0.45
30
20 0.95 0.82 0.77
30 0.79 0.23 0.18
40 0.98 0.83 0.80
50 0.99 0.92 0.80
60 0.79 0.85 0.81
70 0.1 0.73 0.65
80 0.73 0.69 0.49
90 0.1 0.85 0.79
100 0.98 0.73 0.56
40
20 0.99 0.42 0.84
30 0.99 0.74 0.76
40 0.99 0.75 0.94
50 0.86 0.95 0.88
60 0.1 0.76 0.59
70 0.89 0.82 0.60
80 0.99 0.08 0.45
90 0.95 0.82 0.77
100 0.79 0.23 0.18
50
20 0.99 0.14 0.85
30 0.97 0.90 0.65
40 0.97 0.17 0.64
50 0.99 0.10 0.16
60 0.83 0.68 0.79
70 0.1 0.87 0.75
80 0.99 0.82 0.56
90 0.76 0.95 0.38
100 0.97 0.43 0.91
Table 3. ANN results for 2 hidden layers and LR = 0.5.
140
Vanitha, G. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 135 - 141 (2021)
ue of error, the lesser is the predictive accuracy of the
model.
Table 2 shows the results for two hidden layers with
Learning Rate (LR) = 0.25. The number of neurons in
the first hidden layer was kept fixed as 30 for the first
time. Then, the neurons in the second hidden layer
were kept varying from twenty to a hundred. This mod-
el was repeated for 20, 30, 40 and 50 neurons in the
first hidden layer and varied the number of neurons
from 20-100 in the second hidden layer.
The results in Table 3 show the result for two hidden
layers with a learning rate LR = 0.5. The best result
was obtained when the number of neurons in the first
hidden layer was fixed as 20 and the second hidden
layer was fixed as 30 with a testing R2 statistic value of
0.93.
The number of neurons varied from 20-100 within each
hidden layer. The Artificial Neural Network model was
tested with learning rates of 0.25 and 0.5. The best
result was obtained when the number of hidden layers
in the first hidden layer was set as 50 and the second
hidden layer was 20 with a testing R2 statistic value of
0.96.
Finally, it was observed that the ANN model with the
following configurations gave the best result of 0.97 (R2
statistic value) for the test set:
Two hidden layers with 50 number of neurons in the
first layer and 20 number of neurons in the second lay-
er were the best value fixed.
Learning rate with 0.25 value gave the optimised result.
The back-propagation ANN model used is more advan-
tageous than the other forecasting models since the
hidden units have no target values and the error rate is
very low. But the time series analysis model does not
give a precise outcome (Mariappan and Austin, 2017).
But, in nonlinear FFBN and linear PLSR models for rice
prediction, the climate data was omitted and hence the
reliability and accuracy of the model is a major draw-
back of this model. (Hossain et al., 2017) . In another
model using Support Vector machine, the process was
based on image analysis results that are not accurate
as soil conditions are not considered (M.Shashi 2019).
To overcome all the above models, back-propagation
algorithm using ANN model gives the best result.
In this work, paddy yield prediction had taken into
account all the parameters like rainfall, soil moisture,
solar radiation, expected carbon, fertilizers, pesticides
and the long-time paddy yield records using Artificial
Neural Networks. The R2 value on the test set was
found to be 93% and it showed that the model was able
to predict the paddy yield better for the given data set.
The future work may be extended to other crops in vari-
ous districts based on the same model.
Conclusion
The prediction of crop yield plays a vital role in the agri-
cultural field. In this regard, paddy was taken into ac-
count and the yield was predicted based on the input
parameters like climate, soil nutrients, fertilizers, pesti-
cides, seed varieties, etc. The result found the
R2 value of 93% with the model developed. The out-
come of this research work may help the agricultural
officers to predict crop conditions for improving paddy
yield. In future, a generalized prediction model for vari-
ous crops by taking into account various parameters
can be developed to reach the ultimate object for the
maximum yield of every crop with no negative influ-
ences on it.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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Runoff assessment by Storm water management model (SWMM)- A new
approach
Vidya K. N.
Department of Soil and Water Conservation Engineering, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore - 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2813
Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: May 30, 2021
Accepted: June 14, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
The watershed, a geographically dynamic unit that con-
tributes runoff to a common outlet. It has been recog-
nised as a fundamental unit for planning and imple-
menting defensive, curative, and ameliorative pro-
grammes. Successful management requires a thorough
understanding of a watershed's hydrological behaviour.
The watershed management planning focuses on flood
control strategies in the catchment/watershed region.
The two most critical hydrologic responses to rainfall
events that occur across drainage systems are surface
runoff and sediment losses. Rainfall-generated runoff is
crucial in a number of water supply planning and man-
agement practises, including flood control and its man-
agement, Irrigation scheduling, Design of irrigation and
drainage network, hydro power generation etc. There
are a variety of software programmes that can model
urban flooding. The first computerised models of urban
storm drainage were created in the late 1960s, and
various models have been used since then (Zoppou,
2001; Mitchell, 2001). Design models, flow prediction
models, and planning models are the three types of
models (Rangari et al., 2016, Hunter et al., 2007). Mod-
elling of urban floods became simpler with the imple-
mentation of Graphical User Interface (GUI) software
such as SWMM, HEC-HMS, HEC-RAS, MIKE FLOOD,
and others.
The SWMM achieves catchment responses to peak
flow and runoff volume, which are the most essential
catchment responses in urban drainage planning
(Shaik and Agrawal, 2019). This software produced
readily understandable outputs. GIS tools such as
ArcGIS, QGIS, and others have made the process of
collecting data for direct input into the model much eas-
ier (Hashemyan et al., 2015). When evidence is
sparse, the availability of DEM allows for a more com-
prehensive simplification of reality in simulations. Using
Abstract
The present study investigated the storm wise runoff collected in farm pond with the runoff estimated by Storm Water Manage-
ment Model (SWMM) and Soil Conservation Service (SCS-CN) models. The SWMM and SCS-CN models estimated runoff
depth storm wise. The runoff depths correspond to the catchment area given the runoff volume from the catchment. The runoff
depth estimated from the Storm Water Management Model and Soil Conservation Service model was compared against the
depth of runoff estimated from the Water balance model. For small rainfall depths, the runoff estimated from the Storm Water
Management Model was at par with the actual runoff volume stored at the pond. It is necessary to know the watershed runoff
contribution to the river or streams due to rainfall in order to determine environmental risk or flood potential. In larger rainfall
depth, the runoff volume estimated from the SWMM model was less than the stored runoff volume at Farm Pond. The Soil
Conservation Service Model gave better results for larger rainfall depth compared to Storm Water Management Model. SWMM
was able to simulate runoff depth for small rainfall depths of 2mm. The peak runoff depths were produced by rainfall depths of
35.5mm. Initial abstractions of the study area for antecedent moisture content i.e. AMC I, AMCII and AMCIII are 53.2, 23.91
and 10.43mm, respectively. The comparison showed that both SWMM and SCS-CN models gave better runoff quantification
results.
Keywords: Dynamic model, SCS-CN, SWMM, Runoff, Watershed
How to Cite
Vidya, K. N. (2021). Runoff assessment by Storm water management model (SWMM)- A new approach. Journal of Applied and
Natural Science, 13 (SI), 142 - 148. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2813
143
Vidya, K. N. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), ……. (2021)
experimental techniques, scientists performed a scien-
tific review and assessment to quantitatively research
and forecast precipitation runoff and proposed a model
for estimating runoff and evaluating possible runoff pro-
duction sites in the research area. Because of its accu-
racy and performance, the SCS-CN experimental ap-
proach was used. By preparing CN, the runoff produc-
tion potential of the region was determined (Panahi,
2013). Morphometric characteristics for each catchment
was manually determined using topographic maps and
then automatically determined using a pre-processed
DEM based on SRTM data and GIS scripting capability.
An updated SCS dimensionless unit hydrograph was
used to model the transition of excess rainfall into a
direct runoff, and flow rates obtained by automatic
methods were marginally higher than those obtained
manually. The findings demonstrated that the accuracy
of real runoff prediction is heavily dependent on the
consistency of input data (soil, land usage, rainfall, etc.)
and that there are only small variations as opposed to
the time and energy saved by automated techniques
(Zlatanovic and Gavric, 2013). Rainfall runoff and an-
thropogenic activity measurement was done in an ur-
ban watershed using SWMM. In densely urbanised
catchments, the most significant variables in the study
area are land use and land cover (Patil and Chaudhary,
2014). Flood modelling is primarily used to investigate
all facets of flood in the urban environment, including
the effects of heavy rainfall on the drainage of urban
sub-catchments and the different socio-economic as-
pects of the flood ( Rangari et al., 2018). It was using
the US EPA's Storm Water Management Model in a
metropolitan setting using an RS and GIS-based solu-
tion. At 1:10,000 scales, the Cartosat-1 PAN+IRS-P6
LISS-IV merged product was used to map land cover in
parts of the Surat district. The DEM of the study region
was powered by a Cartosat stereo pair. The average
runoff coefficient on the urbanised subcatchment areas
directly connected to the drainage network was 0.92,
compared to 0.88 on those urbanised sub-catchment
areas lacking direct access to stormwater drainage,
according to a dynamic rainfall-runoff simulation based
on three days of rainfall (Gambi et al., 2011). The cur-
rent research focused on estimating runoff using the
Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) and the Soil
Conservation Service Curve Number Model to address
the above problem. The study is unique in that it evalu-
ates the SWMM for agricultural watersheds.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was carried out at the Agriculture Engineer-
ing College and Research Institute in Kumulur, which is
near Pallapuram village in the Trichy district of Tamil
Nadu. Kumulur campus covered an area of 280 acres.
Kumulur has latitude, longitude and altitude are 10055’
29.34”N and 78049’35.61”E, respectively, and is 70
metres above mean sea level. This area's average an-
nual rainfall was 857.09 mm. For the runoff calculation
analysis, a farm pond near the campus's main gate was
used. Real runoff obtained at a farm pond was opposed
to the projected runoff volume. Farm pond was situated
at 10093’9” N and 78082’49”E. (Fig.1).
Estimation of runoff by Storm water management
model (SWMM)
To estimate surface runoff generated by rainfall over a
sub-catchment, SWMM was used it is a nonlinear res-
ervoir model. A sub-catchment was modelled as a rec-
tangular surface with a uniform slope (S) and width (W)
that drains to a single outlet channel in the model. The
sub-catchment was modelled as a nonlinear reservoir
to produce overland flow. The parameters obtained and
calculated for the catchment area were controlled by
SWMM's numerical methods, which use mass, energy,
and momentum conservation concepts to explain rain-
fall-runoff processes. Net change in depth (d) per unit
of time (t) is essentially the difference between inflow
and outflow rates across the sub-catchment, based on
mass conservation:
where,
i, rate of rainfall + snowmelt, m/s
e, surface evaporation rate, m/s
f, infiltration rate, m/s
q, runoff rate, m/s
Estimation of runoff by Curve number model (CN)
The SCS-CN formula calculated the storm-wise direct
runoff (depth) or rainfall excess. This approach was
dependent on the watershed's potential optimum reten-
tion (S), which was determined by the watershed's wet-
ness, i.e. antecedent moisture content (AMC), and
physical characteristics.
where,
Q is runoff depth, mm.
P is daily rainfall, mm.
S is potential maximum retention of soil, mm.
Ia is initial abstraction, mm
Ia is related to S for different soil types, Ia= 0.2S,
The curve number for various land uses in a catchment
was used to calculate the soil's overall possible reten-
tion. If ‘S' has units of mm, the following equation was
used to connect CN and S.
144
Vidya, K. N. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), ……. (2021)
Soil infiltration rates differ greatly and are influenced by
both subsurface permeability and surface infiltration
rates. Based on the minimum infiltration rate obtained
for bare soil after extended wetting, soil in the study
region was categorised into four Hydrologic Soil
Groups: HSGs A, B, C, and D. The hydrologic soil
group was used to calculate the curve number for each
ground cover. The research area's soil texture was
sandy loam. The new research field was designated as
hydrologic soil group A. (HSG-A). The curve number
corresponds to HSG-A was referred from USGS guide-
lines (Table 1).
The wetness index of soil was specified as antecedent
moisture content (AMC). The AMC was calculated us-
ing rainfall levels from the previous five days. Table 2
lists the AMC parameters.
The curve number ranges from zero for the most per-
meable or entirely saturated surface to 100 for an im-
pervious (Concrete) surface. However, Table 3 displays
the curve number values for various land use condi-
tions and hydrologic soil classes. These values were
only used for the antecedent moisture content (AMC)
II, or average condition. Other AMCs' CN values were
determined using the correction factors (i.e. I & III).
After estimating the runoff depth (Q), the volume (m3)
of the specific event can be determined using the given
equation. The following equation is used to approxi-
mate the amount of runoff harvested.
where,
Q, Runoff depth, mm
Ac, Catchment area, m2
Estimation runoff by water balance method
The catchment was chosen because it was near a
Farm pond. The catchment's runoff was stored at the
Farm Pond, which was established downstream of the
catchment for each rainfall occurrence. During the
study period, the water levels of the Farm Pond were
measured daily and the pond water level was regis-
tered. For a water balance simulation analysis to meas-
ure inflow (runoff) to the reservoir, evaporation data
from the study region is obtained for the entire study
Fig. 1. Map showing study area of Kumulur campus, near Pallapuram village in the Trichy district of Tamil Nadu.
145
Vidya, K. N. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), ……. (2021)
duration. During the study time, the maximum water
level observed in the pond was 1.21m, with a volume
of water deposited of 831 m3. Throughout the research
period (29 October 2015 - 11 December 2015), the
water levels of Farm Pond were continuously tracked.
The Farm Pond was shaped like a trapezoid. For Farm
Pond, a depth-volume relationship was established in
order to approximate the volume of runoff obtained at
various water depths. Rainfall and evaporation were
measured on a regular basis. In order to model water-
shed runoff, which was inflow into Farm Pond, the wa-
ter balance model was used to approximate it.
where,
St, storage for time t, m3.
St-1, storage for time t-1, m3.
Qt, inflow, m3.
Pt, precipitation onto reservoir (rainfall depth* Pond
surface area), m3.
It, irrigation amount, m3.
Dt, flood control discharge, m3.
Lt, other losses, m3
Et, pond evaporation (evaporation depth*surface area
of pond), m3
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Estimation of runoff by SWMM
SWMM was a distributed model, which ensures that a
research area can be subdivided into as many uneven
sub catchments as required to better capture how to-
pography, drainage pathways, land cover, and soil
characteristics influence runoff generation. The chosen
study area has a basic geometry, and physical catch-
ment parameters were calculated in the region. The
research field is depicted in Fig.1. According to land
use, the catchment area is divided into three sub-
catchments, S1, S2, and S3. S1 is bare earth
(playground), S2 is an orchard, and S3 is farmland.
The geometrical structure and topography state of
each sub catchment are closely related to the physical
parameter described. The field survey is used to esti-
mate all physical parameters in this analysis. Rangari
et al. (2018) divided the study area into nine sub basins
by considering the drainage line. The same methodolo-
gy has followed in the current study. In the present
study research area's land use and land, cover trend is
obtained from a 30 m Cartosat DEM. To describe the
runoff from each sub catchment, the area of each sub
basin is estimated and input into the storm water man-
agement model (SWMM). Changes in land cover form,
the advance of peak runoff time, and rise in peak flow
and overall runoff are all problems that the convention-
al planning model would cause. As seen in Fig. 2, after
the planned holistic implementation of urban water eco-
system landscape storm water management system,
peak flow and cumulative runoff would revert to pre-
development levels or even slow down peak rainfall.
The results obtained had a similar trend with Shaik and
Agrawal ( 2019). Because of the influence of storage
sources and the outlet reservoir at the start of rains, the
expected runoff hydrograph is close to zero. In general,
maximising the combination of permeable (vegetation
and porous) and impermeable (road, roof, and street)
surfaces to maximise the amount of infiltrated water is
one aspect of the assessment and application of land-
scape rainwater systems to establish a natural hydro-
logical context. In terms of slope, the porosity, surface
cover, rain penetration conditions to permeable areas
should be given in such a way that permeable surfaces
are placed in the flow path and have a high potential to
maintain and percolate. Water collection and release
mechanisms limit runoff rate and temporary storage, as
well as the hydrograph's peak discharge. This arrange-
ment, a typical example of a pool, is a good way to
steer and regulate water. Runoff storage was focused
on the efficient utilisation of rainwater supplies and run-
off prevention to reduce peak flow.
Estimation of runoff by SCS-CN model
The SCS-CN approach was used to calculate runoff
depth using curve number (CN) values related to Land
Use and soil data to determine CN values for the water-
shed that took into account the amount of infiltration
rates of soils. United States Department of Agriculture
Technical Release 55 (1986) provided the CN values
Hydrological soil group
(HSG) Soil texture
A Sand, loamy sand, or
sandy loam
B Silt loam or loam
C Sandy clay loam
D Clay loam, silty clay loam,
sandy clay
Source: (United States Department of AgricultureTechnical
Release 55,1986)
Table 1. Hydrological soil group according to the texture of
the soil.
AMC Group
Total 5-day antecedent rainfall
(mm)
Dormant
season
Growing
season
I <12.7 <35.6
II 12.7-27.9 35.6-53.3
III >27.9 >53.3
Table 2. Seasonal rainfall limits to determine antecedent
moisture condition.
Source: (United States Department of Agriculture, Technical
Release 55,1986)
146
Vidya, K. N. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), ……. (2021)
for both forms of land uses and hydrologic soil classes.
Soils were divided into hydrologic soil classes in this
regard (HSGs). The HSGs were divided into four cate-
gories: A, B, C, and D, with A and D representing the
highest and lowest infiltration rates, respectively. Table
3 shows the curve number for each Land Use and hy-
drologic soil region.
Estimation of runoff by SCS-CN model
The SCS-CN approach was used to calculate runoff
depth using curve number (CN) values related to Land
Use and soil data to determine CN values for the wa-
tershed that took into account the amount of infiltration
rates of soils. United States Department of Agriculture
Technical Release 55 (1986) provided the CN values
for both forms of land uses and hydrologic soil classes.
Soils were divided into hydrologic soil classes in this
regard (HSGs). The HSGs were divided into four cate-
gories: A, B, C, and D, with A and D representing the
highest and lowest infiltration rates, respectively. Table
3 shows the curve number for each Land Use and hy-
drologic soil region.
The SCS-CN model provided no runoff for smaller
rainfall depths. The runoff depth caused by the rainfall
depth of 35.5 mm was seen in the graph as the peak
runoff depth. The research area was initially abstracted
at 53.2, 23.91, and 10.43mm for AMC I, AMCII, and
AMCIII. The initial abstraction was not filled due to in-
adequate rainfall depths.
Comparison SWMM, SCS-CN model and Water
balance model
The observed runoff calculated at the Farm Pond was
equivalent to the runoff estimated using the SCS-CN
model and SWMM. Everyday water balance simulation
tool was used to measure the observed runoff.
Fig. 2. Runoff estimated from Storm water management model (SWMM).
Fig. 3. Runoff estimated from soil conservation service –Curve number model.
147
Vidya, K. N. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), ……. (2021)
Fig. 4 compares the predicted runoff depth from the
SCS-CN model and SWMM to the observed runoff. It
was discovered that the SWMM's runoff depth was
comparable to the actual runoff measured. The volume
of actual runoff obtained at Farm Pond exceeded the
volume predicted by two separate models. Only for
higher rainfall depths does the SCS-CN model yield
runoff depth. In the study area, the SCS-CN model re-
vealed a considerable depth of initial abstraction. The
minimal rainfall occurrences were not enough to make
up for the initial abstraction losses. The SWMM was a
computer-driven simulation model that measured runoff
based on depression storage and infiltration capability.
The SCS-CN Model calculated runoff based on ante-
cedent moisture conditions and the soil's possible opti-
mum retention. For limited rainfall depths of 2mm,
SWMM will simulate runoff depth. The depth of the sim-
ulated runoff from SWMM matched the actual runoff
obtained at the pond. For the research region run off
quantification, the SWMM and SCS-CN models per-
formed better.
Conclusion
The highest water level recorded in the pond during the
study period (29 October 2015 - 11 December 2015) is
1.21m and the corresponding volume of water stored
was at pond 831 m3. The actual runoff depth generated
from the catchment collected at the pond was com-
pared with runoff depth estimated by SWMM and SCS-
CN model. The SWMM performed well in both low
and high rainfall conditions. Finding these differ-
ences from the model made this work unique. Differ-
entiating the computer model from the conceptual
model with its drawbacks helps to improve model
performance. The following conclusion can be made
from the study :
Runoff depth was sensitive to changes in the input
parameters of percentage impervious area, the width
of the catchment and depression storage. This sug-
gests that a slight change in any of these input pa-
rameters will significantly change the simulated run-
off depth.
Application of SWMM for predicting storm runoff quanti-
ty was improved by taking into account the catchment’'s
antecedent moisture condition and the impervious
depression storage value.
The SCS-CN model showed better results at high
rainfall depth. At lower rainfall, the depth model was not
resulting runoff due to consideration of initial
abstraction.
Conflict of interest The author declares that she has no conflict of interest.
Fig. 4. Comparison of runoff volume estimated from SCS-CN model, Water balance method and storm water
management.
Land cover AMC II Area(ha)
Bare soil 77 3.6
Orchard 57 3.0
Agriculture land 72 0.75
Weighed CN 68
Table 3. Curve number for different land cover in the
catchment.
148
Vidya, K. N. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), ……. (2021)
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Synthesis of iron chelates for remediation of iron deficiency in an
alkaline and calcareous soil
Murali Subramani*
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore - 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
Jawahar Durairaj
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore - 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
Chitdeshwari Thiyagarajan
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore - 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
Jagadesh Muthumani
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore - 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2818
Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: May 30, 2021
Accepted: June 14, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
Iron deficiency is a typical issue for some plants devel-
oped in alkaline and calcareous soils, causing the indi-
cation known as iron chlorosis. Fe deficiency (FD) often
occurs in alkaline soils. Fe becomes insoluble and im-
mobile, leading to lesser root uptake from soil due to
high soil pH; an excessive amount of calcium car-
bonate, nitrate, and heavy metals; poor aeration; unbal-
anced cation ratios; and temperature changes
(Kobayashi et al., 2014). The use of iron chelates
solves the problem of iron deficiency in alkaline and
calcareous soils. Iron is a catalyst in the production of
chlorophyll and is involved in several plant enzyme
systems. The uptake form of iron is Fe++ cation. Iron
deficiency symptoms show interveinal chlorosis, i.e.
yellow to white leaf color in which veins remain green.
The appearance of deficiency symptom on younger
leaves develops, which remain nearer to the plant top
(Schulte and Kelling, 2004).
Natural amino acids are very small molecules that che-
late with micronutrients are quickly absorbed, translo-
cated and metabolized by plants. The merits of amino
acid chelates are that the amino acid ligand frame and
defend the micronutrients from adverse relations usual-
ly take place in soil solution, in the presence of soil or
Abstract
The present study was aimed to investigate the using iron chelates viz., ferrous glycinate and ferrous citrate for the remediation
of iron deficiency in alkaline and calcareous soil. The lab experiment was carried out to study the synthesis of Fe chelates by
using organic and amino acid based chelating agents. The Fe chelates were synthesized based on 2:1 molar ratio of chelating
agents and metal ions. The synthesized iron chelate was characterized by using Fourier transform infrared spectrophotometer
(FT-IR). Finally, the synthesized amino acid and organic acid chelated iron were used to remediate the calcareous soil with
black gram as a test crop. Iron content in black gram (above ground mass) tented to fluctuate at different growth stages. The
highest shoot iron content of 325, 351 and 347 mg kg-1 at vegetative, flowering and harvest stages were recorded with 1% fer-
rous glycinate as foliar spraying on 25 and 45 Day after sowing (DAS). The root iron content was also higher in 1% ferrous
glycinate as foliar spraying on 25 and 45 DAS. The current investigation affirmed that the utilizing different chelating agents like
the ferrous glycinate were powerful than ferrous sulfate, which may build the iron substance and iron take-up of blackgram in
various development stages.
Keywords: Black gram, Calcareous soil, Ferrous glycinate, Iron uptake
How to Cite
Subramani, M. et al. (2021). Synthesis of iron chelates for remediation of iron deficiency in an alkaline and calcareous soil.
Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 13 (SI), 149 - 155. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2818
150
Subramani, M. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 149 - 155 (2021)
on leaf surfaces (Schaffer et al., 2011). Various exami-
nations have demonstrated that the likely limit of iron
compounds to address iron lacks in plants developed in
alkaline and calcareous soils relies upon two
fundamental features (Chaney and Bell, 1987) viz. (i)
the limit of iron compounds to keep up solvent iron in
soil arrangement and (ii) the limit of plant roots to
absorb the iron from the iron compounds present in soil
solution.
Definitely the two components are validly identified with
the solvency and steadiness of the iron compounds in
soil solution. When the plant ability to acclimatize iron
from the iron compound has been shown under hydro-
ponic conditions, a potential method to assess the pos-
sible viability of the iron compound under soil conditions
is study the variety in grouping of the total iron and the
iron compound in soil solution after some time
(Josemaría et al., 2003). In spite of the fact that foliar
application is by all accounts compelling in taking care
of issues of micronutrients, notwithstanding, leaf fertiliz-
er with an inorganic mineral structure scarcely diffuses
from leaf surface into the plant due to high weight mo-
lecular structure (El-Seginy et al., 2003).
Amino acids are tolerably hard chelating agents. When
they enter inside the plant, the mineral is discharged
and the plant utilizes leftover amino acids that shaped
the defensive shell as a wellspring of water-solvent ni-
trogen. Amino acids are building blocks in cell appa-
ratus. Everything is utilized and nothing is lost. Then
again, EDTA is a synthetic particle, and plants do not
normally utilize EDTA. Amino acid chelates are com-
monly fundamental in the plant, meaning they move
and travel to where they are required. They can do this
since the plant perceives amino acids as building
squares and are utilized in almost every tissue in the
plant. Amino acid chelates are accessible as fluids or
powders and, by and large accessible for use in natural
food creation. Glycine chelates (otherwise called
glycinates) are a subset of amino acid chelates. It is the
minutest amino acid and it is frequently utilized as a
chelating agent. Since glycine is little, it makes a little
last item that goes through leaf stomata more effective-
ly than other bigger molecules, in this way upgrading
plant take-up. At the point when glycine is isolated from
the mineral in the plant, the plant utilizes glycine. As
amino acid chelates effectively enter the plant, they are
amazingly valuable for rectifying supplement inadequa-
cies rapidly. The amino acid chelates do not cause a
burning impact in plants; then again, EDTA - metal che-
lates are phytotoxic or show consumption of plant tis-
sues when appropriate consideration is not taken (Datir
et al., 2010).
Foliar application is credited with the advantage of
quick and efficient utilization of nutrients, elimination of
losses through leaching and fixation, besides helping in
regulating the uptake of nutrient by plants (Manonmani
and Srimathi, 2009). Foliar application of nutrients us-
ing water-soluble fertilizer is one of the possible ways
to enhance the productivity of pulses like green gram
and black gram. Hence the present study was pro-
posed to develop iron chelates to increase the iron use
efficiency and to evaluate its effect on crop yield in cal-
careous soil.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Laboratory experiment
The laboratory experiment was carried out to study
the synthesis of Fe chelates by using organic and
amino acid based chelating agents. The synthesized
iron chelate was characterized.
Synthesis of iron chelates
1,000 grams of water was boiled for 30 minutes to re-
move dissolved air. 170 grams of ferrous sulfate mono-
hydrate was dissolved in 500 ml of the deaerated water
and the solution was maintained at 80° C and 30 grams
of citric acid was mixed to it (Fig. 1). Separately 150
grams of glycine was dissolved in 500m of deaerated
water and the acid solution was added to the ferrous
sulfate solution with stirring. The temperature of the
mixture was maintained at about 80° C. The mixture
was filtered to remove any undissolved materials. The
metal amino acid citrate was dried at about less than
about 110°C and the dry material was ground to a fine
powder. (Hsu, 1995)
Chelate analysis
The analysis was carried out in Fourier transform infra-
red spectrophotometer (FT-IR) 6800 (Jasco, Japan)
equipped with ATR PRO ONE accessory and TGS de-
tector. Registration was carried out in the region 400 –
4000 cm-1 (resolution 4 cm-1 with a number of scanes
40). The report was then processed using origin ® 8.0
software and interpreted.
Schrodinger maestro suite
The software used for the research work is Schrodinger
maestro suite v. 2015-16. It is a collection of tools and
interfaces that are designed to assist calculations which
are significant to biological molecules. The maestro
interface organizes access to the interactive tools for
use in biological projects. Maestro helps in the basic
structure manipulation, demonstration and organization
characteristics of the interface and is an integrated in-
terface for all the Schrodinger software.
Characterization of structure
The molecular models of ferrous glycinate and ferrous
citrate were generated initially using ACD chemsketch.
The 3D optimization was performed and the 3D atomic
coordinates were collected. The modules were further
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Subramani, M. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 149 - 155 (2021)
visualized and analysed using Schrodinger’s maestro
interface.
Pot culture experiment
The pot culture experiment was conducted on black
gram (Vigna mungo. L) at Tamil Nadu Agricultural Uni-
versity, Coimbatore to find out the effect of amino acid
and organic acid chelated iron on growth and productiv-
ity of black gram in iron-deficient calcareous soil with
nine treatments involving T1 - NPK control, T2 – FeSO4
25 kg ha-1 as a basal soil application, T3 - Ferrous
glycinate chelate @ 5 kg ha-1, T4 - Ferrous citrate che-
late @ 5 kg ha-1, T5 - Fe – EDTA chelate @ 5 kg ha-1,
T6 - 1% FeSO4 as foliar spraying on 25 & 45 DAS, T7 -
1% Ferrous glycinate as foliar spray on 25 & 45 DAS,
T8 - 1% Ferrous citrate as foliar spraying on 25 and 45
DAS, and T9 – 1% Fe – EDTA as foliar spray on 25
and 45 DAS was planned in potted plants with three
replicates. The plant analysis of iron content was car-
ried out with the help of atomic absorption spectropho-
tometer.
Statistical analysis
The data obtained from the experiments was analysed
statistically to find out the effects of various treatments
and their interactions. Data recorded from three replica-
tions were subjected to single way analysis of variance
(ANOVA), and critical differences were calculated at p=
0.05 level.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
FTIR spectrum characteristics of ferrous glycinate
FTIR analysis shows unbound glycine from chelated
one (Fig. 2). Free glycine exhibited a vibration peak at
2920 cm-1 that disappeared upon chelate formation.
The peak at 2920 cm-1 was due to the twisting and vi-
bration of NH2 groups. The disappearance of this peak
indicates that a new coordinate bond was formed
through the terminal amine groups. The peak at
3153.04 cm-1 and 1327.75 cm-1 was due to the weak
stretching of symmetric and asymmetric amine vibra-
tion. As compared to the position of bands in the spec-
trum of iron glycinate, it confirms the chelation of amino
acid with Fe2+ ions. Similar results were reported by
Ahamed et al. (2019) in infrared spectroscopy of pure
glycine revealed several peaks which ranged from
2500 cm-1 to 3200 cm-1 where 2520.51 cm-1, 2603.43
cm-1, 2703.71 cm-1, 3001.66 cm-1 and 3149.17 cm-1
(OH groups) observed sharp peaks. A peak at 1056.8
cm-1 characteristics of sulphate was observed in zinc
sulphate heptahydrate. The FT-IR spectral investiga-
tions of synthesized chelate indicated peaks at 1065.48
cm-1 (SO42-), 1393.33 cm-1 (COO--) and 3169.44 cm-1
(OH). Broadband from 2700 cm-1 to 3300 cm-1 with a
centroid at 3169.44 cm-1 (NH2 broad peak) was also
observed.
FTIR Spectrum characteristics of ferrous citrate
FTIR spectrum of citric acid at wavelength 3317.93 cm-1,
3219.88 cm-1 and 3014.19 cm-1 was due to broad
stretching of carboxyl groups (COO-). The peaks at
2668.03 cm-1, 2551.36 cm-1 and 1950.64 cm-1 was
assigned to weak stretching of OH groups and aro-
matic over ton vibrations. The peak in FTIR at 1718.26
cm-1 and 1205.20 cm-1 was assigned to the very sharp
stretching of C=O group and C-O group (Fig. 3). Spec-
trum of Fe2+ - citrate was compared with citric acid,
shown that the spectrum of Fe2+ citrate contains only
one weak broadband of high intensity in the range from
3000 cm-1 to 3500 cm-1 with centroid at 3281.29 cm-1,
which could have been attributed to valance vibrations
of OH stretching. The wavelength of 1742.37 cm-1 and
1695.12 cm-1 was assigned to sharp and strong C=O
bending vibrations. As compared to positions of these
bonds in the spectrum of citric acid, it confirms the
presence of C=O groups in the structure of Fe2+ - cit-
rate. Two bonds originate from valence vibrations of
carboxyl anion (COO-), which interacts with iron ion.
Compared to positions in the spectrum of Fe2+ - cit-
rate, these bonds are exhibited in the citric acid spec-
tra, indicating coordination of carboxyl group and Fe2+
ion. Similar results were reported by Ahamed et al.
(2019), zinc sulphate heptahydrate, the peak corre-
sponding to the sulphate bond at 1056.8 cm-1 was
obtained. However, in the new chelate viz, of zinc cit-
rate sulphate, FT-IR analysis pointed out sharp peaks
at 1641.13 cm-1, 3742.19 cm-1, 3828.97 cm-1 and
3844.4 cm-1. A weak broadband with a width of 2700
cm-1 to 3400 cm-1 with a centroid at 3281.29 cm-1 (OH
group) was noticed.
Fig. 1. Synthesis of iron chelate.
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Subramani, M. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 149 - 155 (2021)
Characterization of iron chelates
The coordination geometry of chelated ferrous
glycinate and ferrous citrate have been presented in
Fig. 4 and Fig. 5. The predicted energy valve of the
chelated molecule in 38.47 k. cal mol-1 indicated that
the molecule was relatively stable. The ferrous
glycinate structure, the carboxyl group and α- amino
group of glycine both donate electron pairs into the
ferrous iron cation forming a coordinate covalent bond.
Dry matter production of root and shoot
An increase in DMP with the advancement of crop
growth and the increase between flowering and maturi-
ty were also marked. The increase in DMP at flowering
might be mainly related to the increase in branches,
number and size of leaves and higher photosynthesis
due to an increase in leaf area. The highest DMP at
vegetative, flowering and harvest stages recovered by
treatment T7, namely foliar spraying of 1% ferrous
glycinate at 25 and 45 DAS (Table 1) which is on par with
soil application ferrous glycinate (T3) at 5 kg ha-1. Kumar
et al. (2015), also observed that sources and mode of
iron application also had a significant effect on dry mat-
ter production. The lowest dry matter accumulation was
recorded with the control plot, which was significantly
lower than 2 and 3 foliar sprays of 2.0% iron sulphate
and 0.5% iron chelate at all the stages. The better per-
formance of foliar spraying of 1% ferrous glycinate (T7)
at 25 and 45 DAS treatment on DMP in the present
study could be due to the fact that the plants absorb
and transport iron efficiently in its glycinate form, i.e.,
glycine helps maintain the iron in its soluble form within
the plants. In the present study, the treatment T7 viz.,
foliar spraying of Fe chelate at 25 and 45 DAS (15.2% pre-
sent in iron) which might be attributed to the 15.2% of
iron supply by the ferrous glycinate. Further, the iron
availability and translocation to crop in iron-deficient
soil under the treatment T7 could be the reason for en-
hanced DMP observed in the present study.
Soil application of FeSO4 at 25 kg ha-1 as inorganic salt
did not perform well in increasing the DMP in compari-
son with T7. According to Pal et al. (2008), the effective-
ness of Fe supplements through inorganic source may
be attributed to its quick conversion from Fe2+ to Fe3+
under field condition, which is a highly stable and insol-
uble form. These findings corroborate our results since
experimental soils were calcareous in nature.
Iron content (Shoot and root)
The increase in plant growth was mainly due to a grad-
ual increase in iron content in the shoot. (Table 2). Iron
content in black gram (above ground mass) tented to
fluctuate at different growth stages. The highest shoot
iron content of 325, 351 and 347 mg kg-1 at vegetative,
flowering and harvest stages respectively were record-
ed with 1% ferrous glycinate as foliar spraying on 25
and 45 DAS, which were on par with foliar spraying of
Fig. 2. FTIR Spectrum of ferrous glycinate. Fig. 3. FTIR spectrum of Fe - Citrate.
Fig. 4 & 5. Structure of ferrous glycinate and ferrous citrate.
153
Subramani, M. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 149 - 155 (2021)
Tre
atm
en
ts
Sta
ges
Sh
oo
t (A
bo
ve g
rou
nd
mas
s)
Ro
ot
Veg
eta
tive
F
low
eri
ng
H
arv
est
Mean
%
in
cre
ase o
ver
co
ntr
ol
Veg
eta
tive
F
low
eri
ng
H
arv
est
Mean
%
in
cre
ase
over
co
ntr
ol
T1
- N
PK
contr
ol
320
359
391
357
-
105
119
135
120
-
T2 -
FeS
O4 @
25 k
g h
a-1
as b
asal soil
applic
ation
325
365
397
362
1.5
9
115
125
145
128
7.2
4
T3 -
Ferr
ous g
lycin
ate
chela
te @
5 k
g h
a-1
346
376
409
377
5.7
0
126
138
155
140
16.7
T4 -
Ferr
ous c
itra
te c
hela
te @
5 k
g h
a-1
336
369
395
367
2.8
0
117
128
141
129
7.5
2
T5
- F
e –
ED
TA
chela
te
@ 5
kg h
a-1
339
365
401
368
3.2
7
119
127
139
128
7.2
4
T6
- 1
% F
eS
O4 a
s fo
liar sp
rayi
ng o
n 2
5 &
45 D
AS
329
362
403
365
2.2
4
110
119
146
125
4.4
6
T7
- 1
% F
err
ous g
lycin
ate
as f
olia
r spra
yin
g o
n 2
5 &
45 D
AS
351
385
415
384
7.5
7
132
145
157
145
20.9
T8
- 1
% F
err
ous c
itra
te a
s f
olia
r spra
yin
g o
n 2
5 &
45 D
AS
340
373
405
373
4.4
9
124
135
151
137
14.2
T9
- 1
% F
e –
ED
TA
as f
olia
r sp
rayi
ng o
n 2
5 &
45
DA
S
338
368
400
369
3.3
6
121
133
149
134
12.3
Sed
8.4
2
8.0
6
9.1
3
2.6
5
3.7
5
2.3
5
C
D (
P=
0.0
5)
17.6
16.9
19.1
5.5
7
7.8
8
4.9
4
Tre
atm
en
ts
Sta
ges
Sh
oo
t (A
bo
ve g
rou
nd
mas
s)
Ro
ot
Veg
eta
tive
F
low
eri
ng
H
arv
est
Mean
%
in
cre
ase
over
co
ntr
ol
Veg
eta
tive
F
low
eri
ng
H
arv
est
Mean
%
in
cre
ase
over
co
ntr
ol
T1
- N
PK
contr
ol
283
311
308
301
-
128
141
136
135
-
T2 -
FeS
O4 @
25 k
g h
a-1
as b
asal soil
applic
ation
305
332
327
321
6.8
7
131
146
141
139
3.2
1
T3 -
Ferr
ous g
lycin
ate
chela
te @
5 k
g h
a-1
315
343
339
332
10.5
138
151
146
145
7.1
6
T4 -
Ferr
ous c
itra
te c
hela
te @
5 k
g h
a-1
311
340
336
329
9.4
2
134
148
142
141
4.6
9
T5
- F
e –
ED
TA
chela
te @
5 k
g h
a-1
307
338
331
325
8.2
0
135
147
144
142
5.1
9
T6
- 1
% F
eS
O4 a
s fo
liar sp
rayi
ng o
n 2
5 &
45 D
AS
306
336
329
324
7.6
5
137
149
145
144
6.6
7
T7
- 1
% F
err
ous g
lycin
ate
as f
olia
r spra
yin
g o
n 2
5 &
45 D
AS
325
351
347
341
13.4
145
159
153
152
12.8
T8
- 1
% F
err
ous c
itra
te a
s f
olia
r spra
yin
g o
n 2
5 &
45 D
AS
318
346
341
335
11.4
136
145
139
140
3.7
0
T9
- 1
% F
e –
ED
TA
as f
olia
r sp
rayi
ng o
n 2
5 &
45 D
AS
312
341
338
330
9.8
7
130
143
138
137
1.4
8
Sed
6.2
8
6.3
3
7.8
1
2.4
6
3.3
0
3.3
6
C
D (
P=
0.0
5)
13.2
13.3
16.4
5.1
7
6.9
4
7.0
6
Ta
ble
2.
Eff
ect o
f iro
n c
he
late
s o
n iro
n c
on
ten
t at
diffe
ren
t sta
ge
s o
f b
lack g
ram
(m
g k
g-1
).
Ta
ble
1.
Eff
ect o
f iro
n c
he
late
s o
n d
ry m
att
er
pro
du
ctio
n a
t diffe
ren
t sta
ge
s o
f bla
ck g
ram
(g
ha
-1).
154
Subramani, M. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 149 - 155 (2021)
1% ferrous citrate (T8) of 318, 346 and 341 mg kg-1 at
vegetative, flowering and harvest stages respectively
(Fig. 6). Foliar application of ferrous glycinate in black
gram expressed a higher amount of Fe in their shoots
than other treatments. Our study indicated that using
ferrous glycinate chelate in the foliar application could
supply sufficient Fe for plant uptake and improve the
shoot and root growth of black gram. Mohammadipour
et al. (2013) also observed that highest of plant Fe
value (454.5 ppm) was obtained from the FeSO4 and
Fe-EDTA with 91.17 ppm caused to the lowest Fe val-
ue. Fe value in FeSO4, EDDHA, iron nano fertilizer
treatments was more than the optimum range (50-300
ppm) for Spathiphyllum plant.
Amino acids induce biosynthesis of chlorophyll and
thereby improve the photosynthesis rate (Amin et al.,
2011; Zeid 2009). The highest root Fe content of 145,
159 and 153 mg kg-1 at vegetative, flowering and har-
vest stages respectively was recorded in the treat-
ments that received 1% ferrous glycinate as foliar
spraying on 25 and 45 DAS which followed by soil ap-
plication of ferrous glycinate at 5kg ha-1 (T3) of 138, 151
and 146 mg ha-1. Although amino acids used in the
present study stimulated plant growth, it is not easy to
dissect whether the effect is due to better Fe uptake,
more nitrogen supplied in the form of amino acids, or
the hormonal effect of amino acids (Ghasemi et al.,
2012).
Iron uptake (Shoot and root)
The results showed an increase in the iron uptake by
shoot and root at different stages and maximum Fe
uptake was recorded at harvesting stages (Fig.7). The
different treatments significantly influenced the Fe up-
take at different stages and a similar trend was noticed
in the case of DMP. Increased DMP coupled with high-
er iron concentration resulted in higher uptake of Fe in
the present investigation. Foliar spraying of 1% ferrous
glycinate @ 25 & 45 DAS recorded the maximum iron
uptake by both shoot and root at all the growth stages.
Zimbovskaya et al. (2020) also reported that 70–75%
higher iron content in washed and dried wheat shoots
compared to a coordination complex of ferric ions and
ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid (Fe-EDTA). The high-
er uptake of iron from the ferrihydrite (FeH) stabilized
with HS was related to the enhanced wettability of the
wheat leaves.
Conclusion
Among the organic and amino acids, iron chelates test-
ed in the present investigation, the foliar spraying of
iron chelates was superior in increasing the iron con-
tent and iron take-up of black gram under pot situations
because of its mainly higher iron uptake. Amino acids
prompt the biosynthesis of chlorophyll and. in this man-
ner, improve the photosynthesis rate. Although amino
acids used in the present study stimulated plant growth,
it was not easy to dissect whether the effect was due to
better Fe uptake, more nitrogen supplied in the form of
Fig. 6. Effect of iron chelates on iron content at different
stages of black gram (mg kg-1).
Fig. 7. Effect of iron chelates on iron uptake at different stages of blackgram (g ha-1).
a.) Shoot b.) Root
155
Subramani, M. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 149 - 155 (2021)
amino acids or the hormonal effect of amino acids. So,
amino acid chelated iron was more effectively explain-
ing the iron inadequacy in calcareous and alkaline soil.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank the Department of Soil Sci-
ence and Agricultural Chemistry, Tamil Nadu Agricul-
tural University, Coimbatore, for providing a laboratory
facility during the study period.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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Role and performance of Agri-input dealers in extension services in
Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu, India
S. Elakkiya*
Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore - 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
M. Asokhan
Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore - 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
*Corresponding author. Email : [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2819
Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: May 30, 2021
Accepted: June 14, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
In agriculture, there are two important factors for its
development i.e. Extension and Research. The devel-
opment of new technologies and their associated in-
puts, post-harvest processing to the final marketing and
prices of all the farm produce are critical in improving
farm productivity. On the other side, the transfer of all
such information to the farming community is an im-
portant paramount challenge for the stakeholders. The
farmers are mostly unaware of the correct types and
dosage required for particular agrochemicals for differ-
ent crops and new technologies. Agri-input dealers
playing a tremendous role in reaching the farmers by
performing the dual role of providing Agri-inputs as well
as technological back up to the farmers informally
(Food and Agriculture Organization, 2017).
Singh (2016) stated that with new experimentations in
the agro-input sector, some players have attempted to
deliver total solutions to farmers, including farm and
allied inputs using new distribution and marketing chan-
nels. Since 2006, the role of agro-input dealers and
agro-input dealer business started receiving some at-
tention as the likely channels for disseminating Agricul-
tural information (International Fund For Agricultural
Development, 2006).
Agri-input dealers are the chief source of farm infor-
mation to the farming community with utmost credibility.
Besides the supply of inputs and credit, their role in the
transfer of Agricultural technology is notable and ac-
claimed by the farmers for their accessibility and adora-
bility Argade et al. (2015). Despite not having formal
Agricultural education, their words are very much ap-
pealing to the farmers, resulting in the development of
Abstract
The present study was designed to study the role and performance of input dealers in extension services and the relationship of
farmers and dealers from a farmer perspective. For this study, a survey was taken in the Coimbatore district using a purposive
random sampling technique with a well-structured interview schedule. The study found that most dealers had 40-50 farmers as
customer per day at peak and offseason. Regarding technical assistance given to farmers, 90.00 per cent of the farmers asked
for the brand. Delivery in prime season (1.181) followed by credit period (0.633), company officials behaviour (0.600) are the
primary factor in the satisfaction of dealers with the company. Regarding the level of satisfaction of the farmers, Product choice
(93.33%), Credit facility and availability of the product (90.00%) were the primary satisfaction criteria of the farmers with input
dealers. It was concluded from the study that agro chemical company have field assistant at the block and village level to as-
sess the farmers’ problem. In addition, the company having a strong research unit to develop is a need-based product for farm-
ers. They had proper follow up activities in the farmer’s field. Therefore, Agri-input dealers were the first focus of the farmers at
the village level. The Agriculture department could use the Agri-input dealers to transfer technology at farmers level and its
reach would be high.
Keywords: Agri-input dealers in extension, Input dealers’ extension activities, Performance of dealers, Role of Agri-input
dealers
How to Cite
Elakkiya, S. and Asokhan, M. (2021). Role and performance of Agri-input dealers in extension services in Coimbatore district of
Tamil Nadu, India. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 13 (SI), 156 - 161. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2819
157
Elakkiya, S. and Asokhan, M. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 156 - 161 (2021)
strong linkage to meet their Agri-input demands.
With this background, the present study was designed
to study the role and performance of Agri-input dealers
in extension services. The objective was i) To study the
role of Agri-input dealers in extension servicesii) To
study the relationship of farmers and Agri-input dealers
in farmers perspective
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Coimbatore district was purposively selected for the
study. Because the vegetable production and productiv-
ity is high compare to other districts. In Coimbatore
district, out of 12 blocks Thondamuthur and Madukkarai
block were selected because of high vegetable produc-
tion. The purposive random sampling technique was
used for sampling. A sample 30 farmers and 30 Agri-
input dealers were selected for the study. Ex-post facto
research design was used. Regarding data collection,
well- structured interview schedule was used. The role
and performance of Agri-input dealers and extend of
involvement of Agri-input dealers in extension activities
followed Kiran et al. (2019) viz. Response priority index,
percentage analysis, and mean score were used for the
data analysis.
The data was collected, analyzed and are presented in
the following tables. Percentage analysis, Response
priority index and mean score were used to analyses
the data. Role of Agri-input dealers and their perfor-
mance presented in the following categories viz., Farm-
ers as customer, Technical assistance given by deal-
ers, Agri-input sold by dealers, pesticide recommenda-
tion to farmers, dealers and company’s satisfaction lev-
el and extend of involvement of dealers in extension
activities.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Role and performance of Agri-input dealers:
Farmers as customer per day in Agri-input shop
From Table 1, nearly two-thirds (73.34%) of the farmers
visited the Agri-input shop at peak season, followed by
63.34 per cent of farmers visited at off-season. From
the results, it is interpreted that 40-60 farmers visited
the input shop during the peak and off-season. Here,
peak season means the vegetable growing season.
During peak season, the farmers visited the Agri-input
shop to get inputs and crop-related information. It
means that at village level, farmers rectified their
doubts with Agri-input dealers. In addition, the dealers
had some frequent contact with farmers. This could be
evidenced by the findings of Kiran et al. (2019). Kiran et
al. (2019) reported that 30 to 60 farmers visiting the
shop per day for more than half (53.33%) of the Agri-
input dealers, followed by 26.67 per cent of Agri-input
dealers with more than 60 farmers visiting the shop per
day in Telangana southern zone.
Technical assistance given to farmers by the
dealers
From Table 2, the majority (90.00%) of the farmers
were asking for the brand followed by chemical (73.33
%) and oral expression of the problem (60.00%). From
the results, it is interpreted that, majority of the farmers
well known about the brands of the product followed by
chemical.
This shows the awareness and knowledge of Agri-input
among the farmers. This might be due to the farmer’s
interest in handling the prevailing Agricultural problem
more technically and further made them have more
awareness and knowledge on Agri-inputs with the ad-
vice of Agri-input dealers. The above findings is in
agreement with the findings of Kiran et al. (2019) who
inferred that two fifth (41.57%) of the farmers were oral-
ly expressing the problem to the Agri-input dealers fol-
lowed by 34.20 per cent of the farmers directly asking
for the brand.
Agri-inputs sold in shop by the dealers
Table 3, cent per cent of the farmers used pesticides in
their field, followed by seeds (80.00%) and fertilizer
(56.00). one- third (26.66%) of the farmers used other
miscellaneous input in their field. The results obtained
in present study were in contrast with the results of
Kiran et al. 2019 who conducted study in Southern
zone of Telegana state which showed two fifth
(42.12%) of pesticides were sold by the Agri-input deal-
ers in their shops, followed by 33.95 per cent of fertiliz-
ers, 23.29 per cent of seeds and only 0.64 per cent of
other miscellaneous inputs were sold in their shops.
The reason for less miscellaneous input was that the
bio fertilizer and other bio inputs are slow in reaction at
field level. However, the farmers need quick response
Farmers as Customer At peak season At off season
S. No Category No. Per cent No. Per cent
1 1 – 20 Farmers 0 0 11 36.66
2 21- 40 Farmers 8 26.66 19 63.34
3 41- 60 Farmers 22 73.34 0 0
Total 30 100 30 100
Table 1.Farmers as customer per day in Agri input shop (n=30).
158
Elakkiya, S. and Asokhan, M. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 156 - 161 (2021)
to pest and disease. This miscellaneous input was
used for seed treatment purpose only.
Pesticide recommendation to farmers
Table 4 indicated that more than half the Agri-input
dealers (56.70%) were referred to companies’ field as-
sistant, followed by experience in input shop (36.66%)
and fellow farmer (6.64%). From the results, Agri-input
dealers seeking advice from the companies’ field assis-
tant and the experiences, which had the dealers in in-
put shop. Each Agri-input companies had field assis-
tant at block and village level. They used to guide Agri-
input dealers. Agri-input dealers providing effective
solution to farmers.
Dealers and companies satisfaction level
For this satisfaction level, response priority index anal-
ysis was used. It was constructed as a product of Pro-
S. No Technical assistance No. Per cent
1 Asking for chemical 22 73.33
2 Asking for brand 27 90.00
3 Bringing sample for prescription 11 36.67
4 Oral expression of the problem 18 60.00
*- Multiple responses
Table 2. Technical assistance given to farmers by the dealers (n=30).
S. No Agri-inputs sold in shop No. * Per cent
1 Fertilizer 17 56.66
2 Pesticides 30 100.00
3 Seeds 24 80.00
4 Other miscellaneous input 8 26.66
* Multiple responses obtained
Table 3. Agri-inputs sold in shop by the dealers (n=30).
S. No Pesticide recommendation to farmers No. Per cent
1 Experiences in Input shop 11 36.66
2 Companies field assistant 17 56.70
3 Fellow farmer 2 6.64
Total 30 100
Table 4. Pesticide recommendation to farmers (n=30).
S. No Parameters RPI Score* Rank
1 Average margins (Rs.) 0.574 5
2 Credit period (Days) 0.633 2
3 Incentives 0.478 7
4 Company officials behavior 0.600 3
5 Delivery in prime season 1.181 1
6 Complaint redressal 0.552 6
7 Replacement of damaged product 0.256 8
8 Target fixing 0.144 9
9 Accepting suggestions for product modification 0.581 4
Table 5. Dealers and companies satisfaction level (n=30).
*RPI- Response priority index
159
Elakkiya, S. and Asokhan, M. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 156 - 161 (2021)
portion of Responses (PR) and Priority Estimate (PE).
Here, larger the Response Priority Index, the higher
was the importance for that satisfaction.
From Table 5, the dealers having satisfaction with the
company were delivered in prime season (1.181) fol-
lowed by credit period (0.633), company officials be-
haviour (0.600) and accepted suggestions for product
modification (0.5881). The company gave some offers
to dealer viz., credit periods to pay the debt and deliv-
ery of needed products in prime season are the prime
criteria in dealers and companies satisfaction level.
Extent of involvement of agro-input dealers in
extension activities
From Table 6, it was revealed that Agri-input dealers
are providing information on seed rate (2.73) and meth-
od of sowing (2.66) to farmers. Regarding agrochemi-
cals, the rate of application (2.86) followed by choice of
chemical (2.66) and methods of application of chemi-
cals (2.40) was having more mean score than the over-
all mean score. The most predominant information is
transferred to farmers by the Agri-input dealers in the
area of the villages. The findings are in agreement with
the findings of Argade et al. (2015). Argade et al. (2015),
who studied in Maharastra state, revealed that the
mean score for men agro-input dealers (2.39) was
more than the women agro-input dealers (2.28). The
involvement of both agro-input dealers was more in
information on seed quality (3.00) and seed rate (3.00).
The quality of seed and seed rate had more contribu-
S. No Categories Mean score
Seed related
1 Information on seed quality 2.26
2 Seed dressing 1.76
3 On planting material 2.36
4 Seed rate 2.73
5 Method of sowing 2.66
Total mean score 2.36
Agro chemical related
1 Choice of chemicals 2.66
2 Rate of application 2.86
3 Side effects 2.13
4 Methods of application 2.40
5 Use of bio-pesticides 1.86
Total mean score 2.38
Fertilizer related
1 Choice of fertilizers 2.63
2 Rate of application 3.00
3 Side effects 1.46
4 Methods of application 2.13
5 Use of bio-fertilizers 1.90
Total mean score 2.22
Network
1 Progressive farmers 2.16
2 Extension functionaries 2.00
3 Company researchers 2.50
Total mean score 2.22
Table 6. Extent of Involvement of Agro-input dealers in extension activities (n=30).
160
Elakkiya, S. and Asokhan, M. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 156 - 161 (2021)
tion towards the increasing crop productivity. This was
a good sign that men and women agro-input dealers
were involved more in such kind of activities.
The majority of the Agri-input dealers had a strong net-
work with the company researchers (2.50), i.e. the ag-
rochemical company has appointed a field assistant at
block level. The assistant would assess the farmers’
field about pest and diseases. This assistant and deal-
ers would have close contact and communication
Relationship of farmers and Agri-input dealers in
farmers perspective
In order to have an in-depth analysis of farmers view,
this survey has taken in farmers. The data collected
from the farmer about the dealers and input utilization
are presented in table 7.
Accordingly, more than half of the respondents (53.33
%) consulted with other farmers for the adoption of
chemical, followed by direct adoption (46.67%). Re-
garding the level of satisfaction, the farmers, Product
choice (93.33%), Credit facility, and Availability of the
product (90.00%) were the farmers' primary satisfaction
criteria with input dealers. The reason behind that is,
Agri-input dealers provided with credit facility, i.e. the
farmers had some credit days to repay the amount of
the product purchase and Availability of product in
prime season gets satisfaction to the farmers. The find-
ing gains support from the findings of Thanganayaki &
S. No Category No. Per cent
Adoption of chemical
1 Direct adoption 14 46.67
2 Consultation with other farmers 16 53.33
Level of satisfaction
1 Price 6 20.00
2 Credit facility 27 90.00
3 Brand choice 21 70.00
4 Product choice 28 93.33
5 Availability 27 90.00
6 Quality 22 73.33
*- Multiple responses obtained
Farmers need for specific brand
1 Never 4 13.33
2 Sometimes 11 36.67
3 Always 15 50.00
Farmers decision during non availability of pesticide
1 Shift 21 70.00
2 Wait 9 30.00
Spraying of the pesticides by the farmers
1 No fixed pattern 3 10.00
2 Curative 10 33.34
3 Preventive 17 56.66
Safety measures while spraying pesticides
1 Never 0 0
2 Sometimes 17 56.66
3 Always 13 43.34
Total 30 100
Table 7. Relationship of farmers and Agri input dealers in farmers perspective (n=30).
161
Elakkiya, S. and Asokhan, M. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 156 - 161 (2021)
Suryaprabha (2017). The study conducted in the Coimba-
tore district revealed that most of the respondents are satis-
fied that Availability of Agricultural inputs gets a high mean
score of 4.13 and the price of Agricultural inputs gets a low
mean score of 2.25.
Half of the farmers were always needed for a specific
brand, followed by the sometimes (36.67%). The rea-
son behind that, the famers had credibility in a particu-
lar product. A little less than two-thirds (70.00) of the
respondents shifted their decision regarding the non-
availability of product.
Spraying pattern of pesticide, more than half (56.66%)
of the farmers were preventively applying the agro
chemicals, followed by curative (33.34%) and no fixed
pattern (10.00%). The farmers applied the chemical
before the pest and disease occurrence.
More than half of the farmers (56.66%) were following
safety measures while spraying the pesticide in some-
times followed by 43.34 per cent of them were following
safety measures in always. From the result, it conclud-
ed that farmers had more credibility towards Agri-input
dealers. In addition, farmers consulted fellow farmers to
adopt the chemicals in their field. Usually, farmers clari-
fied their doubts with the input dealers followed by the
fellow farmers. It shows the linkages of farmers and
dealers at the village level.
The finding gains support from findings of Yadav and Dutta
(2019), who conducted this study in Rajasthan district and
reported that 78.2 % of farmers were having basic
knowledge of safe handling, application of pesticides
and risk associated due to pesticide exposure, but they
were not ready to change their attitude towards pesti-
cide practices.
Conclusion
From the study, it could be concluded that the agro-
chemical company had field assistant at the block and
village level to assess the farmers' problem. In addition,
the company had a strong research unit to develop a
need-based product for farmers in all the regional clus-
ters of each district. Agri-input dealers and agrochemi-
cal companies had properly followed up activities in
farmers' field. Dealers had a strong communication
network with the company’s officials. Usually, dealers
asked their queries with the company officials and field
staff. Therefore, the dealers’ role and performance at
the village level were important to farmers. Agri-input
dealers were the first focus of the farmers at the village
level. From the farmers' point of view, the Agricultural
officers focused on progressive farmers, and their job
works were mostly schemes oriented than field visits,
delivery of subsidy fertilizer and chemicals at the end of
the time. Therefore, the government might provide
credit subsidy or scheme to Agri-input dealers. The
Agriculture Department could use the Agri-input dealers
to transfer technology, and its reach will be high. The
Agri-input dealers needed knowledge and specific
training about field level from the State Department of
Agriculture, Tamil Nadu.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
REFERENCES
1. International Fund For Agricultural Development (2006).
International Fund For Agricultural Development (IFAD)
report Retrieved from from www.ifad.org.
2. Argade, S., A. Sarkar & Mishra, S. (2015). Gender based
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5. Thanganayaki, R. & Suryaprabha, M. (2017). A study on
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nental Journal of Marketing Research Review, 5(1),28-33
6. Kiran Kumar Reddy, U., Satya Gopal, P.V., Sailaja, V. &
Prasad, S.V. (2019). Role of Agri-Input dealers in trans-
fer of technology. International Journal of Current Microbi-
ology and Applied Sciences, 8(2), 2383-2388
7. Yadav, Sucheta & Subroto Dutta (2019). A study of pesti-
cide consumption pattern and farmer’s perceptions to-
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(Rajasthan). International Journal of Current Microbiology
and Applied Sciences, 8(4), 96-104.
case study of an organic Agripreneur adopting integrated farming
system model at Kullagoundenpudur village of Erode district in
Tamil Nadu, India
Department of Social Sciences, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Killikulam- 628252 (Tamil Nadu), India
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2822
Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: May 30, 2021
Accepted: June 14, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
India is an agriculture-based country. In recent days,
organic farming has been gaining more awareness and
importance among the farming community. Organic
farming involves holistic production systems that avoid
synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and genetically modified
organisms, thereby minimizing their deleterious effect
on the environment (Behera et al., 2012). An increase
in awareness and concern about the impact of synthetic
chemicals in agriculture has been major drivers for in-
creasing consumer demand for organic foods (Baranski
et al.,2014). Organically grown produce is considered
environmentally safer and more nutritious than conven-
tionally grown produce (Williams and Hammitt, 2001).
Diversification in agriculture commonly means different
growing crops instead of concentrating on a single
crop. Integrated farming system based on experiences
from Tamil Nadu, India, described these systems as a
mixed animal crop system where the animal is used to
cultivate the soil and provide manure to be used as
fertilizer and fuel (Jayanthi et al., 2000). Rapid econom-
ic and income growth, urbanization, and globalization
are leading to a dramatic shift of Asian diets away
from staples and increasingly towards livestock and
dairy products, vegetables and fruit, fats and oils
(Pingali, 2004). Under the gradual shrinking of land
holding, it is necessary to integrate land-based enter-
prises like fishery, poultry, field and horticultural crops
within the farmers' bio-physical and socio-economic
environment to make farming more profitable and de-
pendable (Behera et al., 2004).
An entrepreneur is the one who organizes, manages
and assumes the risks of a business or enterprise. En-
The case study method which is a comprehensive study
His business motive, risk-bearing nature and time management strategy helped
him to succeed in his business. He also coined that for his success,
How to Cite
. and (2021).
. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 13 (SI),
162 - 166. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2822
163
. and / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 162 - 166 (2021)
trepreneurial opportunities differ from normal possibili-
ties to optimize the efficiency of existing products in the
sense that the former involves new means-ends rela-
tionships (Davidsson, 2015). Agricultural entrepreneurs
are those who undertake agricultural activities through
mechanization, irrigation and the application of technol-
ogies to produce the crop. They covered a broad spec-
trum of the agricultural sector and included agriculture
and allied occupations (Rai et al., 2017).
This research aimed to identify the remarkable organic
farmer among many farming groups who can serve as
a role model for the youth and other venturing farmers
in society. The study also aimed to identify the success-
ful farmer's profile characteristics and narrate the key
facts and figures that supported the success of an
Agripreneur.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The case study method is a comprehensive study of a
social unit comprised of a person, a group, a social in-
stitution, a district or a community (Young, 1996). It is
the social microscope, as stated by Burgess (1993). A
case study method was followed to study the organic
farmer, and an Agricultural entrepreneur hailed from
Kullagoundenpudur village of Erode district in Tamil
Nadu. He was purposively selected for the study be-
cause of the following uniqueness possessed by him: a
Research Council Member of Tamil Nadu Veterinary
and Animal Sciences University, Chennai; got awards
from Tamilnadu government for his Indigenous Kan-
geyam cow during 2014 and Best Piggery farmer award
during 2016. The entrepreneur was personally inter-
viewed and data was collected with the help of a semi-
structured interview schedule.
RESULTS
Profile
Health is wealth for the selected agripreneur, 52 years
old with an educational qualification up to tenth stand-
ard (SSLC). He was doing organic farming in an inte-
grated way in his own land area of about 16 hectares at
Kullagoundenpudur village, Unjalur (Po), Erode district.
Farming has been carried out traditionally and it was his
full-time main occupation and he possessed 30 years of
farming experience. He lived in a nuclear family with his
wife and a daughter and earned a profit of about rupees
thirty lakhs per annum. He was highly interested in
doing innovative organic farming in an integrated man-
ner and had risk-bearing qualities, timely management
and market forecast sensing ability which helped him to
succeed in his agribusiness. The fact which made him
to enter into integrated organic farming was the in-
creased cost of inputs and labour.
Entry into agriculture
The entrepreneur had entered into farming which has
been carried out traditionally by his forefathers with
their owned land, Native cattle's (Kangayam) and Desi
poultry unit in the year 1984 with an educational qualifi-
cation up to tenth standard (SSLC). During those days,
he felt that a major part of the cost of cultivation was
attributed in the form of labour charge. Then he started
the Goat rearing unit in an organic way with a motive:
"Work done by one should not damage others’ life". In
those days, the price of goat meat was Rs.23/kg. The
cross from Nellore Judipi and Russian White were be-
ing reared. Then he started Coconut Nursery and
named his farm as "Sri Amman coconut nursery and
animal husbandry farm''. He also started rearing Ducks,
the cross from Sara and Sembli and the major crops
produced on his farm were traditional variety rice, tur-
meric, banana and fodder grass (Napier).
Decision towards the establishment of Piggery unit
Due to drought and water scarcity in 2009, he lost most
of his coconut crop and could not continue duck rear-
ing. Then he switched over to Piggery unit. The motiva-
tional fact that derived him to start the piggery unit was
that the world's largest consuming meat is Pork with an
average of 40.2per cent of the total world population.
Also, it has a good dressing percentage (The percent-
age of the live animal weight that becomes the carcass
weight at slaughter). He started rearing three breeds of
the pig; they are Large White Yorkshire, Landrace and
Duroc. Considering his excellent services in animal
husbandry, he was selected as a Research Council
member by Tamilnadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences
University. In addition to that, his farm has been ap-
proved as Integrated Farming System (IFS) Model
Farm by Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences
University in the year of 2013. He also started produc-
ing liquid organic manure with all his farm waste and
used it as fertilizer. He states that it has boosted the
crop resistance level and increased shelf-life of farm
produce. He sold the liquid organic manure at the rate
of Rs.4/litre to other farmers
During 2019, the components in his farm were Paddy
(traditional variety), Banana, Coconut, Turmeric, Poul-
try unit (Desi chick), Native Cattle (Kangeyam), Piggery
unit, Fodder grass (Napier) and Goat rearing. He had
effectively utilized the resources of his farm by following
crop rotation and also by decomposing waste from his
farm animals and utilizing it as fertilizers for the crops to
increase its production. The usage of liquid organic
manure also controlled pest and disease incidence,
and no other chemicals were used in his field for crop
protection. The farm animals were given organic feed,
mostly produced in his farm and vaccinated at the prop-
er time. A separate shed has been established for cat-
164
. and / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 162 - 166 (2021)
tle and pigs; cages for desi chicken. He had four full-
time labourers for the maintenance work of his farm.
Most of his farm products were sold within the region,
and if anything goes in excess, it was sent to the Kerala
market.
The details regarding the economics of his Integrated
Farming System farm (Crop + Dairy + Poultry + Goat +
Piggery) is presented in table 1. It was noted that the
farmer had spent rupees Ten lakhs as his initial invest-
ment towards the establishment of sheds for his farm
livestock’s and selection of breed. After that, the farmer
had undertaken farm maintenance activities such as
timely vaccination for livestock enterprises, crop rota-
tion and other intercultural operations in farm to a tune
of rupees nine lakhs per annum. He earned an average
minimum income of rupees Thirty lakhs per annum.
Thus the net profit works out to five to six per cent per
annum and the Benefit-Cost ratio of the Integrated
Farming System (IFS) adopted by the case was 1:1.58.
Process of producing liquid organic manure
He had constructed an underground tank with three
compartments consisting of a vent at the bottom. The
first compartment was loaded with farm waste, bio-
decomposers with other beneficial microbes. The sec-
ond compartment consists of partially decomposed
matters that are filtrate from the first compartment
which was collected through the interconnected vent in
the tank. The third compartment consists of the decom-
posed sludge, which was the second compartment's
filtrate and then loaded with beneficial microbes. The
enriched decomposed sludge was the liquid organic
manure. He added that the methane produced during
this process had been oxidized. The farm waste utilized
for the production of liquid organic manure was as i)
Cow dung and Urine, ii)Pig urine and Dung, iii)Pig fat,
iv) Bone waste from farm animals, v) Fish waste, vi)
Waste decomposer, vii)Waste milk products, viii)Fruit
and vegetable waste, ix) Beneficial Microorganisms.
Use of biofertilizers and microbial cultures
Biofertilizers like Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azospirillum
and Pseudomonas etc have been found to be very ef-
fective tools of fertility management and biological nutri-
ent mobilization. Recently customized consortia of such
biofertilizer organisms, better adapted to local climatic
conditions, have also been developed and are available
commercially. The efficiency of such microbial formula-
tions is much higher under no-chemical use situations.
Therefore the application of such inputs needs to be
ensured under all cropping situations (Kumar et al.,
2017).
Crop rotation
Crop rotation is the backbone of the organic farming
practice, which is followed to keep the soil healthy and
allow the natural microbial systems to work effectively.
Crop rotation refers to the succession of different crops
cultivated on the same land, which improves soil condi-
tions. It involves the follow up of a 3-4 years rotation
plan. Green manure crops should also find a place in
planning rotations. All high nutrient demanding crops
should precede and follow legume-dominated crop
combinations, which means legumes should be in rota-
tion with cereals and vegetable crops. It promotes the
productivity and fertility of the soil. Rotation of pest host
and non-pest host crops helps in controlling soil-borne
diseases and pest. Crop rotations help in improving soil
structure through different types of the root system. It
also helps in controlling weeds.
The details regarding the additional benefit in productiv-
ity of land and increased nitrogen of the soil by the ad-
dition of green manures in crop rotation given by Kumar
et al. (2017) is furnished in Table 2, and the information
regarding the quantity of nitrogen fixed in the soil by
use of different legume crops during crop rotation as
interpreted by Palaniappan and Annadurai (1999) from
their studies is presented in Table 3.
Milestones achieved from the case studies
In 2014, the indigenous (Kangeyam) cattle from his
farm had won the 1st and 2nd prize from Government
Particulars Rupees
Initial Investment Rs.10,00,000
Maintenance cost per annum Rs. 9,00,000
Income per annum Rs.30,00,000
B:C ratio 1: 1.58
Table 1. Economics of integrated farming system model farm.
Crop Productivity (T/ Ha) Nitrogen %
Subabul 09-12 0.80-0.90
Sunhemp 12-13 0.43-0.45
Dhaincha 20-22 0.43-0.45
Cowpea 15-16 0.49-0.49
Clusterbean 20-22 0.34-0.51
Table 2. Effects of green manure in crop rotation.
Source: Kumar et al. (2017)
Crop N Fixed (kg/ha)
Cowpea 80-90
Clusterbean 40-200
Fenugreek 45
Pea 50-60
Chickpea 85-100
Table 3. Quantity of N fixed by legumes.
Source: Palaniappan and Annadurai (1999).
165
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of Tamilnadu, India.
In 2016, his piggery farm was awarded as 'Best
Piggery Farm' by the Government of Tamil Nadu, India.
Message to future generation
The youth should have a broad thinking mind as the
world is globalized there are vast marketing opportuni-
ties. They should stand on their own without expecta-
tions from others. There exists vast scope of entrepre-
neurship in agriculture across the food chain. One must
understand the ground nature, its technical aspects
and management aspects. He also quoted that
“Success is a result of continuous hard work and it is
not a single day dream; it’s the result after some fail-
ures which teaches you more lessons”.
This case study research implies that there exists great
scope for agriculture in future. One should understand
the nature and market demand before starting any-
thing; whatever activities he/she follows should be in a
focused and well-planned manner. He stated that for
his success, "Genetics played 60% role, Technology
played 20% role and Management played 20% role".
Here he emphasised ‘Genetics’ as the selection of vari-
eties and breeds, ‘Technology’ as the method of culti-
vation with understanding of ground nature and
‘management’ as the farm's timely monitoring and
management strategy. His business motive, risk-
bearing nature and management strategy made him to
succeed in agriculture. One can succeed only through
their experience and hard work in any field. His future
plan was to develop his farm and also to provide train-
ing for those who approached him. He added that
those who did farming should understand the market
situation, analyze the demand and produce according
to the market demand. This case study finding will mo-
tivate young farm graduates and other farmers to come
forward and adopt such farming activities.
DISCUSSION
Integration of allied activities results in the availability of
nutritious food enriched with protein, carbohydrate, fat,
minerals and vitamins for all the lives involved in this
“web of life” including humans. Integrated farming
helps in environmental protection through effective re-
cycling of waste from animal activities. The reduced
production cost of components through input recycling
from the by-products of allied enterprises makes him
get regular stable income through the products
throughout the year though one or two enterprise failed
due to vagaries of monsoon (TNAU Agritech Portal,
2014). This case study was also similar to the success
story of Mr. Hebbar, who earns a net annual income of
around Rs. 3.5 lakhs as integrative farming ensures 90
per cent of nutrient requirement through bio-mass pro-
duced in the farm itself, one of the basic ingredient of
organic farming practices (Staff Reporter, 2016). The
Agriculture Department of Tamil Nadu, in association
with the Horticulture and Animal Husbandry Depart-
ments, will implement the Integrated Farming System
(IFS) phase III under the National Agriculture Develop-
ment Project, which seeks to promote a holistic ap-
proach to farming, would encourage beneficiary-
farmers to take up a host of allied activities towards
doubling their income (Ganesan, 2020). Rice-based
cultivation offers immense potential for food security
and poverty alleviation in rural areas. This IFS method-
ology may change rural advancement by agricultural
development in the 21st century to make India a devel-
oped nation (Rautaray, 2013).
Conclusion
With an increasing demand for organic products, most
farmers started shifting towards organic farming and it
is also important to meet the food needs of this growing
population. The integrated farming system played a
significant role in the effective management of available
resources at the farm level by generating adequate
income and employment for the rural poor and sustain-
ably improving their livelihoods throughout the year.
This case study findings showed the success of the
Integrated Farming System (IFS) model followed by the
entrepreneur, where he integrated all the components
of his farm and effectively used it with proper planning
and management. It is a proficient method of utilizing
the same land asset to deliver both carbohydrates and
animal protein simultaneously or sequentially. The nu-
trients and mineral prerequisites were met by develop-
ing vegetables and organic products on bunds, thus
providing a balanced diet to a farm family, reducing
hunger and malnutrition. There is a need to explore the
synergistic interactions of the components of farming
systems to enhance resource-use efficiency and recy-
cling of farm by-products. Hence this study will be use-
ful for young farm graduates and other farmers to come
forward and adopt such farming activities in a scientific
and well-planned manner.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude
to the organic farmer cum Agripreneur Mr. K.A. Sathy-
amoorthy for sharing his knowledge and experience.
The author has the consent of publishing his technolo-
gy of farming.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
166
. and / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 162 - 166 (2021)
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Institutional support for tribal farmer interest groups in Erode district of
Tamil Nadu, India
Mathuabirami V*
Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore - 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
Kalaivani S
Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore - 641003 (Tamil Nadu), India
*Corresponding author. Email:[email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2823
Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: May 30, 2021
Accepted: June 14, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
The government of India has promoted different forms
of collectives, namely Farmer Producer Organizations
(FPOs), Farmers Interest Groups (FIGs) to deal with
the challenges faced by the small and marginal farmers
(Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, 2013).
SHGs, FIGs, Co-operatives Producers Associations,
marketing associations etc., had bestowed in maximiz-
ing the input-output ratio and finally increasing the profit
of producers (Nain et al., 2015). Farmers confidence
level was increased through the establishment of FIGs
(Singh and Srinivasan, 1998).Around the globe, it is
evidenced that the profitability in farming would be pos-
sible in groups rather than practising it individually. This
is particularly the case where farmers organize them-
selves as a response to credit and input needs, market-
ing concerns, etc., as there are clear economic benefits
of working in groups. In areas where farmers are scat-
tered geographically and communication is difficult, the
importance of such organizations is greater. Such an
organization creates an opportunity for farmers' partici-
pation and enables them to identify their own problems
and find the best solution for their problems through
group action. Thus it would also lead to build group
cohesion and solidarity, which encourage mutual sup-
port. Many Governments and Non Governmental Or-
ganizations (NGO) had tried to organize farmers into
groups and put together them into the advancement
process by actively involving them in production, trans-
fer of technology, planning, marketing, implementing
and monitoring different developmental projects on
Abstract
Globally small and marginal tribal farmers situation is worse because of poor marketing system and lack of quality input and
technical services. This worse situation can be empowered through group approach like Farmer Producer Organization (FPO),
Farmers Interest Group (FIG) and Self Help Group (SHG). FIG is a self-managed, independent group of farmers with a shared
goal and interest. This is usually formed by 15-20 members. It is evidenced that the profitability in farming would be possible in
groups rather than practising it individually. This is particularly the case where farmers organize themselves to respond to credit
and input needs, marketing concerns, etc., as there are clear economic benefits of working in groups. The present study is
aimed to investigate the level of institutional support for tribal Farmer Interest Groups (FIGs) in Erode district. A cent per cent of
the respondents (100.00%) admitted that they received support for getting information regarding input availability, subsidiary
activities, various schemes of the state department of agriculture. The vast majority of the respondents received information on
technical support on production aspects of crop production (98.00%) and received credit support whenever needed (98.00%).
Institutions like NGOs, State Department of Agriculture played a major role in improving the standard of living of these tribal
people. They received support from the institution from production to marketing and value addition. However, they did not get
proper guidance for soil testing and quality testing of inputs. Because of remoteness, they received a medium level of institu-
tional support.
Keywords: Farmers interest groups, Farmer producer organization, Institutional support, Tribes, Erode
How to Cite
Mathuabirami, V. and Kalaivani, S. (2021). Institutional support for tribal farmer interest groups in Erode district of Tamil Nadu,
India. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 13 (SI), 167 - 171. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2823
168
Mathuabirami, V. and Kalaivani, S. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 167 - 171 (2021)
agriculture rural development (Thamminaina, 2018).
Tamilnadu Tribes are maintaining their own way of life
and they were settled mostly in heavily forested area.
So they do not have access to modern technologies,
which results in limited socio-economic significance.
But they are blessed with valuable forest produces like
timber, wood oil, honey, bee wax, resins, etc. Due to
inaccessibility to the outer world, they were not getting
a better price for their produce. There is a movement of
tribal people from tribal to non-tribal areas, possibly
searching for livelihood and educational opportunities.
India’s tribal population is over-dependent on agricul-
ture and forest-related livelihood sources. While 43 per
cent of non-tribals depend on agriculture, 66 per cent of
the tribal population survives on these primary sector
livelihood sources. But in recent decades, the number
of tribal farmers is coming down, and more are be-
coming agricultural labourers. In the past decade,
3.5 million tribals have quit farming and other related
activities. To overcome this situation FIG was estab-
lished through which they can access credit, value
addition of forest produce and market facilities. They
were facing problems in getting quality inputs and
good price for their produce, timely technical advice
for production, protection, harvesting aspects of crop
cultivation. Hence, they can be organized into a
group with the support of the institution. With the
support of state government, the Government of In-
dia was implementing different schemes for the wel-
fare of tribal people.
Tribes were blessed with ample opportunities like forest
resources for improving their livelihood. But geograph-
ical isolation restricts tribes to make use of their oppor-
tunities. They were facing problems in getting quality
inputs and good price for their produce (Mathuabirami
and Kalaivani, 2020a).FIG is an innovative approach to
developing a value chain for the produce, establishing
brand value, and linking the farmers with the market
and consumers. It was promoted to collectivise produc-
tion, especially at smallholder level, and empower them
for better bargaining power. Tribal FIGs will play a
unique role in improving the economic status of tribal
people through which they can access credit, market
facilities and value-added forest produce
(Mathuabiramiet al., 2020b). FIG consists of 15 to 20
members. Agricultural production can be increased
through prompt support like providing technical machin-
eries, high-quality seeds and fertilizers and forward ag-
riculture. In order to make all these facilities available to
the tribal farmers, institutional supports are required.
With the continuous support of the institutions, the agri-
cultural sector can be sustained. And also, institutional
support is much needed to boosting agricultural produc-
tion for meeting the growing demand for agricultural
produce (Engku et al., 2019). Institutions are facing
struggles in visiting each and individual farmers and
then for supporting farmers, establishing farmers inter-
est groups. Thus tribal farmers need institutional sup-
port for organizing into groups, receiving forward and
backward linkage. Patil et al. (2014) had studied the
impact of collective action of farmers through FIG
(Farmer Interest Group) and reported that the cost of
cultivation was reduced through sharing inputs and also
it will lead to gain additional profit. He also reported that
that linking FIGs to institutional agencies would help for
the empowerment of farmers. In this regard, the pre-
sent study was conducted to study institutional support
for the tribal FIGs.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The research design adopted for this study is an ex-
post-facto design. Erode district was purposively select-
ed for conducting the study. Thus, Mysore Resettle-
ment and Development Agency (MYRADA), Krishi
Vigyan Kendra (KVK), Erode has been assigned as
resource agency for promotion of one FPO in Erode
district of Tamil Nadu supported under Tamil Nadu
Small Farmers Agribusiness Consortium (TNSFAC) to
increase the income level of the farmers by building,
knowledge and facilitating supply inputs and linking to
markets for produces. MYRADA KVK had planned to
establish FPO through promoting Farmer Interest
Groups (FIGs) concept among tribes. DimbamDhaniya
Farmer Producer Company Limited (DDFPCL) com-
prised of 62 FIGs covering 27 villages. FIGs were fed-
erated into DDFPCL. Out of these 27 villages, nine vil-
lages were dominated by tribes: Chilumaiedoddi, De-
varnatham, Pudhukadu, Guliyada, Sujjalakare, and
KottamalamBejjalatti, Galidimbam and Ittarai. Four
Tribal FIGs were randomly selected from 16 Tribal
FIGs belonging to DDFPCL. By employing the whole
sampling method, all the members of four selected
FIGs were considered constituting a sample size of
100.
Based on Judge’s opinion and review of the literature,
a well-structured interview schedule was prepared,
considering the objectives and the variables under
study. The most relevant, unambiguous and practical
questions were included in the schedule that was suit-
able to all categories of respondents, duly avoiding
irrelevant items. Before giving a final shape to the
interview schedule, the schedule was pre-tested in a
non-sample area with 5% sample and necessary
changes were made. Members of Tribal FIGs were
personally contacted, surveyed with the help of an
interview schedule and data were collected. The data
collected were subjected to percentage analyses to get
inferences. The details of selected Tribal FIGs are fur-
nished in Table 1.
169
Mathuabirami, V. and Kalaivani, S. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 167 - 171 (2021)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Institutional support
The distribution of respondents according to various
Institutional support was investigated and the results
are furnished in Table 2. It could be seen that cent per-
cent of the respondents (100.00%) received information
regarding input availability, subsidiary activities, various
schemes of state department of agriculture, vast major-
ity of the respondents received information on technical
support on production aspects of crop production
(98.00%) and received credit support whenever needed
(98.00%) followed by 97 per cent of the respondents
who were assisted by the institution for organized into a
group. It could also be noted from Table 2 that the ma-
jority of the respondents (95.00%) received technical
guidance regarding protection aspects of crop produc-
tion, followed by 94 per cent of the respondents re-
ceived support and technical guidance for marketing
their products as well as informed about the markets
which demand higher prices for their produce. The
members of FIGs also received support such as tech-
nical guidance regarding qualitative aspects of crop
production (84.00%), received information regarding
the time of sowing (82.00%), technical guidance re-
garding farm equipment (81.00%). They had buyback
support from their institution (79.00%) receive infor-
mation on weather updates (77.00%), received tech-
nical guidance on harvesting technique (77.00), re-
ceived technical guidance on reducing the cost of culti-
vation (70.00%), received technical guidance regarding
post-harvest aspects of crop production (64.00%). Only
a few of the respondents received support for soil anal-
ysis (23.00%) and quality testing of inputs (30.00%).
The present findings were in line with the study under-
taken by Karthick (2014) among Farmer groups in Wa-
rangal District of Telangana, where the farmers groups
received a medium level of institutional support. And
also, the results were similar to work done by Ramanu-
jam and Homiga (2014), where they elucidated that
every three out of four members of SHG had got the
support of NGOs and voluntary organizations being the
members of SHGs.
Overall levels of institutional support
The levels of institutional support for the tribal Figs
were analysed and the results are presented in Table
3. The results were analysed using mean and standard
deviation as follows:
From Table 3, it could be seen that the majority of the
tribal FIG members (83.00%) had received a medium
level of Institutional support, followed by 10.00 per cent
and 7.00 per cent at low and high levels of Institutional
support, respectively. Because of remoteness, they
were receiving a medium level of institutional support.
They received institutional support from institutions
such as MYRADA KVK, State Department of Agricul-
ture, Forest Department. These institutions gave tech-
nical guidance from production to marketing of crops,
value addition of Non-Wood Forest Produces, and
members of FIGs were well informed about various
schemes for tribal welfare. They also received credit
support during the needy situation. Therefore, the pre-
sent findings were contradictory with the results of Kar-
thick (2014), who indicated that in case of Cotton
farmer groups in Warangal District of Andhra Pradesh,
the majority (30.00%) of respondents received high
support followed by medium (27.50%), very high
(17.50%), very low (15.00%) and low (10.00%) level of
institutional support from agricultural agencies.
Conclusion
Institutions like NGOs and the State Department of
Agriculture play a major role in improving the standard
of living of the tribal people. Institutional support is still
very relevant and important in the development of tribal
people. Institutions (NGOs, State Department) have
been established to increase returns for tribal farmers
S. No Criteria Level
1. <mean – Standard Deviation
Low
2.
Mean – Standard deviation to Mean + Standard Devia-tion
Medium
3. Mean + Standard Deviation
High
S.No. Name of the village Name of FIG No. of members
1
Guliyada
KadehattiMuniyappan FIG 15
2 Periyasamyaiyyan FIG 16
3 Sujjalakare Sri Karppusamy FIG 25
4 Kottamalam Sri Magaliamman FIG 24
5 Ittari Ilandhalir FIG 20
Total 100
Table 1. Details of selected tribal FIGs in Erode district.
170
Mathuabirami, V. and Kalaivani, S. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 167 - 171 (2021)
S. No. Statements No. %
1. I receive information regarding source of input availability. 100 100.00
2. I receive technical guidance regarding production aspects of crop
production. 98 98.00
3. I receive technical guidance regarding protection aspects of crop
production. 95 95.00
4. I receive support for soil analysis. 23 23.00
5. I receive technical guidance regarding qualitative aspects of crop
production. 84 84.00
6. I receive technical guidance regarding post harvest aspects of crop
production. 64 64.00
7. I receive technical guidance on reducing cost of cultivation. 70 70.00
8. I receive technical guidance regarding farm equipments. 81 81.00
9. I receive credit support when needed. 98 98.00
10. I receive information on various schemes of department of agricul-
ture and allied departments. 100 100.00
11. I receive technical guidance regarding market prices. 94 94.00
12. I have back support from my institution. 79 79.00
13. I am being informed of the markets which demand higher prices of
crop produce. 94 94.00
14. I receive support for subsidiary activities. 100 100.00
15. I receive technical guidance regarding harvesting technique. 77 77.00
16. I am assisted by my organization to be organized into group. 97 97.00
17. I receive information regarding time of sowing 82 82.00
18. I am being informed of quality testing of inputs. 30 30.00
19. I receive information on weather updates. 77 77.00
20. I am supported by my organization to maintain field operation book
and regarding group operations. 92 92.00
Table 2. Distribution of respondents according to institutional support (n=100).
S.No. Category Number Per cent
1. Low 10 10.00
2. Medium 83 83.00
3. High 7 7.00
Total 100 100.00
Table 3. Level of institutional support received by members of tribal farmer interest groups in Erode district (n=100).
171
Mathuabirami, V. and Kalaivani, S. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 167 - 171 (2021)
through increasing agricultural production. Institutions
were promoting group approaches like FIGs, Farmer
Producer Organization (FPO), Commodity Interest
Groups (CIGs). Thus the findings of the study revealed
that the tribal farmers received a medium level of insti-
tutional support from production to marketing of agri-
cultural produce. Still, more efforts should be taken by
institutions for providing buyback support of agricultural
produce, value addition of agriculture, and NWFPs
who make farmers go for soil testing by enabling them
to understand the importance of soil analysis and insist
them to go for quality testing of inputs.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
REFERENCES
1. Department of Agriculture & Cooperation (2013). Policy
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3. Karthick, D. (2014). A study on the effectiveness of cot-
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714
Development and evaluation of a sesame thresher as influenced by
crop, machine and operational parameters
B. Kailashkumar
Department of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering, Agricultural Engineering College and
Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Kumulur - 621712 (Tamil Nadu), India
Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2824
Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: May 30, 2021
Accepted: June 14, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
The traditional threshing operations for all the crops are
most time-consuming, energy-intensive, labour inten-
sive, drudgery-prone, and uneconomical (Naveenkumar
et al., 2013; Abagisa et al., 2015 and Omale et al.,
2015). The development of mechanical threshers for
this purpose has clearly an edge over conventional
methods and has reduced the drudgery of work to a
great extent (Singh et al., 2015; Patil et al., 2016).
These stationary threshing machines are based on the
quick process, level of performance, reduction of the
drudgery of farmers/labours, improved quality of prod-
uct and economy. With the existing socioeconomic con-
dition of sesame cultivars, the large capacity threshers
are inappropriate, and even small-sized threshers with
large scale sophistication are difficult to adopt. A world-
wide number of studies have been done for the thresh-
ing of various crops, but a few studies have been re-
ported on sesame threshing. Keeping the above facts
in view, the research work was carried out to identify
the pertinent variables that influence the design of ses-
ame thresher. The experimental sesame thresher test
rig were made for investigating the interactive effect of
selected levels of variables on the performance under
laboratory conditions. The optimization of the selected
levels of variables were taken for achieving the desired
performance of sesame thresher. From that, the devel-
opment of a prototype sesame thresher with optimized
levels of variables and evaluation of the performance of
the prototype sesame thresher was done.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The conventional method of sesame threshing includes
heaping of the harvested sesame stalks for curing for
Abstract
The development of a sesame thresher for the purpose has clearly an edge over conventional methods of threshing and reduce
the drudgery of work to a great extent. Due to the scarcity of daily labours, it is essential to bring in a sesame thresher, which is
cost-effective, compact, reduce threshing losses and easy to use for sesame cultivars. The laboratory experiments were con-
ducted with different levels of variables, from that the combination level of 11.0 ms-1 peripheral velocity of threshing cylinder,
15 mm concave clearance, spike tooth type cylinder and 16.8 % (d.b) moisture content of harvested sesame capsule were se-
lected. The selected combination level yielding the maximum threshing efficiency of 99.0 %, maximum cleaning efficiency of
99.4 % and minimum % visible damage to threshed sesame grains of 0.79 %, was optimized for the development of prototype
sesame thresher. A prototype sesame thresher consisting of a mainframe, threshing unit, blower and sieve assembly, feed
chute, power transmission system and transport wheels was developed with optimized level of variables. The prototype sesa-
me thresher was evaluated for its performance in comparison with the conventional method of sesame threshing. Compared
with the manual method of threshing, the prototype sesame thresher resulted in 17, 12, and 1.2 % savings in threshing efficien-
cy, cleaning efficiency, and % visible damage to threshed sesame grains. The prototype sesame thresher results in 87 % and
83 % saving in time and cost respectively when compared to the conventional method of manual threshing.
Keywords: Moisture content, Peripheral velocity, Prototype, Sesame, Thresher
How to Cite
Kailashkumar, B. (2021). Development and evaluation of a sesame thresher as influenced by crop, machine and operational
parameters. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 13 (SI), 172 - 178. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2824
173
Kailashkumar, B. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 172 - 178 (2021)
three days, initial shaking of cured sesame stalks, sub-
sequent drying for one more day and shaking of stalks
and manual beating of sesame stalks to separate the
remaining grains from stalk. The total cultivated area,
production and productivity of sesame in Tamil Nadu
are 33181 ha, 17179 tonnes and 518 kg ha-1 respec-
tively (Department of Economics & Statistics, India,
2014). Among the predominant varieties (TMV 3, TMV
4, TMV 6, TMV 7, CO 1, VRI (SV) 1, SVPR1, VRI (SV)
2) of sesame cultivated in Tamil Nadu, the popular vari-
ety TMV- 4 in the study region is selected for the inves-
tigation.
Identification of pertinent crop parameters
The pertinent crop parameters relevant to the develop-
ment of functional components of sesame thresher
were identified. The mean effective length of sesame
stalk of 600 mm was used to arrive at the concave
length of 600 mm in the threshing unit of the experi-
mental sesame thresher. The mean value of the width
of the sesame capsule of 5.65 mm was used to fix the
mesh size of the concave as 5 mm. The thousand-grain
weight of sesame and the weight of grains per capsule
were used for the calculation of the total weight of the
sesame grains input for the experimental sesame
thresher. For retention of sesame capsule in the top
sieve, the sieve hole for the top screen was fixed as 20
mm and for sesame capsules to through the bottom
sieve; the size of the hole for the bottom sieve was
fixed as 3.5 mm. The mean values of bulk density of
selected sesame seeds were 0.651 kg m-3 and the val-
ue was used for the selection of size of the grain collec-
tion tray of experimental sesame thresher.
The grain outlet tray was made of mild sheet metal due
to the lower frictional angle and coefficient of friction
between sesame grains and metal. The inclination of
the grain collection tray was fixed as 40o (more than the
angle of repose of sesame grains of 30o) to facilitate
easy flow of sesame grains.
Selection of machine variables
The pertinent variables that influence the development
of sesame thresher were identified and levels of varia-
bles were selected. The interactive effect of selected
levels of variables viz., peripheral velocity of the
threshing cylinder (7.9, 11.0 and 14.1 ms-1), concave
clearance (10, 15 and 20 mm), type of threshing cylin-
der (wire loop, spike tooth and rasp bar) as shown in
Fig.1 and moisture content (d.b.) of harvested sesame
capsule 21.4, 16.8 and 15.1 % as shown in Fig.2 was
investigated on threshing efficiency, cleaning efficiency
and % damage caused to the threshed sesame grains
using an experimental sesame thresher test rig under
laboratory condition.
A total number of 243 treatments under laboratory con-
dition were conducted with selected levels of variables
viz., of the peripheral velocity of the cylinder (7.9, 11.0
and 14.1 ms-1), concave clearance (10, 15 and 20
mm), types of the threshing cylinder (wire loop, spike
tooth and rasp bar) and moisture content of harvested
sesame capsule (21.4, 16.8 and 15.1 d.b). From the
recorded observations, the threshing efficiency, clean-
ing efficiency and % visible damage to threshed sesa-
me grains were computed.
The threshing effectiveness of the experimental sesa-
me thresher was affected highly by the moisture con-
tent of harvested sesame capsule followed by the type
of threshing cylinder, the peripheral velocity of the
threshing cylinder, and the concave clearance. The
combination level of 11.0 ms-1 peripheral velocity of the
threshing cylinder, 15 mm concave clearance, spike
tooth type cylinder and 16.8 % (d.b) moisture content of
harvested sesame capsule yielded the maximum
threshing efficiency of 99.0 %, maximum cleaning effi-
ciency of 99.4 % and minimum % visible damage to
threshed sesame grains of 0.79 %, is optimized for the
development of prototype sesame thresher.
Development of sesame thresher
A prototype sesame thresher was developed with opti-
mized levels of variables. The prototype sesame
thresher drawn using 3D CAD software is shown in
Fig.3. The prototype sesame thresher consists of a
mainframe, threshing unit, blower and sieve assembly,
feed chute, power transmission system and transport
wheels, as shown in Fig.4.
Fig. 1. Threshing cylinder (wire loop, spike tooth and rasp bar).
174
Kailashkumar, B. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 172 - 178 (2021)
The mainframe was a welded rectangular box structure
of size 1140 x 910 x 1130 mm. It was made by using
50 x 50 x 5 mm mild steel ‘L’ angle iron section. All the
other functional components were attached to the
mainframe. The mainframe supports the entire weight
of the machine. The feed chute was the component on
which the harvested sesame crop was placed and fed
into the threshing cylinder. It was made of 1.3 mm mild
steel sheet. The feed chute was fixed at an inward incli-
nation of 30° to facilitate the easy feeding of harvested
sesame crop in to the threshing cylinder. The chute
was trapezoidal section of 600 mm length, 355 mm
width and 255 mm height. The feed chute opening at
the outer end and cylinder end was 600 x 255 mm and
600 x 155 mm, respectively. The feeding chute was
fixed at 1165 mm height from the ground level for safe-
ty and easy feeding.
The threshing unit included the optimized type of
threshing cylinder and concave. The diameter and
length of the hollow threshing cylinder was 300 and
600 mm respectively. It was made of 1.2 mm mild steel
sheet metal. The upper half of the threshing unit was
enclosed with semicircular shield made of 2 mm mild
steel sheet metal. The shaft of made of 50 mm mild
steel rod was fixed at the center of the threshing drum
and the two ends of the shaft rest on plumber block
After first day of harvest
Moisture content (21.4 d.b.)
After three days of harvest
Moisture content (16.8 d.b)
After five days of harvest
Moisture content (15.1 d.b)
Fig. 2. Harvested sesame stalks with capsules after curing and drying.
Fig. 3. Sesame thresher - 3D CAD Design. Fig. 4. Prototype sesame thresher.
175
Kailashkumar, B. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 172 - 178 (2021)
bearings mounted on the mainframe. For power trans-
mission, a 150 mm diameter ‘V’ pulley was fixed on the
shaft at one end.
It was a curved unit fitted below the threshing cylinder.
The concave near the feeding end was hinged at both
ends and connected to a slot with necessary supports
to the mainframe. The concave type corresponding to
the optimized threshing cylinder type was fitted. The
concave clearance was fixed at the optimized level of
laboratory investigation. The cleaning unit consists of
the blower, sieve and outlet tray.
The blower was made of 1.6 mm mild steel sheet metal
work. The blower housing was nautilus shaped with a
major diameter of 200 mm, a width of 340 mm and a
length of 430 mm. The inner diameter for the air inlet
was 80 mm and the throat of the blower housing is 430
x 50 mm in size. The blower fan was made up of four
paddle blades of 1.3 mm gauge mild steel metal sheet
dimensioned 400 x 55 mm bolted to a 28 mm diameter
shaft. The blower outlet was directed towards the sieve
shaking mechanism to blow out the chaff and dust from
grains. The two ends of the shaft rest on pillow block
bearings mounted on the mainframe. For power trans-
mission, a 150 mm diameter ‘V’ pulley was fixed on the
shaft at one end.
The threshers were equipped with two sieves of per-
forated sheets having rectangular slots. The top
sieve was provided so as not to pass the chaffs to
the bottom sieve. The top sieve was made up of 1.6
mm mild steel sheet metal of 520 x 790 mm with
each slot size of 20 x 5 mm. The bottom sieve
sieves out small sesame grains and delivers the
clean grain towards outlet. It was made of 1.6 mm
mild steel sheet metal of 520 x 790 mm with a rec-
tangular slot hole of 35 x 3 mm. The size of the sieve
hole is 3.5 mm. The lower sieve was placed 65 mm
below the top sieve.
The upper and lower sieves were placed in a rectangu-
lar tray of 520 x 790 mm made of 1.6 mm mild sheet
metal. These sieves were oscillated or shaken with a
crank attached to the trays. The crank was attached to
a cam pulley having slot length of 30 mm in which the
circular motion was converted into oscillating motion of
sieve. For power transmission, a 200 mm diameter ‘V’
pulley is fixed on the shaft at one end.
The grain outlet was a rectangular tray of 980 x 415
mm made of 1.6 mm mild sheet metal and fitted with a
bottom sieve at an inclination of 40o to facilitate easy
flow of sesame grains. The thresher was provided with
four wheels, two in the front and two in the rear portion
for easy transportation. These wheels are made with
2.6 mm mild steel sheet metal rolled to circular wheels
of 300 mm diameter and 50 mm width at the rear and
200 mm diameter and 40mm width at the front. The
wheels are attached to the axle, which was attached to
a handle for moving the unit.
The prime mover was a two hp single phase electric
motor (1440 rpm) mounted on one side of the top cor-
ner of the mainframe with the necessary support. The
power was transmitted from the motor to the threshing
cylinder shaft, blower shaft, sieve shaker shaft through
a V-belt and pulley arrangement.
The specifications of prototype sesame thresher are
furnished in table 1.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The operational view of sesame thresher is shown in
Fig. 5. The performance of developed prototype sesa-
me thresher compared with the conventional method of
threshing was carried out and the observations viz., weight
of grain, weight of chaff, weight of sesame stalk after
threshing were recorded. From the recorded observations,
the threshing efficiency, cleaning efficiency and % visi-
ble damage to sesame grains were computed and
compared with the conventional method. From the
measured observations during the evaluation of proto-
type, sesame thresher, the cost of operation of the de-
veloped prototype sesame thresher was computed and
compared with manual threshing. The saving in cost,
time and labour computed for the developed prototype
sesame thresher in comparison the traditional method
of sesame threshing were as follows:
The cost of threshing by manual method are
computed as detailed below.
No. of men labours required for manual threshing
= 5 (480 kg)
Man hours required to thresh 480 kg of crop stalks Fig. 5. Operational view of sesame thresher.
176
Kailashkumar, B. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 172 - 178 (2021)
= 3 hours
Cost of threshing @Rs. 50/man/hour = 5 x 50 x 3
= Rs. 750 /480 kg.
The cost of mechanical threshing are computed as
detailed below.
No. of men labours required for threshing = 2 (480 kg)
Man hours required to thresh 480 kg of crop stalks
= 1 hour
Cost of threshing @Rs. 50/man/hour = 2 x 50 x 1
= Rs.100 /480 kg.
Initial cost of prototype sesame thresher (P), Rs. 30,000
Salvage cost 10% of initial cost (S), Rs. 3000
Expected life period of thresher (L), years - 8
Annual working hours (A), hours per year - 312.5
Rate of interest (I), % - 14
i. Fixed cost of operation of sesame thresher
Depreciation, Rs. h-1 = = 10.8
Interest, Rs. h-1 = = 7.392
Taxes, Insurance and housing (2 % of the initial cost of
thresher), Rs. h-1 = 1.92
Fixed cost of operation of Thresher, Rs. h-1
(Depreciation + Interest + TIH) = 10.8 + 7.39 + 1.92
= 20.11
ii. Variable cost of operation of prototype sesame
thresher
Cost of electricity one unit = 7
Output power of 2 HP = (2 x 0.746) kW = 1.49 kW.
Unit consumed = Power in kW x Number of hours of
operation. = 1.49 x 1
= 1.49
Electricity cost, Rs. h-1 = 1.49 x 7
= 10.43
Total cost of operation, Rs. h-1 = 20.11 + 10.43
= 30.54
Total cost of threshing = (fixed cost + variable cost +
operator cost) = 20.11 + 10.43 +100 = 130.54
(Fixed and variable cost are calculated as per IS: 9164-
1979, Guide for estimating cost of farm machinery
operation.)
Cost saved over manual threshing = 750 – 130.54
= Rs.619.46
Saving in cost of threshing with prototype sesame
thresher when compared to manual method of
threshing = ((750–130.54) x 100)/750
= 82.59 % = 83 %
Saving in time of threshing with prototype sesame
thresher when compared to manual method of
threshing = ((15 – 2) x 100)/15
= 86.6% = 87 %
The comparative evaluation of prototype sesame
thresher with the conventional method of threshing is
furnished in table 2.
Farmers face lot of production constraints which in-
clude high cost of labour, non-availability of quality
seeds etc. whereas they are also not using improved
technologies and high yielding varieties. Due to uneven
maturity of pods, seasonality in production and poor
post-harvest practices, the post-harvest losses were
also high, thus reducing further availability of sesame
for consumption and value addition. The traditional
methods of threshing operations are most time con-
suming, energy intensive, labour intensive, drudgery
prone and uneconomical (Naveenkumar et al., 2013
and Omale et al., 2015). The development of mechani-
cal threshers for this purpose has clearly an edge over
conventional methods and has reduced the drudgery of
work to a great extent (Singh et al., 2015 and Patil et
al., 2016). The important parameters which influence
the threshing efficiency are mechanical damage, mois-
ture content, threshing cylinder speed, feeding rate and
concave clearance (Naveenkumar et al., 2013 and Tim-
othy Adesoye Adekanye., 2016). The speed of thresh-
ing cylinder and moisture content had significant effect
on threshing efficiency and damaged grain percentage
(Khazaei, 2003). The performance of the unit has been
evaluated in terms of threshing efficiency, cleaning effi-
ciency, and seed damage (Kepner et al., 1978, Ajayi et
al., 2014, Munusamy et al., 2015, and Olaye et al.,
2016).
In present study, a prototype sesame thresher devel-
oped with optimized levels of variables is cost effec-
tive, compact and easy to use for sesame cultivars.
Compared with the manual method of threshing, the
prototype sesame thresher resulted in 17, 12 and 1.2
% saving in threshing efficiency, cleaning efficiency,
and % visible damage to threshed sesame grains.
The prototype sesame thresher resulted in 87 and 83
% saving in time and cost respectively when compa-
red to the conventional method of manual threshing.
Conclusion
The combination level of 11.0 ms-1 peripheral veloci-
ty of threshing cylinder, 15 mm concave clearance,
spike tooth type threshing cylinder and 16.8 % (d.b)
moisture content of sesame capsule was adjudged
as the optimized level for the development of proto-
type sesame thresher as it yielded the maximum
threshing efficiency of 99.0 %, maximum cleaning
efficiency of 99.4 % and minimum % damage caused
to threshed sesame grains of 0.79 %. A prototype
sesame thresher consisting of a main frame, thresh-
ing unit, blower and sieve assembly, feed chute,
power transmission system and transport wheels
AL
SP
−
A
ISP
+
1002
177
Kailashkumar, B. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 172 - 178 (2021)
S.No. Details Values
A Overall dimensions (Lx B x W),mm 1140 x 910 x 1035
B Type of thresher Throw-in
C Threshing unit
i Type of threshing cylinder Spike tooth
ii Diameter of the drum, mm 300
iii Length of the drum, mm 600
iv Concave clearance, mm 15
v Peripheral velocity of threshing cylinder, ms-1 11.0
D Power required 2 hp single phase electric motor
E Cleaning unit
i Type of blower Centrifugal type
ii No. of blades 4
iii Length of blade, mm 400
iv Width of blade, mm 55
v Number of sieves 2
F Feed chute
i Shape Trapezoidal
ii Size at the feeding end, mm 600 x 255
iii Size at the cylinder end, mm 600 x 155
G Power transmission V- belt and pulley
H Transport wheels Four iron wheels
Table 1. Specifications of prototype sesame thresher.
S.No. Parameters Conventional method
of sesame threshing
Threshing with prototype
sesame thresher
i Threshing efficiency, % 82% 99%
ii Cleaning efficiency, % 87% 99%
iii % visible damage to threshed sesame grains,
% 2% 0.79%
vi Number of workers required Minimum 5 Maximum 2
v Time consumed to thresh 120 kg of sesame
grains, man h-1 15 2
vi Cost of operation of threshing sesame grains,
Rs. per 120 kg 750* 130.54**
Table 2. Results of comparative evaluation of prototype sesame thresher with the conventional method of threshing
comparison of sesame thresher with manual threshing.
* Cost of threshing by manual method ** Cost of threshing by mechanical method
178
Kailashkumar, B. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 172 - 178 (2021)
developed with optimized levels of variables is
cost-effective, compact and easy to use for seasame
cultivars.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I have immense pleasure to express my deep sense of
gratitude and indebtedness to beloved Professors,
Dr. K. Kathirvel, (Retd.) and Dr. D. Asokan, (Retd.) for
their exemplary guidance, incessant inspiration,
immense patience, efficacious advice, perpetual and
criticisms evinced throughout the research work. I am
greatly indebted to the Tamil Nadu Agricultural Univer-
sity for providing an opportunity to undergo this
research work at Agricultural Engineering College and
Research Institute, Kumulur. Words are inadequate to
express my heartfelt gratitude to my beloved parents
Mr. P. Balasubramaniyam and Mrs. B. Sundaravalli and
my sister Ms. B.S. Keerthana for their everlasting love,
affection, help, support, incessant motivation and
constant encouragement throughout my research work.
Conflict of interest The author declares that he has no conflict of interest.
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Development of technology for modified starch incorporated grains and
pulse blended bakery and pasta products
M. Ilamaran*
Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Community Science College and Research
Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai - 625104 (Tamil Nadu), India
R. Sarojinibharathi
Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Community Science College and Research
Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai - 625104 (Tamil Nadu), India
J. Selvi
Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Community Science College and Research
Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai - 625104 (Tamil Nadu), India
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2825
Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: May 30, 2021
Accepted: June 14, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
Health and nutrition are the most demanding and chal-
lenging field in this era and would continue to be in the
future. There is considerable public interest in the ca-
pacity of foods and food components to promote health
and lower risk of non-infectious diseases related to diet
and lifestyle. Diet and lifestyle-related diseases include
coronary heart disease, certain cancers (e.g. large
bowel), inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) and diabe-
tes (International Diabetes Federation, 2009). Function-
al foods have two general types of beneficial effects: to
reduce the risk of disease and to enhance a specific
physiological function. The incidence of diabetes melli-
tus is increasing in an exponential manner globally.
Diabetes mellitus is possibly reaching epidemic propor-
tions in India. There are large dissimilarities in diabe-
tes prevalence between states in India. As stated by a
recent systematic review based on the statistics from
ICMR-INDIAB, the overall prevalence of diabetes in 15
states of India was 7·3 per cent. The etiology of diabe-
tes in India is complex and includes genetic factors
coupled with environmental impacts such as obesity-
associated with the rising standard of comfort, constant
urban migration, and lifestyle changes (Kaveeshwar
and Cornwall, 2014). Murtaugh et al. (2003) reported
that consumption of diets rich in whole grains reduced
the incidence of type 2 diabetes. Marilena et al. (2020)
Abstract
The study aimed to investigate the appropriate technology for the development of modified starch and standardize the millet-
based bakery and pasta products incorporated with modified starch and measure the glycemic index of the standardized thera-
peutic baked and pasta products. The physical modification and chemical modification techniques were performed to optimize
the technology for modified starch. Refined wheat flour was substituted with millet flour, modified starch and pulse flour at vari-
ous percentages to optimize the flour blend for pasta and bakery products. The products were subjected to in vitro study to
measure the glycemic index. Physical modification technique, i.e. autoclave-cooling, was found to be optimum for the develop-
ment of modified starch. The optimum flour blend for pasta products was whole wheat flour(50%), millet flour (25 and 50%),
cassava modified starch (15 and 25%) and green ram flour (10%) and it was found to be acceptable without affecting its senso-
ry attributes. The optimum blend for bread was whole wheat flour (50%), kodo / barnyard millet flour (50%) with cassava modi-
fied starch (10%) and for low-fat cookies, it was millet flour (20%) and modified starch (15 %). Among the three pasta products,
noodles and macaroni were found to be highly acceptable with minimum cooking loss. The in vitro study showed that the pasta
products have a hypoglycemic effect suitable for lifestyle disorder patients and do not involve high production costs and earn
good returns to the entrepreneurs.
Keywords: Autoclave-cooling, Glycemic index, Millet incorporated pasta products, Modified starch
How to Cite
Ilamaran, M. et al. (2021). Development of technology for modified starch incorporated grains and pulse blended bakery and
pasta products. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 13 (SI), 179 - 187. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2825
180
Ilamaran, M. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 179 - 187 (2021)
studied the dietary habits and the association with glu-
cose control, measures of adiposity, and major cardio-
vascular risk factors. Higher pasta consumption was
associated with a lower intake of proteins, total and
saturated fat, cholesterol, added sugar, and fiber. Glu-
cose control, body mass index, prevalence of obesity,
and visceral obesity were not significantly different
across the quartiles of pasta intake. No relation was
found with LDL cholesterol and triglycerides, but there
was an inverse relation with HDL-cholesterol. Systolic
blood pressure increased with pasta consumption; but
this relation was not confirmed after correction for con-
founders. Conclusions: In people with type-2 diabetes,
the consumption of pasta, within limits recommended
for total carbohydrates intake, is not associated with
worsening of glucose control, measures of adiposity,
and major cardiovascular risk factors. The research
findings showed that the development of pasta and
bakery products with lower GI and low energy density
by adding modified starch with high resistant starch
content was the most promising solutions to decrease
the prevalence of metabolic disorders. The aim of the
present study was i) to optimize the technology for the
development of modified starch from cassava with a
high amount of resistant starch by physical method, ii)
to develop the low glycemic pasta and low-fat cookies
from grain and millet substituted pulse and modified
starch.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Freshly harvested cassava (Manihot esculenta), raw
green banana (Musa paradisiaca), and maize (Zea
mays), Whole wheat (Triticum aestivum),kodo millet
(Paspalum scrobiculatum), barnyard millet
(Echinochloafrumentacaea), little millet, finger millet,
green gram dhal (Vigna radiate), commercially available
sodium alginate, guar gum (Food grade), yeast, baking
powder, flavouring agents were collected from depart-
mental stores and utilized for product formulations. High
molecular High-density Polyethylene bags (HMHDPE)
(20 x 24.5 cm) of 80 gauge and metallised polyester /
polyfilm laminated bags (20 x 24.5 cm), were used for
shelf stability assessment
Standardization of optimization technology for the
development of resistant starch from cassava,
banana and maize:
To optimize the technology for the development of
modified starch which was utilized as the functional
food ingredient for preparation of low glycemic bakery
and pasta foods, physical and chemical modification
methods were adopted. The physical modification
(autoclaving - cooling cycle method) technique was
followed for the preparation of modified starch
(cassava, banana and maize) as per the standard of
Berry (1986) procedure with slight modification. The
maize, cassava and banana native starch were mixed
with water. Then it was pressure-cooked at 121˚C (15
lb / in2) for one hour in an autoclave. The gelatinized
starch mixture was cooled to room temperature and
was freezed at 4˚C for 24 hours, termed as one cycle.
The three additional cycles were then carried out, fol-
lowed by cabinet-drying for about 4-6 hours at 40ºC
according to the respective starches and ground into
fine particles. The Chemical modification - acid hydrol-
ysis technique was carried out for the preparation of
modified starch (cassava, banana and maize) as per
the method followed by Chatakanonda et al. (2011)
with slight modification.
The per cent recovery of modified starch was deter-
mined by comparing it with the dry weight of the native
starch. The modified starch yields obtained were rec-
orded for the above two methods. The results show
that the physical modification– autoclaving and cooling
cycle method could be standardized as the technology
for the development of resistant starch. The per cent
recovery of modified/ resistant starch was determined
by comparing it with the dry weight of the native starch
(Ji et al., 2004). The physical characteristics like col-
our, solubility index and swelling power, water binding
capacity and gelatinization time and temperature were
examined for native and modified starch. Chemical
characteristics such as moisture, pH, acidity, ash, car-
bohydrate, protein, fat, calcium, iron, starch, crude
fiber, amylose, amylopectin and resistant starchof na-
tive and modified starch were analyzed in the
study.The moisture content of the samples was deter-
mined as per the method described by Ranganna
(1995). The pH and acidity of the samples were esti-
mated by the method as described by Saini et al.
(2001). Carbohydrate was estimated by the phenol
sulphuric acid method described by DuBois et al.
(1956). Protein was analysed by the amount of nitro-
gen available in the sample as described by Ma and
Zuazaga (1942). The fat content of the sample was
estimated by the solvent extraction method as de-
scribed by Cohen (1917). Calcium was estimated by
titration method as described by Clark and Collip
(1925). Iron content was estimated by the Colorimetric
method as described by Wong (1928). The starch con-
tent of the sample was estimated using anthrone rea-
gent described by Thayumanavan and Sadasivam
(1984). The crude fiber content was determined by the
method as described by Maynard (1970). The sam-
ple's amylose and amylopectin were estimated using
the iodometry method (McGrance et al.,1998). Re-
sistant starch type 3 was isolated by a modification of
the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC)
Official Method 2002.02.
181
Ilamaran, M. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 179 - 187 (2021)
Standardisation of low glycemic functional pasta
products (Noodles)
Among the three modified starch, cassava modified
starch was utilized to develop low glycemic functional
pasta products because of its ease in starch extraction,
per cent recovery (yield), low cost, and abundant avail-
ability. To standardize the formula for the preparation
of pasta products like noodles, spaghetti and macaroni,
various combinations of treatment schedule as trial was
experimented. The refined wheat flour was replaced by
whole wheat flour with combinations of kodo millet /
barnyard millet flour and green gram dhal flour at differ-
ent levels incorporated with modified/resistant starch
(from 15% up to 25%) to formulate low glycemic func-
tional flour for pasta products production were carried
out. To improve the quality of the low glycemic pasta
products such as strength, elasticity, and avoid disinte-
gration and reduce solid loss, the Sodium alginate
(NDL) / Guargum, a food stabilizer thatalso acts as a
dietary fiber was added. The combinations of whole
wheat flour, millet flour, pulse flour and modified starch
for various treatments are shown in Table 1.
Formulation and preparation of low fat cookies
Low-fat cookies were prepared by incorporating kodo
millet, little millet and foxtail millet flour each at 25, 50
and 75 per cent levels, as given in Table 2. The func-
tional ingredient wheat flour was replaced by millet flour
and all other basic ingredients remained the same.
Quality assessment of developed products:
Physico-chemical characteristics of the starch and
functional pasta (noodles)
The physical characters, such as colour value, solubility,
swelling power, water binding capacity and resistant
starch content, were analysed. The chemical characteris-
tics such as moisture, protein, fat content, starch, amyl-
ose, total fibre content, soluble dietary fibre, insoluble die-
tary fibre, calcium, iron and phosphorus were assessed.
Sensory evaluation of pasta and low fat cookies
The pasta and low fat cookies were organoleptically
evaluated by using a panel of ten untrained judges at
regular intervals. The standardized low fat cookies
were packed in 200 gauge Poly Propylene pouches
and 600 gauge Plastic containers to assess the senso-
ry attributes at an interval of 15 days by a panel of
members using nine point hedonic scale as per the
method described by Watts et al. (1989). The organo-
leptic evaluation sessions were conducted one hour
before lunch under adequate conditions of temperature,
humidity and illumination.
Animal experimental protocol
The animal experiments were approved by the Institu-
tion of Animal Ethics Committee, KMC College of Phar-
macy, Madurai. In the experiment, a total of 54 rats (48
diabetic surviving rats and six normal rats) were used.
Diabetes was induced in rats three days before starting
the experiment. The rats were divided into eight groups
(each group consist 6 rats)after the induction of 150
mg/kg of alloxan monohydrate through I.P. diabetes. In
the experiment, six rats were used in each group.
Treatment protocol
Group –I(Normal control): It consisted of normal rats
given with 10 ml/kg of normal saline with normal diet.
Group - II (Diabetic control): It received a normal diet.
Group - III: (Treatment control group) It received whole
wheat flour noodle (T1) for 28 days.
Group - IV: (Treatment group) It received whole wheat
flour + kodo millet flour noodle (T2) for 28 days.
Group - V: (Treatment group) It received whole wheat
flour + kodo millet flour + cassava modified starch noo-
dle (T3) for 28 days.
Group - VI: (Treatment group) It received whole wheat
flour + kodo millet flour + cassava modified starch +
green gram dhal flour noodle (T4) for 28 days.
Group - VII: (Treatment group) It received whole wheat
flour + barnyard millet flour noodle (T5) for 28 days.
Group - VIII: (Treatment group) received whole wheat
flour + barnyard millet flour + cassava modified starch
noodle (T6) for 28 days.
Group - IX: (Normal group) It received whole wheat
flour + barnyard millet flour + cassava modified starch
+ green gram dhal flour noodle (T7) for 28 days.
Statistical analysis
Data of starch and animal experiments collected from
all experiments were replicated three times were ex-
pressed as means ± standard deviations. Data were
analyzed using Data Entry Module for Agres Statistical
Software (Version 3.01) developed by Tamil Nadu Agri-
cultural University, Coimbatore. The data obtained from
the various experiments were subjected to statistical
analysis to find out the impact of different treatments
and storage period on the quality of the stored pasta
products by using Completely Randomized Design
(CRD) method as described by Cochran and Cox
(1957). For animal experiments, all the values were
expressed as mean ± SEM. Data was analyzed by one
way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by New-
mankeuls multiple tests. P values <0.05 were consid-
ered as statistically significant.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Native starch isolation process on cassava, banana
and maize
In the present investigation, the data of the native
starch from the raw food materials such as cassava
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Ilamaran, M. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 179 - 187 (2021)
roots, raw banana and dry maize kernels isolated at
laboratory scale by adopting specific corresponding
native starch extraction techniques during starch ex-
traction are presented in Table 3.
The highest percentage of starch yield was recorded to
cassava (18.4%) followed by maize (16.0%) and bana-
na (9.0%) starch. The per cent yield of modified starch
recorded for physical modification (autoclaving- cooling
cycle) technique was 95±0.56 per cent which was high-
er than the chemical- acid modification technique
(36.0±1.45 per cent) from the native cassava starch.
For banana and maize, it was recorded as 92.0±0.64
and 91.0±1.12 and 31.0±0.24 and 26.0±0.10 per cent
for physical modification (autoclaving - cooling) tech-
nique and chemical - acid modification technique, re-
spectively. The highest per cent recovery / yield were
obtained for physical modification (autoclaving-cooling
cycle) technique irrespective of all starch (cassava,
banana and maize). Less starch yield was obtained
with acid hydrolysis (chemical modification) as smaller
water-soluble molecules were produced. During the
physical modification (autoclaving-cooling cycle) tech-
nique, when autoclaved at 121°C, the starch was com-
pletely gelatinized. Amylose was leached from the
granules into solution as a random coil polymer, where-
as the crystalline regions of clusters of branched amy-
lopectin chains had disappeared.
Physico-chemical characteristics of native and
modified starches
Colour value, solubility (%), swelling power (g/g) and
water-binding capacity (%) of native and modified
starch are presented in Table 4.
The native cassava starch showed the highest values
Treatment Whole wheat flour (%)
Kodo millet flour (%)
Barnyard millet flour (%)
Cassava modified starch (%)
Green Gram flour (%)
Sodium alginate (%)
T1 (Control) 100 --- --- --- --- ---
T2 50 50 --- --- ---
2
T3 50 25 --- 25 ---
T4 50 25 --- 15 10
T5 50 --- 50 --- ---
T6 50 --- 25 25 ---
T7 50 --- 25 15 10
Table 1. Proportion of functional flour used for low glycemic pasta products (noodles) formulation.
Table 2. Formulation of millet flour incorporated low fat cookies.
Control Kodo millet (T1) Little millet (T2) Foxtail millet (T3)
100 25 50 75 25 50 75 25 50 75
Refined wheat flour (g) 100 75 50 25 75 50 25 75 50 25
Kodo millet flour (g) - 25 50 75 - - - - - -
Little millet flour (g) - - - - 25 50 75 - - -
Foxtail millet flour (g) - - - - - - - 25 50 75
Modified starch (g) 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Powdered sugar (g) 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
Vanaspathy (g) 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 V
Baking powder (g) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Corn flour (g) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Source Starch yield (%) Physical modification (autoclaving-cooling cycle) (%)
Chemical modification acid hydrolysis(%)
Cassava 18.40 ±0.73 95 ± 0.56 36 ± 1.45
Banana 9.00 ±0.18 92 ± 0.64 31 ± 0.24
Maize 16.00 ±0.14 91± 1.12 26 ± 0.10
Table 3. Starch yield and percent recovery / yield of modified starch
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Ilamaran, M. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 179 - 187 (2021)
for the luminosity parameter L* as 87.49 ± 0.76 and
reduced to 64.22 ± 1.20, indicating a decrease in lumi-
nosity after modification. The native cassava starch
showed higher values for the chromaticity coordinate b*
(10.92 ± 0.34). The modified cassava starch reduced
the yellowness as 8.67 ± 0.47. Chroma a* values rec-
orded as -0.21 ± 0.06, 2.65 ± 1.44 and -0.26 ± 0.08 for
native and -1.98 ± 0.94, 2.80 ± 0.65 and -0.36 ± 0.11
for cassava, banana and maize modified starch. When
compared to cassava and maize starch, the luminosity
of banana starch was low (67.89 ± 0.77and 57.09 ±
0.31) due to slight darkness. The native cassava starch
showed the highest values for the luminosity parameter
L* as 87.49 ± 0.76 and reduced to 64.22 ± 1.20, indi-
cating a decrease in luminosity after modification. The
high luminosity of cassava starch results from the weak
associative bonds between starch molecules in the
granules (Moorthy, 2002). The solubility decreased
after modification and the modified cassava starch had
4.00 ± 0.03 per cent of solubility. Banana and maize
showed 2.90±0.09 per cent had 14.10 ± 0.38 per cent
of solubility. Waliszewski et al. (2003) recorded banana
native starch solubility index and swelling power as 8.7
(g water g-1 dry starch × 100) and 8.7 (g water g-1 dry
starch × 100). Kayisu et al. (1981) also reported that
the valery banana starch had swelling power and solu-
bility significantly lower than those of tapioca starch
which is in conformity to the present investigation. The
swelling power of modified starch was found to be less
than the native starch. The water-binding capacity of
Source Starch Hunter colour values (Scales)
Solubility (%) Swelling power (g/g)
Water binding capacity (%) L* a* b*
Cassava Native 87.49 - 0.21 10.92 14.60±0.12 9.91±0.10 79.81±1.51
Modified 64.22 -1.98 8.67 4.00± 0.03 4.64±0.16 86.46±0.42
Banana Native 67.89 2.65 17.36 11.60±0.46 7.32±0.08 84.67±0.26
Modified 57.09 2.80 14.84 2.90±0.09 4.77±0.32 88.56±0.43
Maize Native 74.98 - 0.26 19.36 22.64±0.22 18.40±0.12 72.45±0.53
Modified 70.36 - 0.36 16.38 14.10±0.38 11.45±0.51 77.56±0.44
Table 4. Colour value, solubility (%), swelling power (g/g) and water binding capacity (%) of native and modified starch.
Starch Resistant starch content (%)
Native 2.37±0.07
Modified 8.12±0.08
SED 0.0651
CD (0.05) 0.1809**
Table 5. Resistant starch content of cassava starch.
Particulars T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7
Moisture (%) 8.20± 0.15 8.17± 0.09 8.15± 0.13 8.13± 0.03 8.15 ±0.10 8.11± 0.13 8.08± 0.13
Protein (%) 11.14±0.13 10.82±0.21 9.26 ±0.22 11.20±0.05 11.12±0.23 9.34± 0.23 11.45±0.22
Fat (%) 2.10±0.007 1.92 ± 0.01 1.72± 0.04 1.70± 0.02 2.0 ± 0.03 1.75± 0.02 1.73± 0.03
Fibre (%) 2.00±0.04 5.21±0.12 5.83±0.08 5.60±0.10 6.62±0.14 6.91±0.17 6.84±0.12
Starch (%) 54.60 ± 1.40 43.92± 0.89 51.58 ±1.20 45.28± 1.06 41.70 ±1.01 50.12± 1.04 42.72± 0.88
Amylose (%) 21.40 ±0.30 16.45± 0.27 25.34± 0.32 21.60 ±0.32 17.10 ±0.15 26.10± 0.62 22.11± 0.39
Soluble Die-tary Fibre (%)
2.20± 0.01 4.16± 0.04 4.04± 0.03 4.11± 0.10 2.30 ±0.02 2.00 ±0.001 2.19± 0.01
Insoluble Die-tary Fibre (%)
8.20 ±0.13 11.09± 0.05 15.11± 0.21 14.74± 0.02 11.61± 0.13 15.63± 0.33 15.14 0.29
Total Dietary Fibre (%)
10.40± 0.19 15.25± 0.14 19.15± 0.47 18.85± 0.07 13.91± 0.18 17.63± 0.02 17.33± 0.22
Calcium (mg) 38.0± 0.91 41.00± 0.08 37.00± 0.01 43.00 ±1.09 37.50± 0.01 33.00± 0.49 40.00 ±0.33
Iron (mg) 4.42± 0.05 3.73± 0.04 3.20 ±0.01 4.07± 0.04 8.01 ±0.02 5.11± 0.011 6.13± 0.15
Phosphorus (mg)
297.0 ±0.52 242.5± 1.38 195.5± 2.03 245.0± 4.20 288.5± 2.10 218.5± 0.11 294.4 ±2.91
Table 6. Proximate composition of low glycemic pasta (noodles).
Treatments T1 to T7 mentioned in Table 1
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cassava, banana and maize modified starch
(86.46±0.42, 88.56±0.43 and 77.56±0.44 %) was high
when compared to its native starch. The water-binding
capacity of modified starch was highest due to the high
amylose content of RS3. It is known that amylose has a
higher water-binding capacity than native starch.
Resistant starch content
The resistant starch content of native starch was rec-
orded as 2.37 ± 0.07 per cent. After modification with
three cycled autoclaving - cooling, it was improved to
8.12 ± 0.08 per cent, thus enhancing the therapeutic
value and functional properties of cassava modified
starch. Thus, the cassava resistant starch had been
increased to 3.4 times than to that of native starch. Ac-
cording to Faridah et al. (2012), the starch hydrolysis
process of arrowroot starch was continued with auto-
claving-cooling (3 cycles) and could increase the die-
tary fiber and RS contents up to 4.1 4.4 times, respec-
tively, than native starch. Arrow root resistant starch
(RS) was obtained through 3 cycle(s) of autoclaving-
cooling treatment of starch with different gelatinization
periods (15 and 30 min autoclaving) for each cycle. The
RS content of native starch and modified starch in 3
cycles were 2.12 and 10.91 per cent (Sugiyono, 2009).
It means that repeating autoclaving-cooling cycling
could increase RS yield. The resistant starch content of
cassava native and modified starch is presented in
Table 5.
Chemical characteristics of low glycemic functional
pasta product (Noodles)
The initial moisture content of experimental products
(T1 to T7) ranged from 8.08 - 8.17 per cent, which was
less when compared to control (T1) as 8.20 per cent.
Even though the substitution with millet flour (50% and
Varieties
Incorporation levels (%)
Sensory attributes
Color and appearance
Flavor Texture Taste Overall acceptability
T1 25 8.5 8.6 8.5 8.4 8.4
50 8.6 8.7 8.6 8.5 8.5
75 8.1 8.0 7.9 7.5 7.6
T2 25 8.3 8.4 8.2 8.3 8.2
50 8.5 8.6 8.4 8.5 8.4
75 8.1 8.2 8.1 8.2 7.8
T3 25 8.1 8.0 8.1 8.0 8.1
50 8.4 8.3 8.2 8.3 8.3
75 8.0 7.5 7.6 7.6 7.7
Table 7. Sensory evaluation of the millet incorporated low fat cookies.
Treatments T1 to T3 mentioned in Table 1
GROUPS 0th DAY 14th DAY 28th DAY
GROUP I (G 1) 80.55 ± 3.12 79.60 ± 3.50 78.45 ± 4.50
GROUP II (G 2) 155.70 ± 3.75 172.30 ± 8.20**(a) 220.53 ± 7.43**(a)
GROUP III (G 3) T1 159.42 ± 3.95 132.52± 4.48**(b) 124.34± 4.57**(b)
GROUP IV (G 4) T2 183.78 ± 3.58 154.72± 4.05**(b) 112.10± 3.57**(b
GROUP V (G 5) T3 204.78 ± 3.60 185.76± 3.90**(b) 115.70± 4.37**(b)
GROUP VI (G 6) T4 189.50 ± 3.75 141.32± 3.92**(b) 106.12± 4.16**(b)
GROUP VII (G 7) T5 191.42 ± 3.85 154.64± 3.42**(b) 122.47± 4.74**(b)
GROUP VIII (G 8) T6 196.33± 4.45 143.44± 2.62**(b) 109.94± 3.37**(b)
GROUP IX (G 9) T7 195.12 ± 3.45 168.24± 3.48**(b) 108.29± 4.40**(b)
Table 8. Effect of functional pasta products (noodles) on glucose level of normal and alloxan - induced albino rats.
G1- Normal Control; G2- Diabetic Control; G3- Treatment control group T1; G4- Treatment group T2;G5- Treatment group T3; G6- Treat-
ment group T4;G7-Treatment group T5; G8-Treatment group T6;G9-Treatment group T7.
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25% kodo / barnyard millet) and cassava modified
starch for the formulation of low glycemic functional
pasta products reduced the protein content because of
the reduction in gluten but with the addition of gum
(sodium alginate) has the tendency to improve the pro-
tein content. The highest protein content was noticed in
T4 (11.20 g/100g). Manasa et al. (2020) reported that
the protein content varied significantly with each com-
position. Among various trails trail-2 (12.743%) has the
highest protein content followed by T1, T12. There is
not much variation of all the trails, which is ranged from
11.786%-12.743%. Priyanka and Sudesh (2015) de-
veloped by-product incorporated noodles, namely Type
-I (bengal gram seed coat+broken rice) and Type-II
(bengal gram brokens+broken rice). Type-II supple-
mented noodles had significantly (P <0.05) higher
(12.39%) protein content as compared to Type-I and
control noodles. It might be due to high protein content
of Bengal gram brokens. Fat content of all the treated
pasta samples were found to be low to that of the con-
trol (2.10g/100g). This is due to the fact that the low-fat
content of kodo millet and barnyard millet. The barn-
yard millet incorporated samples showed a very little
higher fat content than the kodo millet but lower than
that of the control samples. A significant increase in
fiber content of pasta products (noodles) was observed
with increase in the level of incorporation (50 and 25
per cent) of kodo millet flour and barnyard millet flour
compared to the control. The highest fiber content was
noted in T3 and T6 samples as 5.83 and 6.91 g/100g.
Manasa et al. (2020) stated that the dietary fiber con-
tent varied significantly with each composition. Among
various trails, trail-2 has the highest dietary fiber con-
tent, followed by T1, T3. There is not much variation of
all the trails, which is ranged from 9.679 - 12.657%.
These reports support the present investigation. Incor-
poration of millet flour and pulse flour, due to modified
starch (increased resistant starch content) imparts low
digestible starch content, thus products with indigesti-
ble compounds leads to slow, low rate for the enzymat-
ic hydrolysis of carbohydrates was observed. Chemical
characteristics of low glycemic functional pasta product
(Noodles) were presented in Table 6.
The barnyard millet samples (41.70 – 50.12 g/100g)
produced samples with lower starch content than the
kodo millet flour (43.92 – 54.60 g/100g) samples. The
high amylose content was noticed in T3, T4, T6 and T7
of noodles, as modified starch was added but was less
in T2 and T5 samples due to the reduction in starch con-
tent in accordance to the incorporation of millet flour
than the control. The dietary fiber of the millet and mod-
ified starch substituted product revealed an improve-
ment in the TDF when compared to the other samples.
Soluble dietary fiber was higher in the kodo millet flour
substituted samples when compared to barnyard millet
flour substituted samples that had higher insoluble die-
tary fiber. The highest total dietary fiber was noted in T3
(19.15g/100g) and T4 and T6, respectively. The calcium
(37 to 43mg/100g), iron (3.20 to 8.01) and phosphorus
(195.50 to 297.00, mg/100g), the content of all the
treatments for noodles, respectively.
Organoleptic evaluation of pasta product (Noodles)
Optimally cooked pasta product (noodles) was evaluat-
ed organoleptically for various quality attributes like
colour and appearance, flavour, texture, taste and over-
all acceptability at regular intervals initially and once in
a month. Colour of the pasta (noodles) samples be-
comes darker (from light brown to brown) while increas-
ing the level of millet flour and the modified starch and
becomes little yellow with the incorporation of green
gram dhal samples. The appearance was found to be
good with the exclusion of cracked pieces, thereby the
inclusion of gums. The smell (flavour) of the pasta
products was without sourish or strange smell during
the initial storage period. The noodles had smooth edg-
es, while spaghetti had slightly serrated edges.
Sensory evaluation of the millet incorporated
low-fat cookies
The scores for colour and appearance of T1 and T2 at
25, 50 and 75 per cent incorporation levels were 8.5,
8.6, 8.1 and 8.3, 8.5 and 8.1, respectively. The texture
and taste ranged from 8.5 to 7.9 and 8.4 to 7.5 in T1
and 8.2 to 8.1 and 8.3 to 8.2 in T2 respectively which
showed that the increase in incorporation levels of the
millet decreased the scores. Subjective sensory char-
acteristics of varieties of kodo, little and foxtail millet
low-fat cookies are summarized in Table 7.
The flavour of the low-fat cookies showed a gradual
decrease in the mean score value at increased levels
of small millet incorporation. The overall acceptability
showed that T1 had8.5 and T2 scored 8.4, which was
highly acceptable at 50 per cent incorporation level.
The scores for sensory attributes of T3 showed a mean
value of 8.1, 8.4 and 8.0 for colour, 8.0, 8.3 and 7.5 for
flavour, 8.1, 8.2 and 7.6 for texture, 8.0, 8.3 and 7.6 for
taste and 8.1, 8.3 and 7.7 for overall acceptability at 25,
50 and 75 per cent incorporation levels respectively.
The above said sample was highly acceptable at 50 per
cent incorporation level compared to the other three
samples, which ranged from 7.5 to 8.3 for the mean-
overall acceptability.
Hypoglycemic effect of functional pasta products
(noodles) on alloxan-induced Wistar albino rats
The results obtained by conducting animal experiments
on alloxan-induced diabetic albino rats by feeding ther-
apeutic noodles (T1 to T7-Group III - IX) and compared
with the normal and diabetic control rats (Group 1 & II)
for 28 days (Table 8). From Table 8, it was observed
that feeding the functional pasta product to rats re-
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Ilamaran, M. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 179 - 187 (2021)
duced the blood glucose level after 28 days of the
study period. There was a significant lowering of blood
sugar level in rats fed diets in all combinations from T1
to T7. The dietary fiber content of kodo / barnyard millet
and the modified starch (resistant starch acts as die-
tary fiber) contributes to the hypoglycemic effect on
diabetic rats. The reduction percentage of blood glu-
cose level in diabetic functional pasta product fed rats
at 28 days of storage was observed to be 39.0 to 44.5
per cent and a comparatively higher reduction was
noticed in T4 (G6) and T7 (G9)samples. The initial glu-
cose level of G6 and G9 treatment group was found to
be 189.50 ± 3.75and 195.12 ± 3.45and reduced to
106.12± 4.16 and 108.29± 4.40 mg/dL respectively
(44.0 and 44.5 %). The protein content and its network
of the samples and especially in T4 and T7 samples as
through the green gram dhal flour contributed signifi-
cant amounts, is very important in inhibiting starch di-
gestion because it encapsulates starch granules and
thus restricts the accessibility of alpha-amylase. Both
the dietary fiber and protein network of T4 and T7 sam-
ples fed in G6 and G9 rats contributed in the hypogly-
cemic effect. Hegde (2005) stated that the rats fed the
kodo millet-enriched diet (Whole grain flour of finger
millet and kodo millet was incorporated at 55 per cent
by weight in the basal diet fed to alloxan - induced dia-
betic rats over a period of 28 days)showed a greater
reduction in blood glucose (42%) than those fed the
finger millet (36%). Brites et al. (2011) stated that the
rats fed with resistant starch enriched bread exhibited
reduced post prandial glucose levels and total choles-
terol. Sujitta et al. (2020) developed gluten free noo-
dles prepared by resistant rice starch, XG (2.5%), inu-
lin/defatted rice bran (5%) showed low glycemic index
and high acceptability by sensory panelists. The addi-
tion of defatted rice bran and inulin increased the firm-
ness, cooking time, protein, fiber and ash contents of
gluten free noodles. This study contributed that re-
sistant rice starch, XG, defatted rice bran, and inulin
can be used as functional ingredients to formulate low
glycemic index and nutraceutical gluten free foods.
Conclusion
Modified resistant starch, a retrograded starch fraction,
is a useful starch derivative with therapeutic and nutri-
tional values akin to dietary fiber. In the present study,
physical modification of native starch by autoclaving
was found to give a maximum yield of modified re-
sistant starch compared to chemical modification by
acid hydrolysis. Pasta and bakery products are also
basic foodstuffs that have an important role in human
food consumption. The research findings showed that
the pasta and bakery products with lower GI and low
energy density developed by adding modified starch
with high resistant starch content could be a most
promising solution to decrease the prevalence of meta-
bolic disorders. It was inferred that the bread and low-
fat cookies developed from wheat flour, kodo / barnyard
millet flour with cassava modified starch did not affect
the sensory attributes and did not change the overall
acceptability of these products by consumers. These
low glycemic pasta products involved a low cost of pro-
duction and can ensure good returns at the manufac-
turing end.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I gratefully acknowledge the Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore and funding agency, the Minis-
try of Food Processing Industry, the Government of
India, New Delhi for providing financial support and
complete the research work.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
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A case study of organic protected cultivation at Tirunelveli district of
Tamil Nadu, India
Foumy N Rafeeq*
Department of Social Sciences, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Killikulam - 628252 (Tamil Nadu), India
Karthikeyan. C
Department of Social Sciences, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Killikulam - 628252 (Tamil Nadu), India
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2826
Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: June 10, 2021
Accepted: June 25, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
Agripreneur is defined as “entrepreneur whose main
business is agriculture or agriculture-related” (De
Tienne et al., 2004). Entrepreneur or startups is a com-
mon term now in our day to day life. A large number of
persons who had pursued engineering, agriculture or
other bachelor’s degree are instituting their own busi-
ness, but only a very few were on the path of attaining
success or withholding their business after facing all the
hardships. Generally, for becoming an entrepreneur,
not only idea plays a significant role but also a strong
courageous mind, risk bearing ability, confidence and
also ability to face all the challenges and get out of
those situations in a very easy way without tackling
more into it is an important aspect.
There exists very important role of Entrepreneur to
sparkle economic development by starting new busi-
nesses, creating jobs and which results in the increas-
ing of gross domestic product (GDP) of the country and
key some of the goals to increase the living standards
of the people, skill development and community devel-
opment. Usually, only an entrepreneur can bring new
products and services to society and commercialize it.
As we all know, agriculture is the backbone of the
country and about 15.87 per cent (Ministry of Statistics
and Programme Implementation, 2018-2019) of India’s
GDP was from agriculture. So, when enterprises start-
ed in agriculture and its allied sectors, it can bring sig-
nificant differences in life aspects.
The case is of an engineer becoming Entrepreneur,
was 30 years old. He owned his own family business,
so-called S.S. Nataraja Nadar & Co., since 1947, which
consisted of hard wares, paints, floor mats, furnishings,
and a cement company. He had completed a Bachelor
of Engineering in Civil Engineering and passed out in
Abstract
Agripreneur is defined as an “entrepreneur whose main business is agriculture or agriculture-related”. The case study was
conducted in the Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu. A discussion was made with the engineer cum Organic farming who was
successful in organic farming for five years. He was practicing vertical gardening, terrace garden, aquaponics, hydroponics and
aquaculture in an organic manner under protected cultivation in his farm at Tirunelveli. The need for research was to identify the
extraordinary and unique farmer who was leading success in the field of organic farming. The objective of this case study was
to bring out and narrate the facts which had been adopted to run the successful model for modern agriculture. The case study
approach was made by preparing a semi-structured interview schedule, followed by the field visit, for collecting the data about
the profile, skills, work experience, knowledge of the Agripreneur in agriculture and its allied sectors were identified and noted
down. Thus, the study had been given a solution to efficiently utilize space and water by means of adopting terrace garden,
hydroponics and aquaponics. The focus of the study was to highlight the effectiveness, adaptability and cost for other small
farmers.
Keywords: Agripreneur, Terrace gardening, Organic vertical farming, Hydroponics and protected cultivation
How to Cite
Rafeeq, F.N. and C. Karthikeyan (2021). A case study of organic protected cultivation at Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu, India.
Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 13 (SI), 188 - 193. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2826
189
Rafeeq, F.N. and C. Karthikeyan / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 188 - 193 (2021)
the year 2011. He was not interested in continuing his
family business, so he started working as an assistant
engineer in construction works and interior works, main-
ly in districts like Chennai, Madurai, Coimbatore and
Tirunelveli.
Later after 2 years, he went to Kuwait, UAE and worked
as a Senior Engineer till 2017. Further, due to family
issues, he left Kuwait and came back to India. But he
was not happy with what he was doing and started
thinking beyond engineering more creative and inno-
vative, making him energetic and peaceful. An engi-
neer took a gap of one year in deciding and discuss-
ing his new business venture; thus, one of his child-
hood friend, an architect, suggested agriculture due
to his immense interest in gardening and aquarium.
As he was totally confused and worried about his
future, the engineer started studying and gathering
knowledge about agriculture and its varied aspects.
His friend invited him to Bangalore and started learn-
ing more about horticulture, agriculture and allied
sectors in detail. Nearly about 2 months, he stayed
with his friend in the Indian Institute of Horticultural
Research, Bangalore.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A visit was made to the farm of an engineer at Tirunel-
veli in Tamil Nadu and the area where terrace garden-
ing, hydroponics and aquaponics was carried out. He
started a terrace garden in his house terrace in an area
of 544 square feet by cultivating 14 kinds of vegetables
like tomato, brinjal, bitter gourd, cucumber, squash, and
lady’s finger etc. and 10 kinds of fruits like banana, pas-
sion fruit, cherry, strawberry, kiwi, lemon, lime etc. He
also implemented apiculture, where Indian bees (Apis
cera) and stingless bees (Meliponini sp.) were pro-
duced. The purpose of apiculture or beekeeping was
done only for the sake of pollination. Thus, he grew
some alternative flowers like cosmos, daisies, zinnias
because it was primarily used for apiculture and pollina-
tion, the reason behind introducing honey bees in his
garden is that he covered his area using shade net to
prevent the entry of insects and other pests such as
ants, rats, birds or other creatures.
Further to maintain pollination, he reared honeybees
and it is not reared for honey. Terrace garden was im-
plemented in September 2017, but due to bad weather,
the entrepreneur was not able to gain enough profit out
of it. Later in 2018, he implemented aquaponics and
hydroponics, which brought him remarkable changes in
his garden.
His main aim was to practice fully organic without using
a single drop of chemicals and without any water wast-
age. Hence he implemented drip irrigation in terrace
farming, but it was not as successful as he thought and
later, watering was carried out manually. Nearly about
six months, the Entrepreneur was not aware of the
proper seasonal changes and sustainability of crops to
that particular climatic conditions and varietal differ-
ences. Then he started referring to scientific articles,
online portals, journals and took guidance from his
friends. Later, he concluded and chosen proper variety
depending upon the climatic conditions of Tirunelveli
district. He utilized native seeds of indigenous varieties
only. He adopted organic methods of cultivation without
using any chemicals/ pesticides. He followed the princi-
ple of recycling waste as resources for integrating vari-
ous enterprises in his farm. After successfully establish-
ing a terrace garden, the Entrepreneur practised the
Balcony garden, Open garden and poly house as well.
Later on, in order to practice or try more innovative ide-
as, he established Hydroponics and Aquaponics along
with a terrace garden so that some ideas and practice
of engineering can also be experimented with in this
new farming.
Hydroponics
The Entrepreneur successfully implemented hydropon-
ics in his terrace garden, where he used soilless media
like clay pellets, coco pit and vermin-culture. He grew
vegetables like Radish, Tomato, Brinjal, Amaranths,
and Spinach etc. The main reason behind introducing
hydroponics was that he wanted to retain the soil fertili-
ty, which had leached out due to the uncontrolled use
of chemical fertilizers and pesticide. He prepared the
media to grow the plants by mixing coco-pit, charcoal,
neem cake and vermiculture.
He was able to harvest a good yield of 700 kilograms of
vegetables from hydroponics. It was attempted in a
controlled atmospheric condition. Hence, the plants
were free from diseases, insects, pests and some of
the crops usually grown in the Tirunelveli belt had been
grown and cultured successfully. At present, he utilized
the terrace area of 3500 ft2 available with his grand-
parent’s houses for practicing the above-mentioned
enterprises as follows.
Aquaculture
The Entrepreneur reared edible fish like Tilapia and
ornamental fish like Koi. Tilapia was the gift variety na-
tive to Japan; he purchased it from the Thoothukudi
fishery department and started culturing it on his farm.
He grew 50 fishes per tank and had 3 tanks. It was fed
with fish pellets by considering the bodyweight of the
fishes, i.e., five per cent of the body weight was the
amount or quantity of the feed given.
All the fish tanks were connected; usually, three tanks
together formed a group. These tanks were connected
with the help of tubes. The fish excreta consisted of 14
micronutrients and this nutritious source could be highly
useful for plant growth. It was connected in the bottom
of the tank, there another tank was connected, due to
190
Rafeeq, F.N. and C. Karthikeyan / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 188 - 193 (2021)
the gravitational pull the water and waste were pulled
into the other tank, wherein the 2nd tank a filter cotton
cloth was dipped. The substrate got clogged with the
filter cloth and again, the water further collected or
drained into the 3rd tank where the water could filter
with the pellets dipped in it.
The bacterial colony would form in the pellets where all
the ammonia, both AOB (Ammonia Oxidizing Bacte-
ria) and NOB (Nitrite Oxidizing Bacteria) colony were
formed; these manures were then used for the plants
and water got circulated back to the 1st tank thus
even a single drop of water was not wasted, instead
completely circulated and filtered with the help of the
motor pump fitted in it. These motors worked for 24
hours and throughout the year. However, to maintain
the motor life, the motor would be switched off for 3
hours per day to retain the motor's efficiency and
capacity.
Aquaponics
The ornamental fish Koi, specifically Jinli, were colored
varieties of Amur carp breed, which was a Japanese
variety, kept for decorative purposes in outdoor koi
ponds or water gardens were used in aquaponics
(Kocher et al., 2008). Koi fishes were bought from the
Thoothukudi fishery department. Fifty fishes per group
were kept in 3 such groups and reared. The plants like
spinach, strawberry, lettuce, amaranthus, celery, mint
and coriander were grown in the (Nutrient film Tech-
nique)NFT pipes, the water was circulated and filtered
each sec and ran throughout the system so that the
plants and fishes remained healthy and nourishable.
The pellets were fed for the fishes and their excreta
could be retained by the plant roots while circulating in
the water, and for proper root, anchorage clay pellets
were used in cups.
Only green leafy vegetables were advisable to grow in
aquaponics. Horticultural crops like strawberry can also
be grown. An Entrepreneur cultivated strawberry on an
experimental basis and had a profitable yield of 800
kilograms per 3500 square feet area during December
2019.
The plants were kept in small plastic cups where 2 to 3
clay pellets were filled. These were used just for the
root anchorage and retention of the plants with the aer-
ated balls. He also cultivated medicinal plants, Orna-
mental plants and climbers, Succulents and cactus,
and vertical gardening. It helped to reduce the carbon
footprint of the building by filtering pollutants and car-
bon dioxide out of the air, which also purifies the quality
of air.
Apiculture
As the garden was covered with shaded nets to prevent
the external flies and factors, he decided to set up api-
culture or beekeeping of his own in his garden. He pre-
ferred Indian bee (Apis cera sp.) and stingless bees
(Melliponia sp.) for pollination and maintaining the eco-
logical balance inside the controlled atmosphere. Hon-
ey was not collected from the bees, but new combs,
colony and boxes were well maintained.
Vertical garden
Vertical gardening was a special kind of urban garden-
ing suitable to small spaces, particularly decorating the
walls and roofs in various styles. This was an alterna-
tive method for gardening by expanding the scope of
growing plants in a vertical space (Agritech portal,
2016). The construction of vertical gardens was recom-
mended both in interiors and especially in the exterior
of buildings. By applying these technologies, any area
could be used at its maximum capacity, obtaining aes-
thetic value and benefits for the environment and hu-
man health. Even if the price of constructing and main-
taining the vertical gardens was higher than a classical
landscape, it was compensated by the environmental
benefits, raising the vegetation surfaces, with impact
for reducing the pollution effect.
The new modern concepts for landscape develop-
ment were keen on using any kind of concrete or
glass, turning them in real vertical gardens, being
possible to overcome the development of the urban
areas making a smooth transition for a healthy green
urban environment. Green walls were not only spec-
tacularly beautiful but were also helpful in enlivening
the ambience. Green walls can absorb heated gas in
the air, lower indoor and outdoor temperature, pro-
vide healthier indoor air quality and a more beautiful
space.
Vertical garden modules is made up of recycled poly-
propylene material. It had an attractive look, highly du-
rable in nature and could be easily installed. It provided
an instant solution for making a garden in residing
place. The best plants for vertical gardens were dense,
compact and low growing. Jade plant, Sedums, Por-
tuluca, Asparagus spp., Pileamicrophylla, Alternenthe-
ra, Mentha spp. Ficus spp., Chlorophytum, Lantana
and all the succulents could also be grown. Usually,
weightless media like coco-peat, perlite, sphagnum
moss, vermiculite, vermicompost could be used with
neutral pH. Watering was done using drip irrigation by
connecting tubes around it.
Bonsai cultivation
Bonsai is the art of growing and training a plant to a
miniature form having a natural look of old age. It in-
volves the techniques of extreme dwarfing. The opti-
mum size of bonsai must be only 30 to 60 cm in height,
but a miniature size of below 25 cm was also preferred.
Most commonly, ficus sp, Sapota, Manilkhara, Tama-
191
Rafeeq, F.N. and C. Karthikeyan / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 188 - 193 (2021)
rind and many shrubs are being used. Under terrace
gardening in protected cultivation, Entrepreneur
dwarfed 5 ficus sp, and it showed a good withstanding
capacity and nourishment.
A SWOT analysis was made to find out the strategic
planning of the Agripreneur for the farming by fetching
out the details about the strength, weakness, oppor-
tunity and threat of the Entrepreneur (Table 1).
RESULTS
Agripreneur
After developing all these varied areas, the Entrepre-
neur commercialized his business. The Entrepreneur
had already done about 25 projects for 8 months after
successfully gaining out of his new ventures. He was
providing technical service in the establishment of ter-
race gardening and vertical gardening. He charged
Rs.150 per square feet of the establishment. According
to the customer’s preference, pairs of fish’s costs 50
rupees, plants like vegetables, fruits or ornamentals
were chosen. He earned a monthly income of
Rs.1,50,000.
He had 3 employers working under him and they were
paid 12000 per month; after receiving a contrast, it
hardly takes one week time for him to complete his
work in starting days, but now the Entrepreneur could
set up an area of 500 square feet in a day.
After implementing the set-up, he had provided 8 ser-
vices free of cost and also he also provided organic
manures and a small honey bee box (preference of the
customers). He also used to check pH, EC and TDS so
that he could decide the plant preference according to
the soil and water of the particular area. He utilized
native seeds of indigenous varieties. He adopted or-
ganic methods of cultivation without using any chemi-
cals/ pesticides. He followed the principle of recycling
waste as resources for integrating various enterprises
in his farm.
The Entrepreneur initially started his business from
the profits gained out of his previous job. As the ini-
tial investment for aquaponics and hydroponics was
high, he sought help from his parents and later could
afford the expenses. The cost-benefit ratio for each
unit established by the farmer was estimated using
the following formula (Jennifer and Andrew 2005).
Benefit-Cost ratio =
….Eq.1
Where,
PV benefit is the present value of benefit
PV cost is the present value of cost
Further, the observations on economic aspects are
recorded in table 2.
DISCUSSION
The study focuses on terrace farming in organic farm-
ing. The fruits and vegetables that grow in such an en-
1. Strength • In the beginning, Entrepreneur’s family had no greater interest in his new enter-
prise. Later, due to his immense determination and interest, his family started
supporting him in all ways, which was his greatest strength.
• Self-confidence
• Though the Entrepreneur faced loss and capability in this new venture, Mr.
Chranjeevi Rajan persisted, thus understanding that he had a good risk bearing
ability.
• Indeed interest and determination
• New knowledge-seeking mentality
• Punctuality
• Entrepreneur had three sincere and dedicated employees working under him.
Thus Entrepreneur had a good leadership quality.
2. Weakness • Not aware of the climatic changes
• Seasonal problems
• Lack of knowledge about the government schemes and policies.
3. Opportunity • Retaining endangered species of plants and insects
• Promoting agriculture and allied sectors
• Brining greenery even in the urban areas
• Providing employment to uneducated and illiterates
• Inner happiness
• Self-satisfaction 4. Threat • Polluted water for use
• A sudden outbreak of disease and spreading rapidly
• Maintenance of aquaponics bears a greater risk factor.
Table 1. In-depth view of swot analysis of Entrepreneur.
192
Rafeeq, F.N. and C. Karthikeyan / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 188 - 193 (2021)
vironment have a rich source of vitamins and nutrients
when it was watered and taken care of regularly. Just
basic knowledge concerning the water cycle and the
amount of sunlight that was needed for each plant is
enough to generate healthy produce.
As the world population is rapidly growing towards ur-
banization all over, it resulted in a decrease in land-
holding capacity for growing different crops. Due to
environmental changes, this was a need to adopt new
cultivation techniques to protect the crops from some
biotic and abiotic factors. Protected cultivation provided
a favourable environment or growing conditions to the
plants by providing optimum light, temperature, humidi-
ty, carbon dioxide, and circulated air suitable for better
plant growth, heavy yield, and good quality fruits. It
also ensured plant protection from various biotic and
abiotic factors and reduced the crops' gestation period.
Organic terrace farms provided nourishing fruits, vege-
tables, and leafy greens in-house with their flexible
ability to be designed in any customizable manner. It
probed further into people's personal lives and turned
out to be a hobby that was willingly taken up by many
as it proved to be a form of relaxation and self-
discovery. Also, it was proven to have therapeutic value.
Reddy and Gowda (2014) worked out on experimen-
tation to determine the impact of protected cultiva-
tion over flowering, fruit yield, and quality on the
Red Lady cultivar of papaya. It was found that early
flower initiation and bearing resulted in higher yield
of papaya under protected cultivation. Under pro-
tected conditions, flowering started in 84.69 days
and higher flowers count per plant (48.8%) and
greater fruit setting (74.38%) was observed. This ear-
liness in flowering and fruiting resulted in advanced
maturity. Thus our Agripreneur was cultivating under
the shaded nets and maintained honeybees for pollina-
tion inside the house. He observed an extreme change
in flowering and fruiting after covered by sheets. Thus
under protected cultivation of organic farming, the plants
have shown greater yield with good quality inputs.
Thiripurasundari and Divya (2015) reported that organ-
ic farming improves the soil chemical properties such
as supply and retention of soil nutrients and promotes
favorable chemical reactions, production of clean
foods, improves the soil physical condition and proper-
ties such as granulation and good tilth, good aeration
and easy root penetration, improves water holding ca-
pacity in sustaining production system which is largely
dependent on on-farm resources. It helped in maintain-
ing environmental health by reducing the level of pollu-
tion and ensured optimum utilization of natural re-
sources and conserving them for future generations. In
the present study, Entrepreneur had only used indige-
nous seed varieties and mostly used soilless media for
farming so that the depleted soil particles could be
retained later.
Prakash et al. (2020) has stated that polyhouse cultiva-
tion requires a high initial investment to promote culti-
vation, the government of India has launched a number
of programs and schemes, but these are usually limited
to a few farmers. This was the same situation for the
Entrepreneur as he was unaware of the extent of benefits
obtained from the government. Another major issue was
the pests and disease control in the protected condition.
SWOT analysis (Table 1) indicated that the main
strength of the Entrepreneur was his in-depth
knowledge and interest to do agriculture in a very suc-
cessful manner by taking it into other districts and
states as well. But still, he lagged some knowledge
about the government policies and schemes, also the
extent of welfares that can be accrued from the govern-
ment side. An entrepreneur could create the opportuni-
ty for greenery in the midst of urban life and thereby
provide employment to the needy and bring back the
extinct species of plants and animals. As the farming
was in the town and terrace, the water availability
was very low and water was polluted; thus, this hap-
pened to a major threat for the Entrepreneur.
Conclusion
Organic farming can play an important role in rural de-
velopment by reinforcing the penchant for sustainable
agriculture and its role in ecosystem conservation. Or-
ganic farming can provide quality food without adverse-
ly affecting the soil’s health and the environment. There
S. No. Enterprises Cost in Rs. (per
square feet)
Benefit (in Rs. per
square feet) B/C ratio
1. Vertical gardening 250 400 1.6
2. Pair of Fishes 30 50 1.6
3. Terrace Garden 70 150 2.1
4. Hydroponics 250 700 2.8
5. Aquaponics 200 550 2.75
6. Bonsai cultivation 170 350 2
Table 2. Economics of protected organic terrace gardening.
193
Rafeeq, F.N. and C. Karthikeyan / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 188 - 193 (2021)
is a need to identify suitable crops/products on a re-
gional basis for organic production with international
market demands. The Entrepreneur had established his
business in agriculture and gained a good profit out of
it. He wanted to expand his commodities from Tirunel-
veli to other districts of Tamil Nadu and other Indian
states and to varied customers. His motto was to pro-
mote agriculture and allied sectors, thereby bringing
back all the exploited soil and environmental resources.
His objective was to go completely organic without us-
ing a single drop of chemicals for any diseases or
growth-related issues and retaining soil fertility. He had
good support from his family even though they opposed
in the initial days of implementing his enterprises. He
was satisfied and happy with what he was practising.
In this study, the Enterpreneur had given the opportuni-
ty to state their opinions, and he was able to explain the
reasons while interviewing. He saw the social dynamics
resulting from the conversation with like-minded farm-
ers in such focus group discussions of qualitative anal-
ysis as beneficial to address this study's objectives.
Nevertheless, there is a potential for a mixed-method
approach, combining focus groups and structured
quantitative methods suggested for upcoming studies.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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Standardization of protein-enriched cookies made from Tamarind seed
flour
Farhat Sultana*
Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Community Science College and Research
Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai - 625104 (Tamil Nadu), India
Vijayalakshmi
Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Community Science College and Research
Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai - 625104 (Tamil Nadu), India
Geetha
Department of Differently Abled Studies, Community Science College and Research Institute,
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai - 625104 (Tamil Nadu), India
Mini
Department of Biotechnology, Agricultural College and Research Institute Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Madurai - 625104 (Tamil Nadu), India
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2827
Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: June 10, 2021
Accepted: June 25, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) is one of the most promi-
nent trees in India. The leguminous tree is a multi-
purpose tree as all of its parts find application in various
types of industries. From 250,000 tons of tamarind,
100,000 ton of tamarind seeds gets wasted (Singh et
al., 2007). The tamarind polysaccharide commercially
known as jellose finds application in both the pharma-
ceutical and food industry. The tamarind seed contains
an optimum concentration of both essential and non-
essential amino acids (de Lumen et al., 1986). The
tamarind seed is a fair source of polyunsaturated fatty
acids (Sou et al., 2017) and it contains potassium, cal-
cium and phosphorous (Bagul et al., 2018).
The scope of tamarind seeds to replace conventional
food additives and their nutrient and phytochemical-rich
properties make it one of the inevitable raw ingredients
of the food industry. The present study was aimed to
examine the benefits of using tamarind seed flour to
replace conventional flour in cookies.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present study was made at Community Science
College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultur-
al University, Madurai, India.
Processing of Tamarind seeds
For facilitation of the decortication process, the tama-
rind seeds were sand roasted. The sand roasted seeds
were hand pounded, winnowed and pulverised to tama-
Abstract
Protein-energy malnutrition is one of the major public health problems in India affecting children under 5 years of age. The
prevalence of underweight in children under 5 is 42.5% in India, being the highest globally. The need for low-cost supplemental
food is vital under such conditions. This study aims to develop low cost and protein-rich value-added products from Tamarind
seed flour. The incorporation of Tamarind seed flour (50%) in the development of cookies exhibited a significant level of in-
crease in protein in cookies. The protein content of Control cookies was 5.65% and Tamarind seed flour incorporated cookies
was 11.26%. This study depicted that Tamarind seed flour can be used as the replacement of conventionally used cereal flours
to develop functional foods to curb protein-energy malnutrition
Keywords: Essential amino acids, Malnutrition, Protein-enriched cookies, Tamarind seed
How to Cite
Sultana, F. et al. (2021). Standardization of protein-enriched cookies made from Tamarind seed flour. Journal of Applied and
Natural Science, 13 (SI), 194 - 197. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2827
195
Sultana, F. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 194 - 197 (2021)
rind seed flour. The flour was sieved to minimise the
size variation (Sultana et al., 2020).
Standardization of protein-enriched cookies
The standardization of cookies was made by incorpo-
rating tamarind seed flour at three different levels- 25%,
50%, 75% with refined wheat flour. The optimum con-
centration for acceptance both in terms of organoleptic
properties and nutritional properties was about 50%.
The cookies designated as T0 were the control and the
cookies designated as T1 were 50% Refined wheat
flour+ Tamarind seed flour. The formulation of cookies
is given in Table 1.
Proximate analysis
The proximate analysis was done using the Association
of Official Analytical Chemists (2005) method. The
proximate parameters analysed were: moisture, carbo-
hydrate, protein, fat and ash
Storage study
The cookies were packed in high-density polypropylene
packages (P0) and standup pouches (P1), and the dif-
ference in proximate composition during the storage
period of 45 days was assessed. The impact of pack-
aging material in terms of nutrient retention was also
analyzed.
Statistical analysis
The statistical analysis was performed by AGRES-
AGDATA for one way analysis of variance. The results
are the average of the four replicates and their Stand-
ard deviation.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Physical properties of cookies
The physical properties of cookies before and after
baking are given in Table 2. The cookies from Tama-
rind seed had a diameter, thickness and spread ratio
before and after baking was 11.16 cm, 6cm, 1.86 and
12.60 cm, 6.2 cm, 2.03 respectively. The weight loss in
the cookies was about 16.13%. Fig. 1 shows the picto-
rial representation of the cookies, T1 was 50% refined
wheat flour and 50% tamarind seed powder and C was
the control.
Chakraborty et al. (2016) reported biscuits (50% incor-
Flow chart for the preparation of cookies
Treatments
Before Baking After Baking
Diameter(cm)
Thick-ness(cm)
Spread ratio
Weight of cookies (g)
Diameter(cm)
Thick-ness (cm)
Spread ratio
Weight of cookies (g)
Weight loss (%)
T0 10.70 5.6 1.91 38.26 11.04 6 1.84 35.92 6.11
T1 11.16 6 1.86 38.85 12.60 6.2 2.03 32.58 16.13
Composition Control Level of incorporation (%)
T0 T1-50%
Refined Wheat flour(g) 100 50
Tamarind seed flour(g) - 50
Sugar(powdered) (g) 50 50
Milk powder(g) 5 5
Vanilla powder(g) 1 1
Ammonium bicarbonate(g) 0.5 0.5
Shortening agent(g) 50 50
Table 2. Physical properties of Tamarind seed flour incorporated cookies.
T0- 100 % Refined Wheat flour; T1-50% Tamarind seed flour+ 50% Refined Wheat flour
Table 1. Formulations of Tamarind seed flour incorporated cookies.
196
Sultana, F. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 194 - 197 (2021)
poration of tamarind seed flour with wheat flour) that
their diameter, thickness and spread ratio after baking
was about 43.33 mm, 10.86mm and 39.87. In the pre-
sent study, refined wheat flour was used instead of
wheat flour. Refined wheat flour possessed better rheo-
logical properties when compared to wheat flour. Thus
the difference in the rheological properties of refined
wheat flour and wheat flour attributes to the difference
in diameter, thickness and spread ratio of the control
and Tamarind seed flour incorporated cookies.
Proximate composition of cookies
The moisture, carbohydrate, protein, fat, fibre and ash
of Tamarind seed cookies was 1.62%, 72.52g, 11.26g,
22.98g, 3.25g and 1.12g, respectively as specified in
Table 3.
Chakraborty et al. (2016) reported biscuits (50% incor-
poration of tamarind seed flour with wheat flour) that
have protein, carbohydrate and fat content of
14.48g/100g, 70.48g/100g and 0.93g/100g, respective-
ly. El-Gindyet al. (2015) reported that the biscuits made
with 15% incorporation of Tamarind seed flour had
moisture of 7.82+ 0.5g/100g, carbohydrate of
54.93±0.5 g/100g, protein of 11.62±1.4 g/100g and
fibre content of 3.79+ 0.3g per 100g.
In the present study, the cookies standardization was
done using the protocol as described by Kohajdová et
al. (2014). The cookies preparation required a higher
amount of shortening agent when compared to control,
which resulted in better organoleptic properties than
biscuits. The study observed a significant increase in
carbohydrate, protein, and fibre content in tamarind
seed powder cookies compared to the control. The
increase in carbohydrate content can be attributed to
the polysaccharide nature of Tamarind seed flour. The
increase in protein content of Tamarind seed cookies
states its potential to address protein-calorie malnutri-
tion. The increase in fibre content of Tamarind seed
cookies makes it a healthy dietary choice over conven-
tional cookies
Storage study of cookies
The protein content in high-density polypropylene
packages ranged from 11.26 g to 11.18 g during the
storage period, while in the Standup pouch, the
range was from 11.26 g to 11.19 g specified in
Table 4. The standup pouches proved to better than
high-density polypropylene packages in case of
nutrient retention. The statistical analysis of the
cookies' protein content revealed a significant
difference (0.69% in Standup pouches and 0.71% in
high-density polypropylene packages) among the pack-
aging materials, treatments, and days of storage.
Chemical parameters T0 T1
Moisture (%) 2.45 1.62
Carbohydrate (g) 66.23 72.52
Protein (g) 5.65 11.26
Fat (g) 26.36 22.98
Fibre (g) 0.95 3.25
Ash (g) 0.65 1.12
Table 3. Proximate composition of Tamarind seed flour
incorporated cookies.
Fig. 1. Showing Control (T0) and Tamarind seed cookies
(T1) in Standup pouches.
T1- 50% Refined wheat flour + 50% Tamarind Seed powder
T0-Control
Storage period
P1 P2
T0 T1 T0 T1
0 day 5.65+0.06 11.26+0.23 5.65+ 0.11 11.26+0.14
15 days 5.62+0.17 11.23+0.24 5.64+0.18 11.24+0.21
30 days 5.60+0.06 11.21+0.31 5.62+0.03 11.21+0.06
45 days 5.58+0.06 11.18+0.11 5.60+ 0.03 11.19+0.19
Values are means of 4 replicates. Means in the same column are significantly different at P<0.05
Table 4. Changes in protein content of Tamarind seed flour incorporated cookies.
197
Sultana, F. et al. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 194 - 197 (2021)
Conclusion
The present study concluded a significant increase in
the protein content of the tamarind seed flour incorpo-
rated cookies compared to control. The changes in the
protein content of the Tamarind seed flour incorporated
cookies during storage was negligible. Owing to its
protein-rich nature, the flour can replace conventional
flour, making it a perfectly balanced and functional
food. Further studies on efficient ways of processing
tamarind seeds, value addition on tamarind seed, and
the acceptable study levels on incorporating tamarind
seed flour are desirable.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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Pedogenic characteristics of soil in Melur block, Madurai district,
Tamil Nadu in India: A case study
P. Ramamoorthy*
Department of Soils and Environment, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Madurai
-625104 (Tamil Nadu), India
P. Christy Nirmala Mary
Department of Soils and Environment, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Madurai
-625104 (Tamil Nadu), India
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Article Info
https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13iSI.2828
Received: March 22, 2021
Revised: June 10, 2021
Accepted: June 25, 2021
This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)
journals.ansfoundation.org
Research Article
INTRODUCTION
Soil is an important source of nutrients, house for mi-
croorganisms, plant growth and support for all living
things. Soils are formed from different rocks and miner-
als, and it takes millions of years to develop. Each soil
has its own characteristics and its property, which af-
fects on crop production. Soil taxonomy plays an im-
portant role in classifying soil and advocating its fertility
and capability. Madurai is one of the historical cityin
Tamil Nadu, India, and blessed with different soil type-
based cropping systems and the Vaigai River to prop
up the water supply (Karpagam et al., 2020).
Detailed knowledge on morphological characteristics
and site characteristics viz., landscape positions, slope
percentage, slope length, erosion status, erosion type,
groundwater depth, physiography, presence of stoni-
ness, gravel content, rock out crops are very important
in arriving soil series under soil taxonomy procedure
and derive interpretive groupings for land use planning
(Pinki et al., 2017). Hence the present study was un-
dertaken in Melur block, Madurai District using a ca-
dastral map to study the pedogenic characteristics of
soils.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area
The study area of Melur block, Madurai District of Tamil
Nadu, India is having an area of 3057 ha is located
between 10° 03’ 36” N latitude and 78° 33′ 58″ E longi-
tude (Fig. 1). The average elevation of the Madurai
District, Melur block is 101 m above MSL. The length
of the growing period (LGP) is > 120 days
(Ramamurthy et al., 2009). The climate is semi-arid,
the mean annual summer temperature ranges from40 °
C to 26.3 °C and the mean annual winter temperature
ranges from 29.6 °C to 18 °C, with a mean annual
maximum rainfall of 926.56 mm and minimum rainfall of
723.6 mm.
Abstract
Soil is an important source of human life and agricultural production. Studying on the pedon and its site characteristics pave the
way for understanding the nature of soils and its utility. A study on pedological characterization of soils in Melur block, Madurai
District (Tamil Nadu), was carried out during 2019-2020 using grid sampling with village map/cadastral maps. Soil mapping unit-
based soil samples were collected in Chunampoor, Thuvarangulam, Poonjuthi and Veppapadupu and pedons were character-
ized as per the standard procedure. The results showed that soils were moderately deep to very deep in nature, ranging from
2.5 YR 3/6 to 10YR 4/6. The soil texture varied from sandy clay loam to sandy clay with weak to moderate sub-angular blocky
structure. The consistency of soil varied from slightly hard to very hard when dry, very friable to firm when moist, slightly sticky
to very sticky and slightly plastic to very plastic in wet condition. The crops viz., paddy, sugarcane, banana, groundnut and veg-
etables were very suitable for such type of soil of the Madurai district.
Keywords: Colour, Consistency, Pedons, Plasticity, Soil survey, Texture
How to Cite
Ramamoorthy, P. and Mary, P.C.N. (2021). Pedogenic characteristics of soil in Melur block, Madurai district, Tamil Nadu in
India: A case study. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 13 (SI), 198 - 202. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13iSI.2828
199
Ramamoorthy, P. and Mary, P.C.N. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 198 - 202 (2021)
Methodology
A detailed soil survey was taken in the Melur block us-
ing a cadastral map with a 1: 5000 scale. Soil pedon
sampling was done based on the traverse, grid sam-
pling, road cuts, mini pits and profiles were excavated
with the dimension of 2mX2m X2m dimension from the
benchmark sites. The site characteristics and morpho-
logical characteristics were taken from the profile exca-
vated with the standard procedure at Chunampoor,
Thuvarangulam, Poonjuthi and Veppapadupu by used
standard procedure by Soil Survey Staff (2014).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results on the morphological characteristics of four
soil pedons are presented in Table 1 and Plate 1. The
pedons of 1,3,4 come under the red soil area and the
pedon 2 comes under the black soil. Landscape slope
0 -1% comes under nearly level to gently undulating (1-
3 % slope) and slight to severe erosion and moderately
well-drained conditions.
Horizon differentiation
The pedons 1, 3 and 4 were classified as red soil and
pedon 2 classified under black soil. The pedon 1 had
Ap, B11t, B12t and C horizons. The pedons 2,3 and 4
were Ap, B1t, B2t, B3t, and C; Ap, AB, B1t, B2t and C;
Ap, B11t, B12t and C, respectively. Both red soil series
and black soil had illuvial horizon represented as clay
skins. A similar observation was made by Bhattacharjee
et al. (1977) in the black soils of the Deccan plateau in
India.
Horizon boundary
The horizon of the pedon in the red soil had unique to-
pography of smooth throughout the profile, with the ex-
ception that wavy in Pedon4. In contrast to the above,
black soil (pedon 2) had gradual and smooth bounda-
ries with wavy in nature. The pedon had a heterogene-
ous transition of abrupt, clear, gradual with smooth and
wavy topography. Abrupt, Smooth boundary formation
might be due to ploughed soil nature and the gradual
diffuse boundary was due to the absence of anthropo-
genic activities. A similar trend of results were observed
inAlfisols in the Bako area of Ethiopia (Negassa and
Gebrekidan, 2003).
Soil depth
The depth of the soils of the study area was moderately
deep to very deep. Pedons 1 was moderately deep
(45cm); 2, 4 are deep (<100 cm) and pedon 3 was cat-
egorised as very deep (>100 cm) in nature are present-
ed in Table 1. The Solum depth reflected the balance
between soil formation and soil loss by erosion in any
area, governed by topography and slope. Soil depth
varied from 48 cm to more than 155 cm across 4 pe-
dons, indicating lesser erosion intensities. A similar
type of the result of solum development has been re-
ported in lower and mid plain contrast to upper pedi-
ment based on its landscape position of Rajasthan in
Aravalli Range (Sharma et al., 2020).
Colour
The colour of the pedons varied with hue ranging from
2.5 YR to 7.5YR, value 3 to 4 and chroma 4- 6 in red
soil and hue 10 YR, values varied from 4 to 5 and chro-
ma by 4 to 6 in black soil. 10YR hue was attributed
due to the hydrated oxides of Fe formed under humid
condition. Higher value and chroma observed in pe-
dons might be due to the illuviation of Fe and Al. Low
chroma indicated the aquic condition with poor drain-
age and immature parent material (Samrah et al.,
2019). The colour of the soil changes come under the
different soil properties based viz., mineralogy of soil,
texture, chemical composition, soil moisture content
and landscape position. The same findings of the
Madurai District Melur Block
Fig. 1. Showing study area of Melur block, Madurai district of Tamil Nadu.
200
Ramamoorthy, P. and Mary, P.C.N. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 198 - 202 (2021)
study are reported by Thangasamyet al. (2005) in the
Sivagiri micro- watershed of Chittoor district in Andhra
Pradesh.
Soil texture
The pedons of soil textural classes were classified from
sandy clay loam to sandy clay. This soil textural varia-
tion was ascribed to differences in parent material com-
position, topography, in-situ weathering and clay trans-
location by eluviation and age of soils. A similar trend of
results in textural variation from sandy clay loam to clay
has interpreted the enrichment of clay in lower horizon
due to illuviation or vertical migration of clay in salt-
affected soils of Muktsar District of Punjab
(Sandhu.,2017).
Soil structure
The soil structural pattern of pedons 1,2,3 varied from
weak to moderate in grade, medium in size and sub-
angular blocky nature and pedon 4 are strong in grade,
medium in size and sub-angular blocky nature. The soil
structural changes in pedons were due to higher clay
Pe-don No
Depth of pedon
Tex-ture
Colour (moist)
Structure Consistence
Bnd Roots
Cutans D M sti pls
Pedon 1. Location :Chunampoor
Ap 0-14 SCL 2.5 YR 3/4 1fsbk Sh fi ms mp Cs fvf -
B11 15-35 SCL 2.5 YR 2.5/4 2msbk Sh fi ms mp Cs fvf -
B12t 35 -48 SC 2.5 YR 2.5/4 2msbk H fi Vs vp Cs - present
C 48 Non calcareous Gneiss with Feldspar
Pedon. 2. Location :Thuvarangulam
Ap 0-12 SC 10 YR 4/4 2msbk Vh vfi Vs vp Cs fvf -
B1t 12-33 SCL 10 YR 5/6 1mgr H fi Ms mp Cs - -
B2t 33-44 SC 10 YR 5/4 1msbk Vh vfi Vs vp Cs - present
B3t 44- 100 SC 10 YR 4/4 2msbk Vh vfi Vs vp Cs - present
C 100 Weathered gneiss
Pedon .3. Location :Poonjuthi
Ap 0-21 SCL 7.5 YR 4/6 2msbk H fi ms mp Cs mvf -
AB 22-39 SC 2.5 YR 4/8 1msbk Vh vfi Vs vp Cs fvf -
B1t 39-72 SC 2.5 YR 5/6 1msbk Vh vfi Vs vp Cs fvf present
B2t 72-155 SC 2.5 YR 4/6 1msbk Vh vfi Vs vp Cs - present
C 155 Weathered gneiss
Pedon.4. Location :Veppapadupu
Ap 0-35 SCL 2.5 YR4/4 3msbk Sh fi Ss sp Cs mvf -
B11t 35-56 SCL 2.5 YR4/4 3csbk Sh vfi Ss sp Cw mvf -
B12t 56-71 SCL 2.5 YR4/4 3msbk Sh vfi Ss sp Cw mvf -
C 71 Weathered quartz and feldspatic gneiss
Abbrevations: i). Texture: S- sand, LS- loamy sand, SL-sandy loam, L-loam, SiL-siltyloam,Si-silt, ScL- sandy clay loam ,CL- clay loam, SiCL- silty clay loam, SC- sandy clay, SiC- silty clay loam, .C- clay. ii).Grade: 0-structureless, 1-weak, 2-moderate, 3-strong; Size; vf- very fine, f-fine, m-medium, c-coarse, vc-very coarse,iii). Type; gr-granular, cr-crumb, clr-columnar, pr-prismatic, pl-platy, abk- angular blocky, sbk- subangular blocky, sg- single grain, m-massive, c-cloddy, iv). Dry; l-loose, s-soft, sh-slightly hard, h-hard, vh-very hard, eh-extremely hard,. Moist: l-loose, vfr-very friable, fr-friable, fi- firm, vfi –very firm, efi – extremely firm,. Stickiness: so – non sticky, ss- slightly sticky, ms- moderately sticky, vs- very sticky. Plasticity: po- non plastic, sp- slightly plastic, mp-moderately plastic, vp- very plastic; v). (Kd): Disseminated materials, Masses, Nodules, Concretions, vi). Roots: Quantity: f- few (<1 per area), c- common (1-5), m- many (>5); Size: vf- very fine, f- fine, m-medium, c- coarse; vc- very coarse; Location (Loc): between peds (p), cracks ©, throughout (t); Shape(Shp): tubular/ irregular/ vesicular/ interstitial.
Table 1. Morphological characteristics of pedons in Melur block of Madurai District.
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Ramamoorthy, P. and Mary, P.C.N. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 198 - 202 (2021)
content in the subsurface horizons when compared to
surface horizons. A similar result of the low clay con-
tent of soil and low organic carbon content status was
the reason to the weak structural formation of pedons
in Alluvial Soils of Rajasthan in India(Samrahet al.,
2019).
Soil consistency
The dry consistency ranged from slightly hard to very
hard in nature and it might be due to the presence of
fine-textured nature. The moist consistency had a
range of firm to very firm, but the wet consistency
ranged from slightly sticky to very sticky and slightly
plastic to high plastic in nature. The same trend of re-
sults was also reported by Christy (2020) in the Vaigi
river basin, Madurai District, Tamil Nadu in India.
Roots and pores
The fine, medium and tubular to irregular roots could
be seen in the pedons due to the cultivation of coconut,
banana, paddy and vegetables.
Cutans
Clay cutans with slickenside were seen in the pedons
of 1and 2, which might be due to the clay illuviation in
Bt horizon. Similar results were observed on the west
coast of southern Karnatakasoils(Patil and Kumar,
2014).
From the above results, it was confirmed that red
soils are formed from granite gneiss parent material.
They are dominated by kaolinite clay minerals in this
area. The soil texture is sandy clay loam to clay
loam, so these soils are more water holding capacity
and water retention type are also. Soil comes under
subangular blocky in nature, so the soil holds more
nutrient, and thus plant-available nutrients are high.
Hence they are highly suitable for field crops and all
vegetables.
Pedon : 1 Pedon : 2
Pedon : 3 Pedon : 4
Plate 1. Pedon 1 -4.Eachprofileshowing the clearly smooth wavy boundary,, roots and clay cutans.
202
Ramamoorthy, P. and Mary, P.C.N. / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13 (SI), 198 - 202 (2021)
Conclusion
The present study concluded that the morphological
characteristics of soils of Melur block, Madurai District,
are fully developed in nature and classified as Alfisol
soil order of Irugur and Vygloam benchmark soil se-
ries. The crops viz., paddy, sugarcane, banana,
groundnut and vegetables like okra, brinjal, tomato,
chillies, cluster bean, cucumber etc. are very suitable
for this area. Thus there is a substantial and signifi-
cant addition of information to the existing knowledge
on the soils of Melur block Madurai District.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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ISSN 0974-9411 (Print) ISSN 2231-5209 (Online)Volume 13 Special Issue (SI) 2021
Special issue : Multi-dimensional Approaches in Transforming Agriculture