japan's international cooperation for educational...

2010/ED/EFA/MRT/PI/04

Background paper prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2010

Reaching the marginalized

Japan’s International Cooperation for Educational Development: Review of Prospects for Scaling up

Japan’s Aid to Education

Kazuhiro Yoshida2009

This paper was commissioned by the Education for All Global Monitoring Report as background information to assist in drafting the 2010 report. It has not been edited by the team. The views and opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author(s) and should not be attributed to the EFA Global Monitoring Report or to UNESCO. The papers can be cited with the following reference: “Paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2010, Reaching the marginalized” For further information, please contact [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

(Draft Final Ver. 05192009)

Japan’s International Cooperation for Educational Development: Review of Prospects for Scaling up Japan’s Aid to Education

Kazuhiro Yoshida, Hiroshima University

Japan has been one of the major donors providing official development assistance (ODA) for developing countries. During the period between 1991 through to 2000, it took the position of a leading donor in terms of the annual net disbursement until it began to contract its scale, slipping into the 5th largest donor in 2008. Meanwhile, on the multilateral aid, Japan continues to be the second largest subscribers/contributors to UNESCO and the World Bank (both IBRD and IDA). This paper, commissioned by the Global Monitoring Report team of UNESCO, provides a brief overview of Japan’s ODA, including its goals and priorities, with particular reference to the support for education sector. It discusses how Japan contributes to the improvement of basic education in developing countries, and what efforts are being made in further enhancing quality and quantity of its assistance. The analysis covers the period after the 1990s and mainly over the 2000s. 1. Japan’s ODA – an Overview 1.1 Goals and Priorities of Japan’s ODA (1) ODA Charter Objectives, policies and priorities of Japan’s ODA are provided for by the ODA Charter. The current Charter is a fully revised version from the previous one and was adopted by the Cabinet in August 2003. In comparison with its first 1992 version, the 2003 Charter has given relatively more emphasis on the poverty reduction and highlighted human security as an addition to its philosophical backbone 1 . At the outset, it stipulates the objectives of Japan’s ODA as “to contribute to the peace and development of the international community, and thereby to help ensure Japan’s own security and prosperity.” It sets ODA as means of international cooperation, putting it in the context of Japan’s foreign

Figure 1. Japan’s ODA Policy Framework

ODA Charter

Medium-Term Policy on ODA

Country Assistance ProgramsSector Specific Initiatives

Individual Projects

(Source) MOFA Webpage http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/ gaiko/oda/seisaku/ wakugumi.html

1 The basic tone of the Charter remains unchanged from its first edition, adopted by the cabinet in 1992. The 1992 Charter focused on global issues, Basic Human Needs, human resource development and other cooperation for improvement and dissemination of technologies, infrastructure improvement and structural adjustment as five priority areas.

http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001528/152833e.pdf

http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/EXTANNREP/EXTANNREP2K8/0,,contentMDK:21919476%7EmenuPK:5405486%7EpagePK:64168445%7EpiPK:64168309%7EtheSitePK:5164354,00.html

http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj

Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2010 Japan’s International Cooperation for Educational Development (Draft Final Ver. 05192009)

policy of interdependence. To achieve the stated objectives, the Charter sets out the following five points of basic policies: （i） Supporting self-help efforts of developing countries According to the Charter,

The most important philosophy of Japan's ODA is to support the self-help efforts of developing countries based on good governance, by extending cooperation for their human resource development, institution building including development of legal systems, and economic and social infrastructure building, which constitute the basis for these countries’ development.”

It takes note that Japan has been actively supporting “economic and social infrastructure development, human resource development, and institution building” especially in East Asia. （ii） Perspective of “human security” The term human security is relatively a new one, advocated passionately by Ms. Sadako Ogata, former head of UNHCR and current president of Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). The Charter says:

In order to address direct threats to individuals such as conflicts, disasters, infectious diseases, it is important not only to consider the global, regional, and national perspectives, but also to consider the perspective of human security, which focuses on individuals. Accordingly, Japan will implement ODA to strengthen the capacity of local communities through human resource development.

（iii） Assurance of fairness The Charter pays attention to “the condition of the socially vulnerable, and the gap between the rich and the poor as well as the gap among various regions in developing countries” with particular emphasis on gender equality. Two additional points of policies are: （iv） Utilization of Japan’s experience and expertise （v） Partnership and collaboration with the international community Following these objectives and policies, the Charter identifies four priority issues to be addressed by ODA: poverty reduction, sustainable growth, addressing global issues and peace-building. In the area of poverty reduction that is a key development goal shared by the international community, Japan will “give high priorities to providing assistance to such sectors as education, health care and welfare”, among others and will “support human and social development in the developing countries”. For sustainable growth, it provides assistance for the development of socioeconomic infrastructure, and for the development of institutions and human resource development. Region-wise, the charter clearly mentions Asia as a priority for Japan, while it gives references to all the other regions.

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(2) Medium-Term ODA Policy For an efficient, effective and coherent implementation of ODA, the new medium-term ODA policy has been prepared, approved by the inter-ministerial board on economic cooperation2 in February, 2005. It elaborates on ways to translate the strategy on priority issues into a concrete set of policies, along with country assistance programs. The Medium-Term Policy illustrates the key concepts of the priority issues identified by the ODA Charter, presents approaches and concrete examples to address the issues. The Policy clarifies the process of strengthening aid policy formulation and aid implementing system, stresses the need to enhance local capacity of aid delivery by establishing Local ODA Task Force, but it does not specify the country priority or priority sector within the country which is dealt with by Country Assistance Program for each country. (3) Country Assistance Programs For major aid recipient countries, the government of Japan prepares Country Assistance Programs with an aim of efficient and effective implementation of ODA with integrity and coherence. In preparing the Programs, the volume of aid, balance between types of aid, strategic importance of the country, needs of assistance for global development issues, regional balance, and in-country aid environment were holistically considered. Task forces for formulating the Programs were set up both in Tokyo and in country and made consultation with key stakeholders. Each Country Assistance Program (CAP) covers development issues and current situations, the country’s own development plan, importance of Japan’s assistance, direction and priority areas and issues of assistance. Table 1. Countries with Country Assistance Programs Low-Income Countries (16) Middle-Income (12)

Year

pre

pare

d fir

st (2

8)

2000 Bangladesh*, Vietnam*, Ghana*, Tanzania*, Kenya

Thailand*, Egypt*, Philippines*, Peru

2001 China, 2002 Cambodia, Zambia, Malaysia*, Tunisia, Nicaragua 2004 Mongolia, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, 2005 Pakistan 2006 India, Uzbekistan, Laos, Kazakhstan, 2007 Ethiopia, 2008 Kyrgyz Rep., Senegal, Tajikistan Bolivia

Under Preparation (4+4)

Madagascar, Mozambique, Nepal, Uganda

Angola, Honduras, Jordan, Morocco,

(Note) The Program for countries with an asterisk has been updated in a subsequent year. (Source) MOFA Website http://www.mofa.go.jp/Mofaj/Gaiko/oda/seisaku/enjyo.html

As Table 1 above shows, 28 CAPs have been prepared so far, and 8 new CAPs are under preparation (as of April 2009). In 2000, the first set of CAPs were prepared for 9 countries and most of them have since been updated in a recent year. It is possible to interpret that the country priority and significance of needs are guiding the preparation and updating of 2 Presently this is replaced by the Council of Overseas Economic Cooperation (see Section 1.4 (4)).

3

http://www.mofa.go.jp/Mofaj/Gaiko/oda/seisaku/enjyo.html


the CAP3. (4) Sector-Specific Initiatives Japan has launched important initiatives in the areas of global issues, including ones for basic education, gender and development, infectious diseases, health, water, and environment (see Annex Table A2). The present paper discusses the initiative on basic education in the subsequent section. 1.2 Functions and Roles of Key ODA Players In Japan, the Cabinet Office and the 12 ministries and agencies are involved in ODA. To ensure coherency between strategy, policy and implementation, Japan has been undertaking a reform of the ODA system. The Cabinet established the Council of Overseas Economic Cooperation in April 2006 as a strategic decision-making body, chaired by Prime Minister, with four members: Chief Cabinet Secretary, Ministers of Foreign Affairs, Finance, and Economy, Trade and Industry. The Council has strengthened roles of central direction, replacing those previously played by Board of Overseas Economic Cooperation represented by all the ODA-related sections of the government, headed by Chief Cabinet Secretary. Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) is responsible for planning and coordination of aid policy. Each of the 13 governmental sections have an ODA budget, but that of MOFA and Ministry of Finance together account for most of the total ODA budget (See Annex Table A3). Annex 3 explains the process of budget preparation in detail. Japan has three types of main instrument for delivering bilateral aid: technical cooperation, loan aid and grant aid. Technical cooperation is one form of grant in aid, and in early times it referred to sending experts to developing countries or receiving trainees to Japan. Technical cooperation implemented by Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) evolved to include supply of equipment and materials together with sending experts, thus shaping a technical cooperation project with multiple components. Until September, 2008, JICA, MOFA and Japan Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC) were three major bodies for executing Japan’s ODA. JICA implemented technical cooperation and some parts of grant aid, JBIC through its ODA arm implemented loan aid, and MOFA managed grant aid. This has changed drastically in October 2008 with the start of the new JICA, which took over the entire loan aid operations and much of the grant aid. The new JICA is thus expected to produce a synergy effect, enabling more flexible and effective responses to development challenges. Box 1. Management Structure of Education Aid Delivery – New JICA With added roles to implement loan aid and a large chunk of grant aid in addition to conventional roles for technical cooperation, the new JICA is well suited to enhance coherency in the education aid delivery, following the principles and priority set by the ODA Charter, Medium-Term ODA Policy,

3 See Annex Table 1 for the reference to education sector in CAP for sample countries.

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Country Assistance Programs and Sector Initiatives set by the government. JICA has7 regional departments (Southeast Asia I and Oceania, Southeast Asia II, East and Central Asia, South Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, Africa, Middle East and Europe). They will play pivotal roles in preparing the implementing guidelines through dialogue with developing countries and formulating projects by flexibly utilizing the three types of aid instruments. In parallel, six sector and thematic departments collaborate with regional departments in responding to various development needs by using their expertise. The education sector is a part of Human Development Department, which has two groups: Basic Education Group and Higher Education and Social Security Group. At the country level, all the loan operating sections under the former JBIC have been integrated into the new JICA offices. Increasing authority is delegated to the country office, which participate in Local ODA Task Force together with the embassy. The Task Force have been established in 78 countries (as of October 2008) and contribute to the aid policy formulation, improved aid effectiveness and cooperate with other aid agencies.

1.3 Factors behind the Strategic Direction This section will discuss (1) the process of formulating the ODA charter, (2) other factors influencing the strategic direction of Japan’s ODA, and (3) trend of commitment and disbursement of ODA with some analysis. (1) The Process of Formulating the Charter Looking at the process of formulating the Charter will indicate whose views have had influences in determining the contents. In this regard, the role played by the Board on Comprehensive ODA Strategy was significant above all. In June 2002, the Foreign Ministry instituted the Board, chaired by the Minister herself. The establishment of the Board was based on the proposal presented by the Second Consultative Committee on ODA Reform, which requested ODA to realize the public participation, enhancing the transparency and reinforcing the coordinating function of the MOFA on ODA. The Board met monthly, and the Minister invited an open and free discussion on the direction of ODA. In addition to originally expected roles to discuss and formulate Country Assistance Programs, the Board proposed that the ODA Charter be revised to be more responsive to the new global environment for development and ODA, set up a working team within the Board, and subsequently prepared an input paper that raised main issues to be included in the new Charter. Its 18 members included experts on development, former staff members of international organizations, business leaders, NGO representatives and journalists. Most of key points raised by the Board - the grasping of the global context, principles (balance between development and environment, anti-military use, democratization, market orientation, basic human rights), and most importantly priorities (global issues, poverty reduction, peace- building, human resource development, policy support and infrastructure improvement) were all incorporated into the Charter drafted by the Ministry

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of Foreign Affairs (MOFA). In parallel, the Liberal Democratic Party, the ruling political party also prepared a draft paper on The Direction of Reforming ODA. Furthermore, consultation was made with the general public through a number of town meetings, NGOs, business communities, implementing agencies (JICA, JBIC), international organizations, and ODA-related ministries. (2) Occasional statements by top political leaders A new initiative – a policy package and a numerical target have been often announced on such important occasions as G8 summit and an international conference, to signify Japan’s political commitment on its contribution to certain development issues. For instance, in June 2002, the then prime minister Junichiro Koizumi announced the Basic Education for Growth Initiative (BEGIN). In the same month on the occasion of G8 Summit in Kananaskis, he stated that Japan would provide “assistance totaling more than 250 billion yen (approx. $2 billion then) over the next five years for education in low income countries which are facing difficult challenges in achieving the Dakar Framework of Action for EFA.” BEGIN set the tone of subsequent increase in the assistance to basic education (details in the following section). This commitment has since been fulfilled4. In August, 2002 at the World Summit on Sustainable Development, Mr. Koizumi announced Koizumi Initiative on Concrete Actions of Japanese Government to be taken for Sustainable Development - Towards Global Sharing. The initiative encompassed a range of development issues including education (BEGIN), trade, energy, food and environment, reconfirmed the existing commitments, and proposed the " the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development" which started from 2005 with strong financial support by the government of Japan. Toward Gleneagles Summit in 2005, Mr. Koizumi sent a message to the world, especially to Africa, indicating that Japan would increase its ODA volume by US$10 billion in aggregate over the next five years, compared to the level of ODA on the basis of 2004 net ODA disbursement, double ODA to Africa in the next 3 years, cancel debt of US$4.9 billion of debt for Africa under Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCs) Initiative, and implement “Health and Development Initiative” amounting to US$ 5 billion over the next five years -with African people being major beneficiaries. In May, 2008, on the occasion of Fourth Tokyo International Conference on African Development, the then Prime Minister Fukuda promised to double ODA to Africa within 5 years into 2012. This will be an increase from the current US$0.9 billion to US$1.8 billion on a disbursement basis.

4 Education assistance to low-income countries amounted to JY64.8 billion, JY40.3 billion, 51.1 billion, during 2002, 2003 and 204 respectively. (MOFA 2008 on BEGIN: 25)

6

http://www.mofa.go.jp/Mofaj/Gaiko/oda/bunya/archive/edu_initiative.html

http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/africa/policy.pdf

http://www.mofa.go.jp/POLICY/economy/wef/2009/fact7.pdf


At the World Economic Forum in Davos in January, 2009, Prime Minister Aso announced that Japan is prepared to provide ODA totaling more than 1.5 trillion yen (equivalent to US$ 17 billion) to Asian countries stricken by the global economic crisis and to increase the volume of ODA by 20 percent on a net basis. This target of ODA for Asia has since been adjusted upward to spend up to 2.0 trillion yen, as announced by the premier during the G20 London Summit in April 20095. (3) Trend in Japan’s ODA Amount According to DAC data, Japan held a leading position in the total amount of ODA on net disbursement basis during the 1990s (1991-2000). However, its position fell to the fifth by 2008 (Figure 2). Here we examine three factors that explain this trend: Exchange rate, Yen Loan, absolute amount (relative to other countries).

Figure 2. Trend in the ODA of Major DAC Countries(Net Disbursement, Current US$ million)

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

US

Germany

UK

France

Japan

Canada

Italy

(source) By author based on OECD.Stat Extracts

The amount shown in Figure 2 is the net disbursement according to the DAC accounting method, combining bilateral flows and contributions and subscriptions to multilateral organizations. The latter account for US$2721 million or a quarter of the total US$ 9362 million in 2008, and the remaining US$6641 million comprises grants and loans. While the grants including grant aid and technical cooperation together summed up to US$ 7746

illion, the loan aid marked a negative flow of minus US$ 1105 million in 2008.

m

5 It is possible that the 2.0 trilliion yen target will be achieved in 5 years based on the track record (the trend of volume of bilateral aid and the regional distribution, see Figure 2 and 4), according to author’s estimate.

7

http://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/asospeech/2009/01/31davos.html


Meanwhile, the size of operational volume can be grasped by looking at figures in gross terms which is referred to as ‘project budget’ and does not count in the debt repayment - this will give a different picture. The presence of loan aid is quite significant in Japan’s ODA in the overall picture. With US$ 6934 million being disbursed, it represents nearly 40% of the total operations in the case of 2008 on the gross disbursement basis (Table 2). The difference between the net and gross disbursement for loan aid represents the repayment of loans

ble 2. Japan's millioNet Disburs Gross Disb

, which now takes a negative flow of funds.

Ta ODA by Type (US$ n, 2008) ement ursement Total Grants 7,746 7,746 Loan aid -1,105 6,934 Total Bilateral 16,641 4,680 Multilateral 2,721 2,721 Total ODA 9,362 17,410 (Source)

http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/gaiko/oda/shiryo/jisseki.html By author based on OECD.Stat Extracts and MOFA website:

DAC asks its member countries to use US dollars fore reporting, and the fluctuation of exchange rate between Japanese Yen and US dollar often makes a big difference. For instance, one dollar was 107.8 Japanese Yen in 2000, and was JY121.5 in 2001, the rate specified by DAC.

Figure 3. Trend of Japan's Bilateral ODA (current US$ million)

10,425

13,171

15,900

8,553

14,680

10,277

12,57213,462

9,689

11,102

13,190

11,665

5,9176,3356,692

6,6417,458

10,4767,262

5,778

10,4079,768

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

18,000

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Grant aid Tech Coop Loan Disbursed

Gross Total Net Total

(source) By author based on MOFA various years.

CY

Thus, the total amount of ODA reported to DAC is influenced by the movement of all these items. In Figure 3, the difference between the gross and net total ODA represents the repaid amount. The year 2005 saw a reversal of declining trend, which was largely the result of two major debt-related activities: a 3.2 billion dollar debt relief for Iraq and a 1.3

8


billion dollar debt deferment for Indonesia which was hit by a major earthquake. The total net ODA volume declined sharply thereafter, coincided with the reduction in the grant aid, and it is also partly explained by the increasing repayment of loans. The volume of technical cooperation has been relatively stable over the period observed. The loan assistance was used heavily to quickly respond to the Asian financial crisis in the late 1990s. Both grant aid and loan aid have been used flexibly in meeting the immediate and mergency needs.

n and other global challenges encapsulated in the Millennium Development Goals.

e

Over the last decade, the allocation of aid across sectors appears to have been fairly stable. Figure 4 shows the trend of distribution of Japan’s aid across sectors. The amount that is not sector-allocable, such as commodity aid, general program assistance, debt relief, humanitarian aid, administration, and others are excluded for the sake of exhibiting the pattern clearly. The economic infrastructure and services have absorbed a largest share consistently. A closer look reveals, however, that education and other social sectors together are taking up an increasing share, reflecting the government intention to fortify its support for poverty reductio

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Multi-Sector

Production

Econ Infra

Other Social

Education

Figure 4. Distribution of Japan's ODA by Major Sector (Calendar year, commitment basis)

(Notes)"Other Social": health, population/reproductive health, water supply/sanitation, government/civil society, other social infrastructure/services"Economic infrastructure & services (Econ Infra): transport/storage, communication, energy, banking and financial services, business/otehr services"Production": agriculture, forestry, fishing, industry, mining, construction, trade, tourismFigures include asssitance for Eastern Europe and graduated countries, and excludes sector-unclassified aid (e.g. commodity aid, general program assistance, debt relief, humanitarian aid, administration, etc.).(Source) By author based on MOFA various years.

Region-wise, a clear shift is observed in the long term. Asia had received the largest portion of Japan’s aid for most of the period under study, but after a gradual decline, Asia’s leading position has been taken over by Africa in most recent years (Figure 5). This is another evidence of Japan’s commitment to address global development challenges, but is also due to the fact that the net disbursement figures significantly discount the contribution of loan

9


aid that has a strong emphasis on Asia.

uch sharper decline than the allocation for domestic public works

(Source) MOFA 2009

Figure 5. Trend in Bilateral ODA by Region (net disbursement)

Finally, to exhibit the fiscal commitment, we look at the general account budget (that excludes the fiscal investment and loan program budget, which is the source for the large part of the loan aid). Taking 1997 as the base year, Figure 6 plots the annual trend of allocation for ODA (of general account only), which most disappointingly shows the continuous reduction, mand related spending.

The reduction in the budget allocation of ODA was prompted when Japan’s bubble economy burst in the early 1990s. Since then the Government of Japan has been taking a belt-tightening policy. This position was firmly continued since the Koizumi government launched a rigid fiscal reform program. In the Basic Policies for Economic and Fiscal Management and Structural Reform decided by the Cabinet in July 2006, states that the government will aim at reducing costs, improving efficiency of budget execution and prioritization, while delivering on the existing commitments made on ODA. It further states that as a part of efforts to cut down on general expenditures, ODA will be reduced by the range of 2 to 4 percent annually up to 20116. Figure 6 confirms that this policy has been strictly applied to ODA at the maximum scale of curtailment. ODA general account budget has been slashed by 4% every year until the most recent year FY2009.

6 The Basic Policies set the numerical target of minus 3 to 1 percent of reduction in the public works-related expenditures during the same period, as well as for social securities, personnel and other expenditures.

10

http://www.ebenkyo.com/00187_ebenkyo.html

http://www.keizai-shimon.go.jp/cabinet/2006/decision060707.pdf

http://www.keizai-shimon.go.jp/cabinet/2006/decision060707.pdf


102

108106

108109109109111110

107

107

118

969797979899100100

100100100100

104

109

109 110

7881

84

9491

87

98

82

90(1049)

90(1047)

90(1047) 87

(1015)

78(911) 73

(858) 70(817) 67

(786)65

(760) 62(729)

60(700)

57(672)

100(11687)

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Generalexpenditure

Defence-related spending

Public works-related spending

ODA generalaccount

Figure 6. Trends in Japan’s ODA Budget and Other Major Expenditure Items

(Note) Numbers in parentheses for ODA general account are budget figures in Japanese Yen (billion).(Source) MOFA 2009 Figure III-3, updated by author.

(Fiscal Year)

2. Japan’s ODA in Education Sector

n Cooperation

es, cuts through the Charter, the Policy nd Initiative, and Country Assistance Programs.

of support for poverty reduction and social development, one

effectively tackling with various

2.1 Goals and Priorities in Educatio(1) Education in the ODA Charter As shown in the foregoing discussions, promoting human resources development and education sits at the center of Japan’s philosophy of development. The term human resource development, hitozukuri in Japanese, is repeatedly used, as it is considered to be a cornerstone of nation-building efforts of developing countries, the concept being formulated based on the own experience of Japan, scarcely endowed with fossil fuel resources such as oil and gas. It is built on the understanding that human being is the central focus of development –means and end of development. Thus, the centrality of human resources development, in which education plays critical rola (2) Education in the Medium-Term Policy The old Medium-term policy prepared in 1999 dedicated one full sub-section on basic education, putting it in the context

of the priority areas. It stated: To receive education is itself a part of fundamental human rights, and at the same time in developing countries, basic education is an important key inproblems such as poverty, population, and environment.

The policy paid attention to least developed countries where universalization of primary education was lagging far behind due to shortages of budget, facilities, educational materials and teachers. It went on in recognizing the New Development Strategy (1996) of

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OECD-DAC which carried objectives of achieving universal primary education and gender equity in primary and secondary education and stressed Japan’s contribution had been along these lines including promotion of girls education in Asia and Africa by supporting

uding school ing.

ive linkages

on will lead to promotion of vocational education and improvement of employability.

assumed to be main means of support rather than olicy-based program support.

and electrification, while ncouraging improvements in governance in the recipient country.”

activities of UNICEF. Specific courses of action included: • Combine cooperation in hard inputs such as school building and facilities with soft

aspects in subject teaching and education administration, inclmanagement, curriculum and material development, teacher train

• Basic education for girl children will be particularly emphasized. • To promote community participation as main actors of development, act

will be pursued with Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteers and NGOs. • Efforts will be made so that support for basic educati

The approach of assistance was built on the past experience in the said areas of education, and generally input-based projects werep Following the decision of the new ODA Charter (2003), the corresponding new Mid-Term ODA Policy adopted in 2005 emphasized that Japan would cooperate with international community toward achieving MDGs. Poverty reduction is mentioned as the first item of Priority Issues. It states that “Poverty has not only an economic dimension, such as low income and expenditure, but also social and political dimensions exemplified by lack of access to basic social services such as education and public health services, gender inequality, and lack of opportunities to participate in the decision-making process.” From this viewpoint, the Policy stated, Japan would contribute to the poverty reduction strategies formulated by developing countries and would implement cross-sectoral assistance that is tailored to the stages of development, by actively assisting in “the enhancement of basic social services, such as education, health services, safe water supply, shelter,e In this new Medium-Term Policy, the reference to basic education is made only once7, as a part of broad assistance for human resources development. However, this should not be interpreted as a shift away from Japan’s emphasis on the critical roles of basic education, but rather as a reflection that basic education has already become an established subsector to be targeted, and does not require full description any more. Nevertheless, it raises some concern that in the absence of concrete statement in the policy, a new set of policies that specifically outlines Japan’s approach to education support needs to be put in place as a

atter of urgency.

obal efforts for achieving

m (3) BEGIN BEGIN is the first government initiative announced publicly as Japan’s policy framework for advancing its support for basic education. Recognizing the principal importance of basic education for human development and nation building and the gl

7 Whereas the support for education in general is referred to ten times in the policy document.

12

http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/africa/education3.html


EFA and MDGs, the initiative sets out the following philosophy:

Emphasis o• n a commitment by the governments of developing countries and support of ownership

• Recognition of cultural diversity and promotion of mutual understanding • sed on collaboration and cooperation with the international community Assistance ba

(partnership) utilization of local resources • Promotion of community involvement and the

• Linkages with other development sectors (such as poverty, water and health)

A-Fast Track Initiative (FTI), and supporting education for post-conflict

ken them together, it is high time cy on the education sector.

achers and improve school management in 10,000 schools over the next 5 years Africa.

• Utilization of Japan's experience in education

For priority areas of cooperation, the Initiative says, Japan will assist in (1) ensuring access to education – through construction of schools and facilities serving

various needs, promoting girls education and non-formal education (2) improving quality of education – through science and math education, teacher training,

and capacity building of schools (3) improving management of education – through support for policy formulation and

education planning, and improving the education administration system. The initiative further touches upon some new activities, including the strengthening of the system of mobilizing domestic knowledge and resources for international cooperation,

orking with EFwnation-building. The Initiative itself does not attach a time-frame, nor clear numerical targets, but it is coupled with the statement made by the then prime minister who indicated the volume of ducation sector assistance over the 5 years from 2002. Tae

Japan prepared a new aid poli (4) Foreign Minister’s Speech Foreign Minister Masahiko Koumura made a speech on “Education for All: Human resource Development for Self-Reliance and Growth” in April, 2008, during the week when Japan hosted FTI meetings in Tokyo. He introduced Japan’s basic understanding that “raising a child is a community-wide job” and that for a wholesome development of education, basic, secondary, technical and vocational, and higher education all need to be promoted simultaneously rather than moving from one to the other. In its contribution to achieving EFA, he presented that Japan would (1) further expand and enhance basic education in both quantity and quality, (2) support a variety of levels of education beyond basic education, (3) develop synergy between education and other development sectors, and (4) create partnerships of all members of society, both domestic and international. As concrete measures of support, Mr. Koumura shared Japan’s plan of supporting teacher development in science and math, and of rolling out a school management improvement model with strong community participation (School for All), developed from JICA’s experience in Niger. He also indicated that Japan would help build 1000 schools, train 00,000 te1

in

13


(5) JICA JICA has prepared a series of Thematic Guidelines for each subsector, on Basic Education (2005), Non-Formal Education (2004), Higher Education (Approaches paper, 2003) and has drafted one on Industrial Technical Education and Vocational Training, but no overarching guidelines for the entire education sector. It was in 1994 when the study team in JICA produced a report on “Study on Development Assistance for Education and Development.” The report made three suggestions regarding basic policy toward Japan's aid for education: (1) increase Japan's aid, including that for vocational training, to about 15 percent of total ODA by the year 2000; (2) assign the highest aid priority to basic education; and (3) without focusing on narrowly on basic education alone, identify the stage of development of each country's education, then implement the kind of aid that is most needed. These messages set the baseline for the subsequent education sector operation, but the target has not been reached. Since then, there has been no strategic document produced for the comprehensive education sector that identifies specific subsectoral priority or numerical targets. For one thing, JICA is a body responsible for implementing policies, whereas the policy making is a role of MOFA. There seems to be a sentiment among JICA that this demarcation of roles discourages them from having a clear strategic direction on priority setting. This needs to be unraveled. (6) JBIC The ODA section of ex-JBIC had a rolling three-year medium-term strategy. Human resources development has consistently been one of the priority areas. In its first edition prepared in 1999, it touched on human resources development as one of the 6 priority areas and stated they would support it by providing training, scholarship to study in Japan, and sending experts to developing countries. The description became more concrete and wide-ranging in the second edition published in 2002. The strategy for the first time referred to primary and secondary education that helps reduce poverty and has externalities, while acknowledging roles of vocational and higher education to build foundation for economic growth by raising human resources. The third and final edition8 covering the period of 2005-08 maintained the same tone of the previous edition, and emphasized comprehensive capacity development through education, training and skills development. 2.2 Trend in Japan’s Support for Education (1) International Comparative Perspective Japan has been one of major supporters of education among OECD-DAC countries. All the major education supporting countries have shown an general increase in the volume of aid since 2000. In case of Japan, after marking a conspicuous increase during the first half of the 2000s, the country sits at the fourth position committing US$703 million in 2007, after France, Germany and the United States (Figure 7). Japan’s support for basic education did increase from US$76.7 million in 2000 to US$163.3

8 The 3rd edition identified four priority areas: poverty reduction, a foundation for sustainable development (i.e. infrastructure), global issues and peace building, and human resources development.

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http://gwweb.jica.go.jp/km/FSubject0101.nsf/ff4eb182720efa0f49256bc20018fd25/a43ee3d1bbffb48b492570f2003d0972/$FILE/%E8%AA%B2%E9%A1%8C%E5%88%A5%E6%8C%87%E9%87%9D%E3%80%8C%E5%9F%BA%E7%A4%8E%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E3%80%8D%E8%8B%B1%E6%96%87.pdf

http://gwweb.jica.go.jp/KM/KM_Frame.nsf/FrSWebIndex?OpenFrameset

http://www.jica.go.jp/english/operations/schemes/oda_loans/policy/pdf/e_jisshi_all.pdf


million in 2005, and stays at US$112.5 million in 2007. This is a good indication of its intention to echo the global commitment to achieving EFA, but this tone is watered down its basic education support is put into a comparative perspective with other subsectors.

Figure 7. ODA for Education by Major DAC Countries(Commitment, current US$ million)

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

France

Germany

Japan

Netherlands

United Kingdom

United States


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1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

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Figure 8. ODA to Basic Education by Major DAC Countries (% of total Education ODA commitment)


The allocation to basic education by the same major DAC countries is shown in Figure 8. While many countries present erratic movements over the last decade, it is clear that Japan’s support for basic education, particularly in most recent years is not impressive, with a share of education commitment plunging below the level of 20 percent. Bilateral assistance for education is provided by Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA), JICA,

15


and Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). Figure 9a9 shows the trend of the volume of education aid by major instrument. Technical cooperation has steadily been a dominant aid instrument for the sector, contribution by grant aid has been smaller and relatively stable, while the size of loan aid varies significantly by year. Figure 9b exhibits the subsectoral distribution of education aid during the period of 2001-2007, on the commitment base. The largest portion of education assistance is persistently accounted for by post-secondary education, followed by basic education and then by secondary education. Primary means of assistance for education are: technical cooperation, loan aid, grant aid and Monkasho scholarship.

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Loan

Tech Coop

Grant Aid

Figure 9a. Japan's ODA for Education by Major Instrument (Commitment, Calendar Year, current US$ million)

(source) By author based on MOFA various years.

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200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

UnspecifiedPost-SecSecondaryBasic

(source) By author based on OECD.Stat Extracts, accessed on Apr.16, 2009

Figure 9b. Japan's ODA for Education by Subsector (Commitment, Calendar year, current US$ million)

9 Amounts shown in Figure 9a do not correspond with those used in the subsequent sections on each major aid instrument, due to differences in calendar/fiscal year, currency denomination, and methods of classification. They are also slightly different from amounts in Figure 9b.

16


(2) Technical Cooperation by JICA Education support by JICA increased from the level of JY 13 billion in 1991 to annually JY30 billion or more during 2001-2003, which subsequently declined to JY19 billion in 2006, representing 12.7% of total JICA operations (JICA 2008:5).

0.0

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4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

12.0

14.0

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Basic Ed Higher EdTVET Others

(Source) By author based on JICA 2008

Figure 10a. JICA's Technical Cooperation in Education (Fiscal year J.Yen billion )

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Others

TVET

Higher Ed

Basic Ed

(Source) By author based on JICA 2008

Figure 10b. JICA's Technical Cooperation in Education (Subsectoral Share %)

Figures 10a and 10b exhibit the trend of JICA’s technical cooperation that can largely be classified into three subsectors of basic education, higher education, and technical and vocational education and training (TVET). These three subsectors are pillars of JICA’s education support and TVET has up to the early 2000s taken a leading position, reflecting the government policy that emphasized promoting human resources development. This trend changed after the World Education Conference in Dakar (2000) and the Millennium Development Goals adopted by UN (2001) both stressed the importance of primary/basic

17


education. Reflecting this global environment, support for the basic education by JICA comprising primary, secondary, non-formal education and education administration began to significantly increase since 2000 both in terms of absolute amount and by share. Of basic education, spending for primary education took the largest share in 2006, exceeding J. Yen 4 billion, followed by non-formal education (JY2.7 billion) and junior secondary education (JY1.4 billion). (3) Support by Loan Aid For its scale of one project, the amount of loan aid to education sector fluctuates significantly year to year, ranging from JYen 6 to nearly 34 billion during the period observed (Figure 11). Its proportion to the overall annual commitment similarly vary from 1.5 to 13 percent. Turning to the subsectoral distribution, out of 61 education projects financed since 1990, 6 projects were for primary education, 4 for secondary education, 5 for vocational education, and 44 for higher education, the last including 7 scholarship programs for students who study in Japan. China and Indonesia have been major recipients, each receiving 22 and 17 education loans during the same period, and 56 loans were provided to Asian countries. It should be noted that primary education attracted just one project prior to 1990, and in this period, almost all lending was for higher education and research capacity building. Accordingly, while higher education continues to be the dominant subsector, loan aid operations have steadily diversified its purposes in subsector by financing more primary, secondary and technical education, and non-Asian countries have also emerged as recipients in recent years.

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1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

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4.0%

6.0%

8.0%

10.0%

12.0%

14.0%

Education Commitment (Left scale JY billion)Education Share of Total Commitment (Right scale)

Figure 11. Japan's ODA for Education by Loan Aid

(Source) By author based on JICA Website Loan Project Search: http://www.jica.go.jp/

FY

(4) Support by Grant Aid Grant aid, managed by MOFA has diverse schemes of operation, for different modes and purposes10. Of them, the General Project Grant annually takes the largest share. Due to 10 For bilateral grant aid classified as Economic Development Assistance 15 programs are listed: Grant Aid for General Projects(*), Non-Project Grant Aid, Grant Assistance for Grassroots Human Security Projects,

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http://www.jica.go.jp/FY

http://www.jica.go.jp/FY


the declining total allocation for ODA budget, this window of operations also follows the diminishing path. But this scheme by spending around JYen 10-20 billion every year maintains important roles in the overall assistance for education. The average size of the project is 500 to 1000 million yen, and on average 15 or so projects have been financed yearly. Most education projects using this grant scheme is for primary/basic education (Figure 12). In recent years, a number of projects are addressing health, water and sanitation issues in basic education projects, channeling resources through and using the expertise of UNICEF. Grant aid for higher education is largely financed by the Grant Aid for Human Resources Development that provides scholarships. The General Project Grant also provides equipment for higher education institutions.

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Other

TVET

Higher

Non-Formal

Lower Sec

Primary

Figure 12. Japan's ODA for Education by Grant Aid (Fiscal Year JY billion)

(Note) The amount includes General Project Grant, Grant Assistance for Grassroots Human Security Projects and other schemes, but not necessarily representing the entire education sector.(Source) By author based on MOFA various years and JICA data source.

In Ghana, Tanzania and several other countries, Japan’s grant aid has been supporting the implementation of the Poverty Reduction Strategy for budget support. (5) Monkasho Scholarship This is a sizable grant in aid administered by MEXT to invite government-sponsored foreign students and to assist privately-sponsored foreign students. Since 1983, the government has helped boosting the number of foreign students studying in Japan to reach 100,000, which exceeded in 2003. In 2008, the government launched a new plan to increase this number to 300,000 in future. Some 35.7 billion yen was budged for the scholarship in FY 2008, having declined steadily since JY53.1 billion for FY 2001, but still maintain a significant volume.

Grant Assistance for Japanese NGO Projects, Grant Aid for Human Resource Development(*), Grant Aid for Community Empowerment(*), Grant Aid for Poverty Reduction Strategy(*), and others. These add up to JY158.8 billion in FY 2008 (project budget base, MOFA 2009). Those with an asterisk and some other programs are being implemented by the new JICA.

19


Box 2. Scholarship Programs for Foreign Students Among a number of channels from which the Japanese government assists degree-seeking foreign students to study in Japan, Monkasho Scholarship is the biggest in size. In 2008 there were 123,829 foreign students at the higher education level, of whom 9923 were sponsored by the Japanese government, 2,681 were sponsored by the foreign government, and the rest were privately sponsored. Although the number of students sponsored by the Japanese government is less than 10 percent of the total, this contribution seems to have been effective in achieving the plan to increase the number of foreign students. At the beginning of the Plan to Accept 100,000 Foreign Students, there were just 10,428 foreign students, which surged by five-fold to 52,405 in 1993, and further doubled to 109,508 in 2003. Human Resource Development Scholarship is another stable source, for which 4.2 billion yen was allocated in FY2008. Students who have benefited from this program are young government officials from Indonesia, Cambodia, China, Bangladesh, the Philippines, Vietnam, Myanmar, Laos, Mongol, Uzbekistan, and Kyrgyz Republic, totaling 1796 students since the start of the program in 1999. Long-Term Training program of JICA supports personnel involved in international cooperation to pursue post-graduate study and annually receives about 15 students. Loan aid has also assisted students from recipient countries. Total of 76.4 billion yen have been provided to Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand supporting 4119 students. Recently, innovative models of twinning programs are introduced in Yen Loan projects for Malaysia and Indonesia. The significance and steadiness in size of Monkasho Scholarship is a major background factor that pushes up the share of higher education among the education sector aid.

2.3 EFA and Japan’s Education Cooperation In this section, activities of three major ODA players of MOFA, JICA and JBIC will be reviewed. (1) MOFA MOFA played a leading role in revising the new Medium-Term Policy and formulating BEGIN. EFA and education–related MDGs were clearly in the mind of MOFA as a high priority agenda of education development. In fact, BEGIN is a direct response of Japan to contributing to the achievement of EFA goals. A comprehensive evaluation of BEGIN was conducted recently (MOFA, 2008). Japan has been committed to collaborate with other partners in promoting EFA. Since 2007, Japan has been contributing to two trust funds under EFA Fast Track Initiative – Catalytic Fund and Education Program Development Fund11. In 2008, Japan hosted a series of FTI meetings in Tokyo as one of Co-Chairs, and led key decision-making processes. In G8 Hokkaido-Toyako Summit, the Japanese government took a key role in including education as one of the agenda items and highlighting the importance of primary and post-primary education, reassuring that G8 will monitor how the financial gap for low-income countries in achieving universal primary education will be filled.

11 An annual contribution for each trust fund has been US$ 1.2 million.

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http://www.mofa.go.jp/Mofaj/Gaiko/summit/toyako08/doc/doc080714_ka.html


As mentioned earlier, General Project Grants operated by MOFA dedicate most of education support for basic education. During the period of 2001-2007, the total amount of General Project Grant for basic education has been in the range of JY 10 billion to 13 billion (Figure 13). Of this, the largest portion was used for basic education school construction, to expand access in most difficult areas mostly in Sub-Saharan African countries (Cameroon, Mali, Senegal, Angola, Mozambique etc.). Activities for the improvement of education quality emerged as the second pillar of focus using this scheme that included provision of facilities for textbook printing, construction of teacher training colleges. This coincides with the priority on quality enhancement emphasized by BEGIN. There is a case in Bangladesh that Japan’s grant was used to improve local education administration, working closely with UNICEF (MOFA 2008:26). However, apart from this exceptional case, grant aid has not been tapped in so far to strengthen the educational management and administrative capacity.

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1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Access to basic education

Quality Improvement

Management

(Source) By author based on MOFA (2008)

Figure 13. Support for Basic Education by General Project Grant (Fiscal Year JY billion)

The school construction using the grant aid of Japan has once been criticized of its relatively very high unit cost and of lack of participation by local community (MOFA 2002b). These aspects have since been improved, but the scheme needs a fundamental reform to make the mechanism more harmonized within the local framework of aid coordination (MOFA 2005:36). Among other types of grant operations, three types of grant aid for Grassroots Human Security, Japanese NGO's Projects, and Community Empowerment serve important sources for basic education support. These are supporting primary school construction, quality improvement and school management, with community participation. From Grassroots Human Security grant aid, some JY 3 to 4 billion were spent annually during 2002-04 on basic education. Table 3 illustrate that the grant aid has intensified its focus on low income countries, and least developed countries in particular. During the period 2002-07, nearly two-thirds of the

21


total grant was spent on least developed countries.

Table 3. Grant Aid for Basic Education (JYen billion, share of total grant in bracket) Fiscal Year Low-income Lower

Middle-income Upper

Middle-Income Total LDC Low-Income 1996-2001 26.9

(41.4%) 17.2

(26.5%) 17.6 (27.2%)

3.2 (4.9%)

64.8 (100%)

44.0 (67.9%) 2002-2007 46.7

(63.9%) 19.5

(26.6%)

5.4 (7.4%)

1.5

(2.1%)

73.0

(100%) 66.1 (90.5%)

(Source) MOFA 2008:28 (BEGIN)

(2) JICA JICA started to intensify its assistance in basic education after 1990. It has since accumulated rich experiences in technical cooperation projects most notably in teacher training in math and science, administration in local education offices and school management (See Annex 5 for lists of JICA-assisted education projects.). Strengthening of Mathematics and Science in Secondary Education（SMASSE） Project12 in Kenya and Project for the Improvement of Teaching Method in Mathematics, PROMETAM, in Honduras have respectively become a successful model and are being expanded into neighboring countries. Support to the improvement of school management through Community Participation in Niger (School for all) is another achievement that supports the bottom-up participatory process of school improvement. With the success of this project, the model has been expanded to cover all the nation in cooperation with the World Bank.

0

10

20

30

40

50

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Others (Inclusive, ICT)

Management

Teacher Development

Non-Formal

Girls Education

School Construction

(Source) JICA 2008 (Chart 2.11)

Figure 14. JICA's Technical Cooperation in Basic Education (number of projects)

12 In its third phase that has started in 2009, the project also covers primary education, and thus has been renamed as Strengthening of Mathematics and Science Education (SMASE).

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In contrast to the General Project Grant, Technical Cooperation during the period under the evaluation of BEGIN had a clear focus on issues related to quality improvement. A majority of projects under this scheme using project-type technical cooperation and technical assistance addressed improvement of teaching and learning quality through teacher development, often focusing on science and math education. School management has been another issue being enhanced by using the technical cooperation (Figure 14). Meanwhile, a project supporting school construction has not been a major element, presenting a clear demarcation with the General Project Grant. According to the Guidelines for Basic Education of 2005, JICA sets priority issues to be addressed including quantitative expansion and qualitative improvement, reducing gender disparity, promoting non-formal education, and improving educational management. The review of JICA’s technical cooperation reveals that they have placed primary emphasis on qualitative improvement, providing 38 projects during 2000-2007, while 7 projects focused on assuring access to basic education, and 12 projects address improvement of education management. These issues correspond to EFA goals. These projects are contributing to improving access and completion of primary education, reducing gender disparity responding to urgent needs of the countries and by advancing EFA causes. (3) JBIC The scale of one project is significantly larger for loan operations. JBIC has provided loans to 6 projects in basic education as listed in Table 4. Table 4. Loan Aid to Basic Education Country Project Fiscal Year

(commitment) Loan

(JY mill.) Philippines Third Elementary Education Project 1996 11,122

Pakistan Balochistan Middle Level Education Improvement Project

1996 3,917

Philippines Secondary Education Development and Improvement Project

1999 7,210

Morocco Rural Secondary Education Expansion Project 2003 8,935

Algeria Earthquake-Affected Education Sector Reconstruction Project

2004 2,850

Indonesia ICT Utilization Project for Educational Quality Enhancement in Yogyakarta Province

2005 2,911

(Source) MOFA 2008:30

In the Philippines, JBIC started to co-finance primary education project with the World Bank since early 1990s. The Third Elementary Education Project targeted 26 deprived provinces and supported a wide range of components: school construction, provision of textbooks and educational materials, teacher training, and school management involving parents and communities. In parallel, another project focusing on the secondary education in the same provinces assisted in quantitative and qualitative enhancement, jointly

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financing with Asian Development Bank. Balochistan education project in Pakistan aimed at redressing the gender inequality in education and assisted in the construction of 200 new middle schools, establishment of 52 technical trade centers in the selected middle schools, training of teachers for the technical and vocational education. In Morocco, school construction including science and IT laboratories and provision of educational equipment was supported in rural areas, to rectify regional and gender gap in access to secondary education. In Algeria, earthquake-stricken school facilities of primary, secondary and higher education are being reconstructed. With support from Kobe City which has a similar experience, disaster prevention education is promoted. The ICT Utilization Project in Yogyakarta assists in improving the quality of teaching and learning by introducing ICT-based education in primary and junior secondary schools in the region. Japan’s loan assistance in education sector has been instrumental in nurturing collaboration with other development agencies, in responding to urgent needs of a large-scale assistance and in combining a mix of components to make the support effective. Furthermore, although it is not an education sector operation per se, JBIC has joined in supporting a series of Poverty Reduction Support Credits since the 3rd phase, most recently in the 6th phase which include education sector among other sectors relating to economic growth and poverty reduction. The case indicates an important opportunity showing that loan operations can be suitable in supporting policy-based, multi-sectoral development programs. 3. Scaling Up and Enhancing Effectiveness: Possibilities and Constraints 3.1 Possibilities and Constraints (1) An Overall Level of ODA Japan’s ODA has been continuously floating at the level between 0.2 to 0.3 percent of GNI, which places Japan among one of the lowest in OECD countries. This is despite Japan’s endorsement of collective commitment made at OECD, Millennium Summit, Monterey and other occasions to increase its ODA closer to 0.7 percent of GNI. Although it makes sense to try first to restore the domestic fiscal balance, the reduction of budget for ODA over and above the extent to which domestic civil works related budget is reduced is difficult to be justified. The present economic recession is affecting the economic activities on a global scale. Combined effects of the Basic Policies to restore the fiscal balance, the current economic crisis will likely to maintain a tight grip on the ODA spending, even though for a

24


short-term the government may provide extra stimulus package that is currently under consideration by the parliament (as of April 17, 2009). In a recently approved general account budget for the fiscal 2009 (April-March 2010), ODA budget has been curtailed again by 4 percent (see Figure 6). Nevertheless, in an effort to meet the commitments made internationally, allocations for grant aid and technical cooperation, which are under MOFA, have both secured increase of 1.3 percent respectively13. Allocations for loan aid and for ODA by other ministries in the coming FY2009 will shrink further. Still, it is possible to expand the operational scale of ODA (project budget) by the strategic use of budgetary sources outside the general account as have been practiced. A wider consensus needs to be formed concerning the consistent realization of a much higher level of disbursement. This requires strong and sustained commitment of the top leaders of the country, with increased support of parliamentarians and political parties as well as voices of the population at large. In turn, this necessitates day-to-day dialogue among wide audience about how to improve effectiveness and increase volume of Japan’s ODA. This may include (a) a shift away from emphasizing the visibility of Japan’s own assistance to stressing results on the ground – in education, this essentially means systemic improvement of teaching and learning, and (b) an understanding that innovative efforts or major reform exercises that are increasingly promoted in recent years are very difficult challenges and therefore accountability should permit and appreciate failures that provide valuable lessons for future improvement, if they have resulted from careful enough planning and implementation. One option would be a more strategic and transparent use of grants (including technical cooperation) and loans. For economically stagnating low-income countries, loan repayments may increase burdens cumulatively. A new mode of aid can be considered so that the grant element will be significantly increased, by, for instance, combining grant and loan in one project/program, or grant assistance could be increased in the country assistance portfolio. At the same time, more loan assistance would be strategically provided to countries with robust economic and fiscal positions. (2) Education Sector Allocation As this review has presented, encouraging progresses have been made in increasing education sector assistance. This is already steadily achieved in the case of technical cooperation. The need of a strategic and systemic revisiting of grant aid facilities has been pointed out (section 1.3(3)). Enough room still exists to further restructure the mode of providing grant aid. At present, the grant aid operations managed by MOFA are divided into fifteen sub-programs, each with specific set of objectives. Under the increasing fiscal pressure, consolidation and prioritization should be considered. Both grant aid and loan aid can be considered as sources for policy-based assistance, including ear-marked or general budget support operations. Such possibilities may well be pursued more rigorously and can 13 The budget for Grant aid through Economic Development Assistance increased from JY158.8 billion in FY2008 to JY160.8 billion in FY2009 (see Footnote 10). Similarly, budget for technical cooperation implemented by JICA increased from JY153.8 billion in FY2008 to JY 155.8 billion in FY2009. These increases are for the first time in 9 years since 2000.

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help boost support for education sector. This should take place under a clearer strategic orientation of overall education sector assistance. The presence of the government policy on promoting support for basic education, namely BEGIN, is a welcome start. However, as the evaluation pointed out, its effectiveness in guiding the direction of education sector assistance is not so highly evident. Causality between this Initiative and the increase in the basic education spending by technical cooperation is not established. This hints at the need for more result-oriented initiative, with clear priorities, numerical targets, corresponding budgetary appropriation, and regular monitoring. Sectoral priorities should concurrently be incorporated into the Country Assistance Programs. The support for the initiative is required of even higher level of policy and strategy statement, such as the ODA charter and the Medium-Term Policy on ODA that specifically prioritize assistance for education (MOFA, 2008:99-100). This can be done within a consistent position of Japan that holds that well-balanced education development is essential for achieving the country’s development objectives. It has been 7 years since BEGIN was announced. And it is high time a new initiative was made that entails the entire education sector, involving key stakeholders in the formulation and consultation, thus enabling to send a clearer message of Japan’s priority in education assistance to wide audiences. High-level political commitments and statements are made on important occasions, based on the empirical performance building on the strength of Japans international cooperation. This is necessarily so and tends to be successful in delivering on the promises. But they can have weaknesses in the following points: (a) to rely on limited successful models, being less innovative, (b) weak involvement of implementing agencies in the process of preparing the contents of

the political commitment, (c) by emphasizing Japan’s unique contributions to the sector issues, they appear

counteracting the harmonized delivery of aid, despite huge efforts being made to meet common goals.

High-profile political messages have shown to be persistently followed up Hence a comprehensive education sector assistance policy with strong backbones. (3) Efforts being made Japan’s ODA have been implemented by 13 central ministries including a cabinet. Although the ODA charter serves as a common point of philosophical and strategic reference, the coordination of budget allocation and at an actual implementation stage has not been easy. Under the ODA reform exercise, the power of Cabinet in coordination has been strengthened by establishing the Overseas Economic Cooperation Council in April 2006. The Council is expected to increase efficiency in strategic implementation of ODA. The track record of this Council is promising. It is this Council that decided and agreed on the holistic initiative on Africa launched at TICAD-IV, maintaining and fulfilling the existing commitment to double ODA to Africa despite the global economic downturn that has hit Japanese economy as well, and making a significant contribution to IMF in strengthening its capacity, and so on.

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http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/policy/index/kaigai/konkyo_e.html

http://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/singi/kaigai/index.html

http://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/singi/kaigai/index.html


To ensure effective implementation of ODA policies, MOFA uses monitoring and evaluation. Evaluation has been conducted on Japan’s performance on education-related MDGs (MOFA, 2005), and on BEGIN (MOFA, 2008). MOFA’s annual publication of a white paper on ODA is also helpful in disseminating key achievements made. Topics featured in the white paper of recent years include Africa’s development (2008), international trend in aid (2007), MDGs (2005), and so on. Japan is also involved in the medium-term evaluation of EFA-Fast Track Initiative by sending an expert as a member of External Oversight Committee of the evaluation. This is a good indication of Japan’s strong interest in the improvement of this global initiative. 3.2 Aid Modality In an effort to meet the development challenges faced by developing countries, Japan has heavily relied on the traditional project mode that uses or combines different measures, such as civil works (school construction), provision of goods (teaching and learning materials, equipment), services (consulting services and technical assistance), training and scholarships. It is widely viewed in Japan that the project-type assistance is effective in addressing specific development issues, producing results on the ground, and having visibility of Japan’s cooperation. However, it is true that because of this position, Japan has not been active enough in keeping up with the changing aid modality such as a sector-wide approach using a pooling of fund or ear-marked budget support, or general budget support, although there are some cases where JICA’s technical cooperation is fully incorporated into the framework of sector-wide approach, as found in Bangladesh, Niger, Uganda, and Zambia. By no means does this indicate Japan’s indifference in the principles of ownership, accountability, harmonization and alignment as being promoted by the Paris Declaration. Rather, it values a balanced approach where different forms of aid modality complement each other and maximize the aid effectiveness. In this context, Japan needs to step up efforts to present an evidence-based validation amongst the aid community as to how such complementarity works effectively. Table 5 is an indicative attempt to present strength and potentials of Japan’s assistance tools for newer aid modalities. Japan should more proactively take an advantage of increased opportunities for using non-conventional aid modalities. With rich experiences of co-financing the structural adjustment operations with the World Bank and of policy-based and program-based assistance through the support for Poverty Reduction Strategy, potentials are wide open.

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Table 5. Japan’s Strength and Potential for Different Aid Modalities by Type of Aid Aid Modality Type of Aid

Project Fund Pooling / Ear- marked Budget

Support

General Budget Support / Policy- Based Assistance

Grant Aid S UT P Technical Cooperation S NF NF Loan Aid S UT P

(Notes) S: having strength with rich experiences. P: having potentials with a limited experiences UT: an untapped option, theoretically possible. NF: not foreseen in a near future. (Source) By author based on the empirical cases. 4. Conclusion Japan has a consistent emphasis on the importance of human resource development, based on its strong belief that human being is at the center of development, for economic growth and poverty reduction, and human development. But it seems a practical mechanism is weak to ensure consistent implementation of this supreme philosophy. It is fully in line with the international efforts toward achieving EFA goals and MDGs, as have been exhibited in its initiative (policy framework) on aid for basic education as well as in its commitment to education related global activities such as EFA-FTI or leading the high-level dialogue at G8 Summit. However, this strong political commitment has not yet been evidenced in a consistent increase in spending for education, especially basic education. One possible explanation for this phenomenon is that Japan does not have a coherent foreign assistance policy framework covering the entire education sector. This may be causing big annual fluctuations in actual spending on education sector. While Japan does not set a clear and overall spending target for education sector, nor does its aid policy set for needs-based country budget allocation, actual performances including the sectoral distribution and country-wise spending do point to increasing emphasis on education and other poverty reduction/human development-related sectors and to low-income countries. It is possible to infer that Japan adopts strategies-by-doing (formulating strategies based on track record) rather than opting to bind itself with numerical targets. In future, it is expected that a consistent resource allocation principles be guided by the overall education sector policy framework, including the balance of using different aid methods (grant, technical cooperation and aid) and aid modalities. However, already the basic education has a strong weight in the operations of grant aid and technical cooperation. It would be a reasonable “strategy on the ground” to use grant and technical cooperation to support basic education, while loan aid would continue to support higher education as a main target, without precluding opportunities for willing countries from borrowing to improve basic education. Technical cooperation is a means that enable effective utilization of competent expertise Japan have in respective areas, including in basic education. The new JICA is now expected to have a good command of this tool and

28


other two tools of grant aid and loan aid. In theory, it should be possible for JICA to use these tools strategically and flexibly to make Japan’s aid more effective, more ready for harmonization and alignment. Strong political support needs to be established to allow them to fulfill its potential. The challenge is how much Japan’s emphasis on education, and on basic education in particular, can be embodied in the top level ODA policy, and how it can set up an institutional arrangement to ensure the implementation of such commitment. So far, both ODA Charter and Medium-Term Policy on ODA have been formulated taking into consideration both domestic factors (strategic importance of Asia, empirical evidence in assisting Asian countries’ success with emphasis on human resources development and on social and economic infrastructure) and international factors (EFA, MDGs with emphasis on poverty reduction, and Paris Declaration). This has translated into supporting countries effort for poverty reduction through sustainable growth, and this sets the basic tone of ODA strategy, including support for education. In formulating a long-wanted education sector-wide assistance initiative, a clear and consistent story line would have to be drawn up so that Japan’s ODA for education would be more responsive to those domestic and international factors.

29


References Council on Economic and Fiscal Policy (2006) The Basic Policies for Economic and Fiscal

Management and Structural Reform (Original in Japanese: 「経済財政運営と構造

改革に関する基本方針2006」)

Government of Japan (2005) Japan’s Medium-Term Policy on Official Development Assistance (Provisional Translation)

Japan Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC) (2005)Basic Strategy on Japan’s ODA

Loan: Medium-Term Strategy for Overseas Economic Cooperation Operations (April

1, 2005 – March 30, 2008)

JBIC (2002) Medium-Term Strategy for Overseas Economic Cooperation Operations

JBIC (1999) Medium-Term Strategy for Overseas Economic Cooperation Operations

Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) (2008a) Annual Report 2008

JICA (2008b) Trend and Status of Cooperation for Basic Education by JICA (Original in

Japanese:「JICAの基礎教育協力の変遷と現状」内部資料)

JICA (2005) Thematic Guidelines on Basic Education (Original in Japanese:「課題別指針

基礎教育」)

JICA (1994) Study on Development Assistance for Education and Development Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) (2008) Evaluation Report on Basic Education for

Growth Initiative (BEGIN), Third Party Evaluation （Original in Japanese：「成

長のための基礎教育イニシアティブ（BEGIN）」に関する評価報告書） MOFA (2008b) TICAD IV Yokohama Action Plan (Original in Japanese 「TICAD IV横浜行

動計画」特に別表) MOFA (1998~2009) White Paper on Official Development Assistance, various years. MOFA (2005a) Evaluation of Japan’s Efforts toward Achieving Education-Related MDGs

(Original in Japanese：「教育関連MDGs達成に向けた日本の取り組みの評価」最終

報告書)

MOFA (2005b) Japan’s Policy on African Development MOFA (2003) Japan’s Official Development Assistance Charter MOFA (2002a) Basic Education for Growth Initiative MOFA (2002b) Philippines: Education Sector Assistance – Report of Expert Evaluation

l in Japanese: 外務省有識者評価調査報告書－教育セクターへの協力（フィリピン）)

nd Ministry(OriginaMOFA a of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (2006) We

UNESC utions. 34 C/32.

bsites Visited

esearch Center of Japan on budget preparation process e)

ofa.go.jp/policy/index.html b /oda/search.php

Want to Learn – Japan’s Assistance in Education Sector (Original in Japanese 「私

たち学びたい－日本による教育分野の支援」) O(2007) Collection of Member State’s Contrib

World Bank (2008) Annual Report 2008. Washington D.C.

We

Government Data R http://www.gioss.or.jp/clip/yosan3.htm (in JapanesJICA, in general http://www.jica.go.jp/ MOFA, ODA in general http://www.mMOFA, ODA project data ase http://www3.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/gaikoMOFA, ODA Reform Process http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/gaiko/oda/kaikaku/ugoki.html

30

http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/oda/mid-term/policy.pdf

http://www.jica.go.jp/english/operations/schemes/oda_loans/policy/pdf/e_jisshi_all.pdf

http://www.jica.go.jp/english/publications/jbic_archive/annual/2001/pdf/med.pdf

http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/area/ticad/tc4_sb/yokohama_kk.html

http://www.mofa.go.jp/POLICY/oda/reform/revision0308.pdf

http://www.gioss.or.jp/clip/yosan3.htm

http://www.jica.go.jp

http://www.m

http://www3.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/gaiko

http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/gaiko/oda/kaikaku/ugoki.html


MOFA, Foreign Minister Koumura’s Speech on EFA http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/fm/koumura/speech0804.html

ooperation Council and

i.go.jp/foreign/policy/index_e.html

OECD.Stat Extracts http://webnet.oecd.org/wbos/index.aspx Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet, on Overseas Economic Con Council on Economic and Fiscal Policy http://www.kante

31

http://www.mofa.go.jp/announc

http://webnet.oecd.org/wbos/index.aspx

http://www.kante


Annex 1. Education in Country Assistance Programs The following table exhibits the reference made to education sector in sample Country Assistance Programs. Table A1. Education in Country Assistance Programs CAP year Country Whether and How Education is addressed as a Priority Sector

2006 Bangladesh Education, along with health has a section under "Social development and

human security" as one of priority sectors.

2006 Thailand Human resources development is referred to under "Enhancement of

competitiveness for sustainable growth"

2004 Vietnam Human resources development is referred to under "Promotion of Growth"

Education is referred to under "Improvement in lifestyle and social aspects"

2008 Egypt

Education sector has a section under "Expanding and improving social

services" for "Poverty reduction and improvement of living standard" as one

of Priority areas.

2006 Ghana

Education is referred to under "Improvement of basic social services in

deprived areas"

Human resources development and TVET are referred to under "Promoting

industrial development"

2008 Tanzania Education, along with health has a section under "Other sectors to support"

as one of priority sectors.

2008 Philippines Education is referred to under "Expansion of Basic Social Services

(Improving the Living Conditions of the Poor)"

2000 Kenya

A whole section is dedicated to basic education, higher education and

vocational training under "Human Resources Development" as one of

Priority Areas.

2000 Peru Teacher training and educational materials development are referred to

under "Social sector assistance" as one of Priority areas.

32


Annex Table A2. Key Global Events and Milestones in Japan (2000-2008) Global Events Milestones in Japan

2000 Apr. World Education Forum, Dakar Jul. G8 Kyushu-Okinawa Summit Sep. UN Millennium Summit

2001 May UN LDC Conference (3rd) Oct. NEPAD established

2002

Mar. International Conference on Finance forDevelopment Monterey

Jun. Kananaskis G8 Summit Jun. EFA Fast-Track Initiative launched Aug. World Summit on Sustainable

Development (Joberg) 2003 Feb. High-Level Forum on Harmonization,

Rome

2005

UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development

Mar. HLF on Aid Effectiveness, Paris Apr. Asian-African Summit Jul. Gleneagles G8 Summit

2007 Jun. Heiligendamm G8 Summit

Oct. 2nd International Conf. on Development Cooperation with Middle-Income Countries

2008 Apr. FTI meetings in Tokyo May TICAD IV Jul. Hokkaido-Toyako G8 Summit Sept. HLF on Aid Effectiveness, Accra Sept. UN High-Level Event on MDGs Nov. Follow-upInternational Conference on

FfD, Doha

2000 Jul. Okinawa Infectious Diseases Initiative

allocating a total of $3 billion over a five-year period

2002 Jun. Basic Education for Growth Initiative Aug. Initiative for Development in East Asia Aug. Environmental Conservation Initiative for

Sustainable Development 2003 May Initiative for Cooperation for Africa Sep. TICAD-III

2004

Feb. 1st Japan Education Forum Mar. Gender and Development Initiative

Apr. Announcement to double ODA to Africa over 3 years

2005 Jun. Health and Development Initiative Jul. Announcement to increase ODA by $10

billion on 2004 level 2006 Mar. Water & Sanitation Broad Partnership

Initiative 2008

Feb. 6th Japan Education Forum Apr. FTI Meetings in Tokyo Apr. International Symposium on Self- Reliance

and Sustainability of EFA, with Foreign Minister’s Policy Speech on EFA

May International Symposium on African Development and Girls’ Education

Oct. New JICA

(Source) by author based on MOFA various years.

33

http://www.rree.gob.sv/sitio/img2006.nsf/vista/conferentamedia/$file/resumeningle.pdf

http://www.mofa.go.jp/Mofaj/annai/honsho/seimu/minorikawa/dawha_08/seika.html

http://www.mofa.go.jp/Mofaj/annai/honsho/seimu/minorikawa/dawha_08/seika.html

http://www.mofa.go.jp/MOFAJ/kaidan/g_kawaguchi/idea_02/gh.html

http://www.mofa.go.jp/Mofaj/gaiko/bluebook/2004/hakusho/h16/html/G2700300.html


Annex 3. Japan’s ODA Budget 1. Decision Making Process This section discusses the process of budget preparation, and how the decision on sectoral allocation of ODA budget is made. An overall flow is explained in Figure A3-1.

Figure A3-1. Flow of Budget Preparation in Japan

1. Basic Policiesfor Economic and Fiscal

Managementand Structural Reform

2. Overall Picture of Budget

Council on Economic and Fiscal Policy prepares

Ceilingfor Budget Request

by MOF

Budget Requestby Ministries

Draft Budgetby MOF

Basic PoliciesFor Budget Preparation

by CEFP

Discussion and Approval of Budget

by Parliaments

(Source) GDRC Website.

Every year, around June-July, the Council on Economic and Fiscal Policy (CEFP) prepares Basic Policies on Economic and Fiscal Management and Structural Reform for Cabinet approval, and draws up an Overall Picture of Budget. Based on these, Ministry of Finance sets the ceiling for budget request to be prepared by line ministries. These requests are reviewed by MOF, which is then guided by Basic Policies for Budget Preparation by CEFP, prepares the draft budget for discussions and approval by the Parliaments. In this process, CEFP not only dictates the overall direction of the budget, but also steps into guiding the level of reduction (or increase, if the case may be) of individual sectoral budgets. In Japan, 13 ministries including the Cabinet have budgets for ODA, but by far the budget of MOFA is the largest. This has necessitates the coordinating body, the Overseas Economic Cooperation Council, headed by the Prime Minister (Section 1.4 (2)). It is not difficult to imagine the strategic allocation of ODA budget among sectors could be a cumbersome process due to the multiplicity of players, even if it is tried. Although sectoral allocation is not yet decided in this cycle of budget preparation, international commitments made by Prime Ministers on ODA are taken into account both by CEFP and by line ministries. As for MOFA that has principal responsibility for grant aid, technical cooperation, and loan aid (with MOF having a major voice in determining the budget scale of loan aid), they too do not specify spending targets for each sector, though they do have a decisive role in setting the size of each facility of grant aid (see Section 1.3(3)) which have some bearing on the end results of the size of education assistance by grant aid. For both technical cooperation and loan aid, therefore, roles of implementing agencies (now unified into the new JICA) are quite important.

34


Available information indicates that the former JBIC indeed set the numerical targets vis-à-vis their priority areas including human resources development. In the Evaluation Report on the Medium-Term Strategy for Overseas Economic Cooperation Operations (fiscal year 205-2007), they say that over 90 percent of the plan was achieved through approval of new lending, sector studies and technical assistance. It is not know, however, whether this target of number of projects to be approved were translated into the corresponding target of lending volume for specific sectors. 2. Budget Structure

Figure A3-2. Financial Resources for the ODA Project Budget and Allocation by Type of Assistance, FY2009 (Unit JY billion)

Loan A id etc. 829.9

Loan A id etc. 702.6

TC 36.5

M D B s 301.7

M D B s 276.0

17.1

Loan A id 127.325.7

TechnicalC ooperation

344.0(of w hich JIC A

155.8)

TechnicalC ooperation

290.4

G rant A id 170.2G rant A id 170.2

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

Financial R esources Type of A ssistance

**

Fiscal Loan and Investment etc.

739.2

Gov B

ond

276.0

General Account

672.2

U N & other Int.O rg. 58.7

U N & other Int.O rg. 58.5

0.3

Total G ross O D A P roject B udget for FY2009 JY 1704.7 billion

Grant Bila

tera

l

514.2

Grant Multi

360.5

Loan

829.9

(Note) **: Special Account 174.0 MDBs: Multilateral Development Banks Figures do not add up due to rounding up. (Source) Ministry of Foreign Affairs http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/gaiko/oda/shiryo/yosan.html

Japan’s ODA is financed by four main sources: general account, special account, government bond, and fiscal loan and investment. In addition, in the course of the year,

35

http://www.jica.go.jp/activities/schemes/finance_co/policy/pdf/houkoku02.pdf

http://www.jica.go.jp/activities/schemes/finance_co/policy/pdf/houkoku02.pdf

http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/gaiko/oda/shiryo/yosan.html


allocation may be made through a supplementary budget. This will serve most reliable predictor for the overall operational size (referred to as Project Budget) in the coming year. For the fiscal year 2009, general account budget allocated 672.2 billion yen for the ODA that finances all of the grant aid and a most part of technical cooperation. Loan aid is financed mostly by fiscal loan and investment that uses postal savings and pension contributions. All the four sources of finance for the ODA budget add up to 1704.7 billion yen in FY2009 in gross terms, excluding debt relief activities, up by 12.8 percent from the FY2008 level. This is re-aligned into five main types of assistance as presented in Figure A3-2 above.

Table A3. ODA Budget by Ministry and Agency (FY2008, JYen 100 million)

General Account Budget

Project Budget

Cabinet Office 26 26National Police Agency 30 30Financial Services Agency 133 133Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications 913 913Ministry of Justice 225 225Ministry of Foreign Affairs 440,729 440,753Ministry of Finance 174,155 961,177Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology

40,539 40,539

Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare 9,361 10,848Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries 4,541 15,759Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry 28,314 38,758Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism 801 801Ministry of the Environment 406 1,376Total 700,173 1,511,339

(Source) MOFA 2009, Figures IV-7 and IV-8.

36


37

Annex 4. Budget and Disbursement of Japan’s ODA This Annex reiterates the explanation of Japan’s ODA-related figures. General account budget for ODA shows a constant trend of decline over the past decade, whereas the project budget figures, both gross and net, are increasing in the last two most recent years after a period of decline. This means that it is technically possible for Japan to expand the scale of its ODA operations even under the persistent fiscal constraint, by tapping other sources as explained in Annex 3. It should be noted that partly because of this flexibility in the resources the actual disbursement can be higher or lower than the project budget (Figure A4).

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

ODA ActualDisbursement(Gross、CY)

ODA ProjectBudget　（Gross,FY)

ODA ActualDisbursement(Net、CY)

ODA ProjectBudget　（Net,FY)

ODA GeneralAccount Budget(FY)

Figure A4. Trend of Budget and Disbursement of Japan's ODA (unit: Japanese Yen billion)

(source) By author based on MOFA various years. Table A4 Trend of Budget and Disbursement of Japan’s ODA

(re-presenting Figure A3. Unit: Japanese Yen billion)

ODA General Account Budget (FY)

ODA Project Budget （Net, FY)

ODA Actual Disbursement (Net、CY)

ODA Project Budget （Gross, FY)

ODA Actual Disbursement (Gross、CY)

1998 1047.3 1389.1 1392.7 1732.2 1999 1048.9 1545.2 1745.3 1886.5 2000 1046.6 1511.5 1456.2 1886.3 2001 1015.2 1450.0 1196.4 1819.6 2002 910.6 1277.3 1162.2 1657.4 2003 857.8 1157.0 1029.2 1559.8 1503.42004 816.9 1060.7 964.5 1482.7 1748.62005 786.2 1007.8 1447.4 1465.8 2052.32006 759.7 1136.4 1296.2 1625.0 1986.22007 729.3 890.3 904.6 1414.9 1598.12008 700.2 935.0 1511.3 2009 672.2 1076.4 1704.7

(Draft Final Ver. 05192009)

Annex Table A5-1. The list of Basic Education Projects: JICA Technical Cooperation Projects (as of FY 2008)

Starting Fiscal Year

Country Title of Project Content of Project

1994 Philippines The Package Cooperation Science and Mathematics Education for Manpower Development Project in the Philippines (SMEMDP)

Master trainers training in Teacher Training

1997 Egypt Mini-Project for the Development of Creative Science and Mathematics Lessons in Primary Education

Development of teachers guide books

1998 Kenya Strengthening of Mathematics and Science in Secondary Education (SMASSE) Phase 1

Implementation of Teacher Training

Indonesia The Project for Development of Science and Mathematics Teaching for Primary and Secondary Education(IMSTEP)

Capacity development of trainers Teacher Training collage

1999 South Africa Mpumalanga Secondary Science Initiative Phase 1 Training of master trainers of Teacher Training

Ghana Improvement of Educational Achievement in Science, Technology and Mathematics (STM) in Basic Education


2000 Cambodia Secondary School Teacher Training Project in Science and Mathematics (STEPSAM)

Capacity development of trainers of Teacher Training

2002 Philippines Project for Strengthening of Continuing School Based Training Program for Elementary and Secondary Science and Mathematics Teachers in the Republic of the Philippines (SBTP)


2003 ( 11projects)

Egypt The Project for the Improvement of Science and Mathematics Education in Primary Schools

Development of teachers guide books

Honduras Project for the Improvement of Teaching Method in Mathematics Phase2

Development of teachers guide books Implementation of Teacher Training

South Africa Mpumalanga Secondary Science Initiative Phase 2 Training of master trainers of Teacher Training

Kenya Strengthening of Mathematics and Science in Secondary Education (SMASSE) Phase 2


Bolivia The Quality Improvement of Primary School Education (PROMECA) -child centered teaching project-

Training of master trainers of Teacher Training

Mongolia Strengthening the Planning Capacity for in-service Implementation of Teacher Training

http://www.jica.go.jp/project/kenya/5151110E1/


http://www.jica.go.jp/project/philippines/0125062C0/english/index.html




http://www.jica.go.jp/project/elsalvador/0603027

http://www.jica.go.jp/project/elsalvador/0603027



http://www.jica.go.jp/project/bolivia/0603366


teacher training

Indonesia The Project for Development of Science and Mathematics Teaching for Primary and Secondary Education(IMSTEP)Follow-up program


Ethiopia Community-Based Basic Education Improvement Project School Construction and Management through Community Participation with support of administrators

Nepal Community-Based Alternative Schooling Project Strengthening of Non-Formal Education Niger School for All Project (Project on Support to the

Improvement of School Management through Community Participation)

Strengthening school management committees(COGES)

Afghanistan Strengthening of Non-Formal Education Project CLC models 2004 (8 projects)

Laos The project for Improving Science and Mathematics Teacher Training


Pakistan Punjab Literacy Promotion Project Improvement of literacy education Vietnam Project for Strengthening Cluster-Based Teacher Training

and School Management Implementation of Teacher Training

Indonesia Regional Education Development and Improvement Program (REDIP)

Systematising school management committees

Malawi The Project for Strengthening of Mathematics and Science in Secondary Education through In-Service Training in Malawi


Bangladesh Strenghtening Primary Teacher Training on Science and Mathematics under Component 2 of PEDPⅡ


Colombia In Service Teacher Education and Training in Mathematics and Natural Science

Training of Teachers in Mathematics and Natural Science

Myanmar The Project for Strengthening Child-Centered Approach in Myanmar Education


2005 (15 projects)

Senegal project for maintenance of school facilities and sanitary education

Improvement of school management (including sanitary education)

Mexico Improvement of livelihoods of women in slum areas in El Soconusco, Chiapas

Non-Formal Education for women

Yemen Broadening Regional Initiatives for Developing Girls' Education (BRIDGE) Program in Taiz Governorate

Systematizing development of girls’ educationSystematizing school management

39

http://www.jica.go.jp/project/ethiopia/5061039E0

http://www.jica.go.jp/project/niger/6331038E0/



http://www.jica.go.jp/project/afghanistan/4030010E0

http://www.jica.go.jp/project/laos/0601479


http://www.jica.go.jp/project/bangladesh/0511146E0/

http://www.jica.go.jp/project/bangladesh/0511146E0/

http://www.jica.go.jp/project/myanmar/0301103E0


http://www.jica.go.jp/project/yemen/4515011E0

http://www.jica.go.jp/project/yemen/4515011E0


committees

Ghana Promotion of Education Policy Development District Administrators Training for the Development of District Educational plans

Dominica Republic

The Improvement of the Quality of Teaching in Mathematics

Development of teachers guide books and students text books

Afghanistan Strengthening of Teacher Education Program（STEP） Development of teachers guide books Implementation of Teacher Training（INSET）

Uganda Secondary Science and Mathematics Teacher’s Project Implementation of Teacher Training PNG The Project for Enhancing Quality in Teaching through TV

Program (EQUITV) Promotion of teaching through TV and capacity development of teachers

Peru The Project for Strengthening Educationl Management in the Rural Education Networks of Canas and Suyo

Improvement of school management

Zambia SMASTE School-based Continuing Professional Development Project

Implementation of Teacher Training (Introduction of Lesson Study)

Sri Lanka Project for Improving School management to Enhance Quality of Education with Special Reference to Science and Mathematics

Promotion of Improvement of school management

Ghana Project to Support the Operationalisation of the INSET Policy

Implementation of teacher training

Cambodia The Project for Improving Science and Mathematics Education at Upper Secondary Level (ISMEC)

Development of text books based on local resources

Chile Improvement of Mathematics Education Training of master trainers of Teacher Training

Afghanistan The Project on Support for Expansion and Improvement of Literacy Education in Afghanistan (LEAF)

Capacity Development of Literacy Department and Implementation of literacy programmes

2006 (12 projects)

Mongolia Teaching Methods Improvement Project towards Children's Development in Mongolia

Development of teachers guide books Implementation of Teacher Training

Honduras The Project for the Improvement of Teaching Method in Mathematics (PROMETAM) Phase2

Implementation of Teacher Training based on teachers guide books

Nicaragua The Project for the Improvement on the Quality of Mathematics Teaching in Primary

Implementation of Pre-Set Training for teachers and students in pre-service teacher

40

http://www.jica.go.jp/project/png/1241038E0/

http://www.jica.go.jp/project/png/1241038E0/

http://www.jica.go.jp/project/zambia/0700918/


http://www.jica.go.jp/project/srilanka/0602654/



http://www.jica.go.jp/project/cambodia/0601296/english/

http://www.jica.go.jp/project/cambodia/0601296/english/

http://www.jica.go.jp/project/mongolia/0455077E0

http://www.jica.go.jp/project/mongolia/0455077E0

http://www.jica.go.jp/project/nicaragua/2485058E0/spanish



Education(PROMECEM) training school based on teachers guide books

El Salvador The Project for the Improvement on the Quality of Mathematics Teaching in Primary Education(COMPRENDO-JICA)

Development of teachers guide books and students text books

Guatemala The Project for the Improvement of Teaching Method in Mathematics (GUATEMATICA)

Development of teachers guide books and and students text books

Indonesia Strengthening In-service Teacher Training for Science and Mathematics (SISTTEMS)


Paraguay Quality improvement of school management Implementation of head teachers training Mozambique Strengthening of In-Service Training for Primary Teachers

in Gaza Province Implementation of head teachers training

Nigeria Strengthening Mathematics and Science Education in Nigeria at Primary Level (SMASE Nigeria)


Afghanistan Strengthening Special Education in Afghanistan Development of curriculum and Capacity development of instructors in teaching methods of special education

Niger Strengthening of Mathematics and Science in Secondary Education in Niger (SMASSE-NIGER)


Malawi The Project for Supporting District Education Plans Institutionalisation Programme

Capacity development of education planning of education administrators

2007 (11 Projects)

Senegal Project for Improvement of education environment Systematising school management committees

Niger Support to the improvement of school management through Community Participation in Niger (School for all) Phase 2

Systematising school management committees

Afghanistan Strengthening of Teacher Education Program (STEP)Phase 2

Development of teachers guide books and development of syllabi and lesson plans of teaching methodology in pre-service teacher education curriculum.

Pakistan Punjab Literacy Promotion Project Phase 2 Improvement of literacy education Indonesia The Integrated Plan for Junior and Secondary Education

Improvement in South Sulawesi Systematizing school management committees

Senegal Strengthening Mathematics, Science, and Technology Education Project


41





http://www.jica.go.jp/project/paraguay/3245057E0

http://www.jica.go.jp/project/nigeria/0604883

http://www.jica.go.jp/project/nigeria/0604883

http://www.jica.go.jp/project/afghanistan/0603866

http://www.jica.go.jp/project/niger/0605407/





http://www.jica.go.jp/project/afghanistan/0613805/english

http://www.jica.go.jp/project/afghanistan/0613805/english


Laos Supporting Community Initiatives for Primary Education

Development in the Southern Provinces (CIED) School development by communities

Burkina Faso Strengthening Mathematics and Science education in BRUKINA FASO


Zambia SMASTE School-based Continuing Professional Development Project Phase 2

Implementation of school based training

Rwanda Strengthening Mathematics and Science in secondary education (SMASSE Rwanda) Project


Nepal The Support for Improvement of Primary School Management

Improvement of school management

2008 (10 Projects)

Cambodia Science Teacher Education Project (STESAM2) Capacity development of trainers of Teacher Training

Myanmar The Project for Strengthening Child-Centered Approach Phase 2

Promotion of Child-Centered Approach

Mali Project for support to School Management Committee Systematizing school management committees

Ethiopia Project for Improving Access to Quality Primary Education Systematizing Cluster Resource Centers（CRC）

Indonesia Strengthening the Regional Based Education Management in Maluku

Systematizing school management committees

Indonesia The Program for Enhancing Quality of Junior Secondary Education.

Systematizing school management committees Implementation of Teacher Training

Afghanistan

Strengthening of Teacher Education on Special Education

Development of teaching materials and Implementation of training in pre-service teacher education

Malawi The Project on Strengthening of Mathematics and Science in Secondary Education (SMASSE) INSET Malawi Phase II


Uganda Secondary Science and Mathematics Teachers (SESEMAT) National Expansion Plan

Kenya Strengthening of Mathematics and Science Education (SMASE) in Kenya


42



http://www.jica.go.jp/project/burkinafaso/0701501

http://www.jica.go.jp/project/burkinafaso/0701501



http://www.jica.go.jp/project/nepal/0701297

http://www.jica.go.jp/project/nepal/0701297



Annex Table A5-2. The list of Basic Education Development Studies(Technical Assistance) as of FY 2008

Starting Fiscal Year

Country Title of Project Content of Project

1998 Indonesia The Study on Regional Education Development and Improvement Program

Introduction of school management /development plan

1999 Tanzania School Mapping and Micro-Planning in Education in the Republic of Tanzania

Development of District Educational Plans and staff capacity development

Ghana Study for Development of a Master Plan to Strengthen Technical Education in the Republic of Ghana

Development of Technical education planning

2000 Malawi Study on National School-Mapping and Micro-Planning in the Republic of Malawi

School Mapping and Micro-Planning

Myanmar Development Study for the Improvement of Quality and Access of Basic Education in the Union of Myanmar

Introduction of Child-Centered Approach and development of teaching/learning materials

2001 Vietnam Basic education sector programmes Development of education sector development plan and donor coordination

Sri Lanka Master planning of Science and Mathematics Teaching for Primary and Secondary Education

Improvement of science education and school management

Senegal Study on the Improvement for Early Childhood Establishment of self-sufficient ECD facilities management

Indonesia The Study on Regional Education Development and Improvement Program (Phase 2)

Promotion of school management /development plan

2002 Jordan Development of Digital teaching/learning materials

Development of Digital teaching/learning materials

Malawi The National Implementation Program for District Education Plans

Development of District Educational Plans and staff capacity development

Tanzania School Mapping and Micro-Planning (Phase 2) Development of school education plans and staff capacity development

2003 Morocco The Basic Education Improvement Program for Rural areas in the Kingdom of Morocco

Development of school education plans and staff capacity development

2005 Ethiopia The Project on Increasing Access to Quality Basic Education through Developing School

School mapping/ district education plans

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44

Mapping and Strengthening Microplanning in Oromia Region

Sierra Leone Children and Youth Development Project in Kambia District

Supporting for Children and Youth through improvement of school management committee with community participation

Senegal Education System Improvement Program Development of Regional/District Educational Plans and staff capacity development

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