JICA THEMATIC GUIDELINES

ON

PEACEBUILDING ASSISTANCE

NOVEMBER 2003

JAPAN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AGENCY

i

Table of Contents Chapter 1 Peacebuilding Assistance _______________________________ 1 1-1 Current Conflicts －－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－ 1

1-2 Evolving Concept of Peacebuilding and the Role of －－－ 3 Development Cooperation

1-3 Development Aid Trends in International Communities－－ 4 1-4 Trends in Japan�s Assistance －－－－－－－－－－－－ 6 (1) Development Assistance (2) Diplomatic approaches (3) Support to PKO (Peace Keeping Operations) Chapter 2 JICA�s Policy on International Cooperation ________________ 11 2-1 Goal of peacebuilding assistance and seven priority areas －－－ 11 2-1-1 Goal 2-1-2 Seven priority areas (1) Reconciliation (2) Governance (3) Security improvement (4) Rehabilitation of social infrastructure (5) Economic recovery (6) Assistance for socially vulnerable people (7) Humanitarian emergency assistance 2-2 Process of peacebuilding assistance －－－－－－－－－－ 13 (1) Development assistance (prevention of occurrence ((1) above) and recurrence of conflict ((3)) above) (2) Recovery and reconstruction 2-3 Policies for JICA�s peacebuilding assistance －－－－－－－－ 14 2-3-1 Focus on reconstruction assistance 2-3-2 Prompt assistance with a mid- to long-term perspective 2-3-3 Promotion of �conflict prevention lens�

2-3-4 Support for self-initiatives by a post-conflict country/region 2-4 Issues to be considered －－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－ 16

2-4-1 Participation in aid coordination and JICA�s earlier decision-making

(1) Participation in donors� joint assessment mission

ii

(2) Continuous involvement in the donor coordination framework

2-4-2 Concurrence of emergency restoration of basic living infrastructures and support for mid- to long-term reconstruction

(1) Emergency restoration of basic living infrastructures and support for mid- to long-term reconstruction (2) Perspective of mid- to long-term reconstruction and Formulation of aid programs transcending the borders of different schemes

2-4-3 Regional Perspective 2-4-4 Mobilization of external resources 2-4-5 Other development issues 2-4-6 Issues to be considered during the period between ceasefire and peace agreement (1) Domestic situations and political trends (2) Consideration of the effects on peace negotiation (3) Initial response to humanitarian needs (4) Postponement, interruption, and suspension of projects (5) Parties concerned with peace negotiations 2-5 Prompt and flexible response －－－－－－－－－－－－－－ 20 2-5-1 Establishment of a relevant structure at HQ

(1) Timely decision-making and consensus building among relevant divisions/departments

(2) Establishment of �Peacebuilding Assistance Bureau (tentative name)� 2-5-2 On-site implementation system (1) Early establishment of regional offices (2) Logistical support 2-5-3 Prompt dispatch of staff (1) Accumulation of information on human resources (2) Budget allocation and procedures 2-5-4 Safety measures (1) Sending advance missions to confirm safety (2) Setting up bases (3) Collecting information

iii

(4) Emergency communication channels (5) Dispatching resident specialists in safety measures 2-5-5 Strategic public relations 22 Chapter 3 Approaches to Peacebuilding Assistance ________________ 24

3-1 Basic concept －－－－－－－－－－－－－－ 24 3-2 Reconciliation －－－－－－－－－－－－－－ 26

3-2-1 Basic concept 3-2-2 Menus of JICA�s peacebuilding assistance

(1) Promotion of the return of refugees and IDPs (2) Peace education

1. Peace education in pre-school and school education 2. Peace education at community level

(3) Promoting reconciliation (4) Other assistance activities

3-2-3 Issues to be considered (1) Considerations for different groups (2) Difficulties in restoring housing and property

rights to refugees and IDPs (3) Housing needs (4) Means of supporting peace education (5) Considerations required in partnership with NGOs

3-3 Governance －－－－－－－－－－－－－－ 31 3-3-1 Basic concept 3-3-2 Menus of JICA�s peacebuilding assistance

I. Support for democratization A. Basic concept B. Menus of JICA�s peacebuilding assistance a. Support for election b. Support for media sector

C. Considerations for implementing support for democratization

II. Promotion of legal systems A. Basic concept

B. Menus of JICA�s peacebuilding assistance a. Assistance in the enactment of bills

iv

b. Support for relevant organizations c. Support for human resources education d. Assistance to awareness-raising activities (for promoting social awareness) C. Issues to be considered III. Support for administration

A. Basic concept B. Menus of JICA�s peacebuilding assistance

a. Development and improvement of administrative functions b. Assistance to the development and upgrading of economic bases c. Actions against corruption and bribery C. Issues to be considered

3-4 Security improvement －－－－－－－－－－－－－－ 37 3-4-1 Basic concept 3-4-2 Menus of JICA�s peacebuilding assistance I. Security Sector Reform (SSR)

A. Basic concept B. Menus of JICA�s peacebuilding assistance

a. Improvement of the expertise of the civil police and customs b. Capacity development of legislative and judicial bodies responsible for regulating and monitoring the security sector c. Development of legal systems and capacity development of law enforcement organizations C. Issues to be considered a. Perspective of governance b. Planning of comprehensive security sector reform c. Backlash from vested interests II. Disarmament, demobilization, reintegration of ex-combatants (DDR) A. Basic concept

B. Menus of JICA�s peacebuilding assistance a. Support for the formulation of an overall plan b. Support for disarmament and demobilization

v

c. Support for reintegration (a)Support for skills development,vocational training and income generation for social reintegration (b) Agricultural technical training in rural areas and rural development for subsistent farming (c) Assistance to ex-combatants who have special needs, including soldiers with disabilities and female soldiers C. Issues to be considered a. Deciding when to start DDR b. Considerations to other groups that need assistance for reintegration c. Psychological adaptation to post-conflict living d. Considerations to ex-combatants who lack basic education e. Cooperation with the ministry of defense and military forces f. Ongoing military draft system

III. Small arms control A. Basic concept B. Menus of JICA�s peacebuilding assistance a. Control over the supply of small arms (a)Development and enactment of laws controlling illegal weapons trafficking (b)Capacity building for control over illegal weapons trafficking (c)Collection and destruction of weapons

b. Control over the demand for small arms (a)Confidence building, promotion of reconciliation, and peace education (b)Wide range of peacebuilding assistance C.Issues to be considered a. Importance of registration and control of small arms b. Step-by-step approach to weapons collection c. Limited effectiveness of �Weapons for Development� 3-5 Rehabilitation of social infrastructure －－－－－－－－－ 46 3-5-1 Basic concept 3-5-2 Menus of JICA�s peacebuilding assistance (1) Food supply

vi

(2) Improvements of housing environments (3) Reconstruction and improvement of transportation networks necessary for basic living conditions and delivery of food and daily necessities

(4) Education (5) Health care

(6) Anti-personnel landmines and unexploded ordinances (UXOs)

3-5-3 Issues to be considered (1) Coordination, collaboration and partnership with Development Banks (2) Support for maintenance and operation of social infrastructure (3) Local job creation (4) Systems for demining activities (5) Medical treatment and rehabilitation of landmine/UXO victims (6) Official languages used in educational support (7) JICA�s Guideline on Environmental Considerations

3-6 Economic recovery －－－－－－－－－－－－－－ 50 3-6-1 Basic concept 3-6-2 Menus of JICA�s peacebulding assistance

(1) Response to basic economic needs immediately after a conflict (2) Socioeconomic environments (3) Rehabilitation of industries (4) Unemployment

3-6-3 Issues to be considered (1) Basic information collection/analysis and estimation of situations (2) Consideration to economic sanction (3) Mobility of target group (4) Infrastructure development for economic recovery

3-7 Assistance for socially vulnerable people －－－－－－－－－ 54 3-7-1 Basic concept 3-7-2 Menus of JICA�S peacebuilding assistance

vii

(1) Assistance for children and people with disabilities (2) Support for women (3) Support for child soldiers, street children, and war orphans (4) Assistance to socially marginalized people

3-7-3 Issues to be considered 3-8 Humanitarian emergency relief －－－－－－－－－－－－ 57

3-8-1 Basic concept 3-8-2 Menus of JICA�s peacebuilding assistance

(1) In/around conflict (2) Post conflict assistance

3-8-3 Issues to be considered

Chapter 4: Future Challenges ______________________________________ 60 4-1 Human resources development －－－－－－－－－－－ 60

4-1-1 Present conditions 4-1-2 Future challenges

(1) Securing human resources A. Sharing information on human resources B. Reaching out to potential human resources C. Making better use of JDR�s databases

(2) Staff training A. Improving and expanding existing training programs B. Educational and training opportunities in collaboration with universities, research institutes, NGOs and international organizations C. Training on the concept of peacebuilding for experts D. Creating awareness and understanding of peacebuilding among consultants

(3) Utilization of human resources A. Human resources development and

establishment of a career path 4-2 Security measures and compensation －－－－－－－－－ 62

4-2-1 Present conditions 4-2-2 Challenges

viii

(1) Improving existing security management training (2) Conducting training courses with a higher level of security expertise for security clerks, RRs, DRRs, and other staff in high-risk countries (3) Security management manual (4) Sample contract terms

4-3 Implementation structure －－－－－－－－－－－－－－ 64

4-3-1 International Agreements 4-3-2 Global response to peacebulding needs 4-3-3 Budgets and schemes 4-3-4 Information sharing

1

Chapter 1: Peacebuilding Assistance In recent years, conflicts among nations have decreased, while ethnic conflicts and civil wars have increased. An increasing number of civilians and children have become involved in these conflicts as victims and as victimizers. The emergence of these new types of conflicts is attributed to drastic changes in social structures and the factors that trigger such conflicts. Under these circumstances, there is a growing realization that military efforts and political efforts, including preventive diplomacy, arms control and mediation, alone can neither fully prevent nor solve conflicts nor achieve the consolidation of peace. Instead, the role of development assistance in peacebuilding has been winning recognition for bridging gaps between rich and poor and for addressing inequality of opportunities so as to reduce the factors that may trigger violent conflict. At the same time, recent reviews have indicated that careless selection of aid beneficiaries and target regions of development assistance may further fuel conflicts. While development assistance can contribute to mitigating conflict factors, special attention must be given in the implementation of development assistance to ensure not to rekindle conflict. JICA must, therefore, more pro-actively assist post-conflict countries and countries affected by potential conflict factors so that these countries can prevent the outbreak of conflicts, realize long-term stable growth on their own, and deal with the effects of war. . Chapter 1 outlines current conflicts, changing views on peacebuilding, the role of development assistance, and international and domestic trends in development aid, for the better understanding of current circumstances surrounding JICA�s peacebuilding activities. 1-1 Current Conflicts Recent conflicts can be characterized by an increasing number of conflicts within states and civilian casualties and the rise of more complicated and diverse conflict factors with the end of the Cold War. While the number of new conflicts dramatically increased during the immediate post cold war period starting from 1989, the number has been steadily declining since then1. Among these conflicts, the percentage of conflicts within states has been gradually increasing since 1960. The period from 1997 to 2001 saw 74 new or continuing conflicts. Reportedly, 66 of these were conflicts within states2. Many of these conflicts have taken place in the world�s poorest countries and regions among developing countries. Forty-five percent of the countries ranked in the lower

1 A number of research institutes and universities publish the annual count of the numbers of new conflicts, continuing conflicts and resolved conflicts. These numbers, however, can vary with the definition of �conflicts.� In particular, recently, more and more conflicts are taking place within states, rather than between states. Since the definition varies from organization to organization, the statistics may vary significantly among organizations. According to Smith, the numbers fluctuated as shown below. 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 56 67 68 62 65 60 54 57 50 48 47 (Smith. 2003 p8) 2 �Armed Conflict Dataset Codebook, 2002,� Upsala University, Sweden

2

half of the UN Development Programme�s HDI (Human Development Index) and 51 percent in the lowest third of HDI are said to have experienced armed conflicts during the period from 1992 to 20013. Official development assistance agencies of each country share the understanding at OECD/DAC (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development/Development Assistance Committee) and other international gatherings that many of the countries characterized as difficult partnerships or failed states4 have been involved in armed conflicts and that new or renewed conflicts are highly likely in these countries. The World Bank has also pointed out that many LICUS (Low-Income Countries Under Stress)5 have undergone armed conflicts and that the recurrence of violent conflicts are highly likely in these post-conflict countries. Frequent outbreaks of conflicts within states in developing countries have resulted in an increasing number of civilian casualties. While civilian casualties accounted for 5 percent of the total casualties of World War I, non-military casualties accounted for almost half of the victims of World War II. Reportedly, 80 to 90 percent of the victims of armed conflicts in the 90s were non-military6. Furthermore, distinguishing civilians from military personnel is becoming increasingly more difficult, and more and more civilians are directly involved in violent conflict as players. Many have tried to analyze the causes of the recent rise in conflicts within states in developing countries from political, economical or historical perspectives. Capturing the context of such interstate conflict is, however, quite complicated and drawing general conclusions from a single perspective is difficult enough. Major ODA agencies have been analyzing how and why violent conflicts occur by distinguishing structural factors (social climates which can result in a high degree of vulnerability to conflicts), triggering factors (events, actions and decisions which result in the escalation of disputes into violent conflict) and perpetuating factors (events, actions and decisions which fuel violent conflicts)7. Structural factors are factors creating a potential climate for violent conflict. For example, unequal access to political power, economic activities and education structurally leave behind certain parts of a country from economic prosperity, results in uneven distribution of wealth and increases the sense of unfairness. Structural factors also include ethnic make-up of society and the history of inter-group relations. Triggering factors depend heavily on the specific context. They include: (1) drastic economic decline, (2) changes in the degree of internal state cohesion, (3) violent shifts in internal control of the central authority, including coup d'etat, (4) proliferation of arms, (5) biased media coverage fueling disputes between opposing groups, and (6) interventions of neighboring states, regional powers and organizations. Perpetuating factors include: (1) the rise of those who benefit from violent conflicts,

3 �Armed Conflict Report,� Project Ploughshares in Canada. (http://www.ploughshares.ca/CONTENT/ACR/acr.html). 4 The countries characterized as difficult partnerships or failed states totally lack systems or have very minimum systems for reflecting the will of people in government affairs. These countries are characterized by violation of human rights, political oppression, corruption, and conflicts. (DCD/DAC(2002)11/REV1) 5 LICUS is conceptually identical to �failed states.� LICUS is characterized by poor policy making, national administration systems and governance. (The World Bank, 2002) 6 P.11, IDEA, 1998 7 For these three types of factors, refer to DAC, 1998, Leonhardt, 1999 and Allen 2000.

3

including war lords, and (2) escalating hatred and acts of revenge among people. Fragile countries and regions in the post-conflict era mostly are said to lack human resources, suffer economic hardship and are unable to lay the groundwork for a long-term recovery, making themselves vulnerable to other violent conflicts. 1-2 Evolving Concept of Peacebuilding and the Role of Development Cooperation In 1992, the former UN Secretary General, Bouthros Bouthros Gali presented his report entitled �An Agenda for Peace� that was prepared on request from the UN Security Council for discussing the role and responsibility of the United Nations in the Post-Cold War Era. The report was aimed at effectively resolving the increasing outbreaks of regional conflicts by reconstructing existing frameworks for conflict resolution, including Peace Keeping Operations. The United Nations presented in this report a framework for comprehensive conflict resolving approaches in both pre- and post-conflict situations, including pre-conflict preventive diplomacy and peacemaking and post-conflict peace-building as well as peacekeeping operations that are conducted only after a cease-fire agreement is accepted by disputing parties8. The concept of �peacebuilding� then was identified only in post-conflict activities. In 1996, the Government of Canada announced �Canadian Peacekeeping Initiative,� expanding the concept of �post-conflict peacebuilding� that was originally conceived in �An Agenda for Peace.� The Initiative defined �peacebuilding� as �efforts increasing the possibility of peace in a country and decreasing the possibility of violent conflict whether before, during or after conflict9� and described the peacebuilding process by classifying relevant activities into conflict prevention, conflict resolution and post-conflict reconstruction. Among development aid communities, DAC published �Guidelines on Conflict, Peace and Development Co-operation on the Threshold of the 21st Century� in 1997, stating that strengthening capacity to appropriately prevent conflict in non-violent ways should be a foundation to sustainable development and that development assistance should play a role in conflict prevention and peacebuilding, in collaboration with preventive diplomacy, military operations, and economic sanctions. The Guidelines introduced �peacebuilding� as the concept which included both long-term preventive activities before, during and after conflict and quick response to potential emergency situations. Moreover, the Guidelines outlined the role of development assistance in every stage of a conflict cycle and specified what development assistance agencies should do to address conflict-related issues. In August 2000, the UN published a major new study on UN Peace and Peacekeeping Operations (�the Brahimi Report on UN Peacekeeping Reform�). The report emphasized the need of introducing the perspective of peacebuilding in existing peacekeeping operations. In July 2001, the UN Security Council adopted the UN Secretary General�s report on the prevention of armed conflict. The report recommended the introduction of the perspective of conflict prevention in activities of UN departments and agencies. In addition, �the UN Action Plan for Peacebuilding� was adopted in October 2001. This action plan presented various recommendations,

8 Saitoh, 2001, 18 9 Canada Japan Symposium on Peacebuilding for Development, 1999. Lecture of Michael Morse, Department Head of Peacebuilding/Human Security, Global and Humanitarian, Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade of Canada

4

including the need of cooperation among all UN departments and agencies, for streamlining peacebuilding activities and effectively contributing to peacebuilding. As a result of these evolutions, currently, the concept of peacebuilding is an integrated approach which includes conflict prevention, peacemaking and support for reconstruction. This concept advocates the implementation of development assistance as the third pillar, in addition to the other two pillars traditionally respected for attaining peace: the military framework (multinational forces and UN peacekeeping operations) and the political framework (preventive diplomacy, arms reduction and mediation). Development assistance, however, as some have pointed out, can indirectly worsen the social unfairness unless particular attention is paid to local social structures during the implementation. Accordingly, there has been an increasing awareness of the need for considering implications of development assistance and of paying special attention to its negative impacts. In 2001, OECD/DAC published the DAC Guidelines �Helping Prevent Violent Conflict.� The Guidelines stressed the importance of mainstreaming �Conflict Prevention Lens� and of consolidating �a culture of conflict prevention� in ordinary development assistance and support for reconstruction carried out by donors, including government agencies, bilateral donors and international organs. The Guidelines thus requested that donor governments always bear in mind the importance of conflict prevention as essential means for poverty reduction. In 2002, the United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan announced a report on �Prevention of Armed Conflict,� underlining that development assistance should play a significant role in conflict prevention and in the establishment of peaceful and fair society.

Figure 1-1 Framework of Peacebuilding Assistance 1-3 Development Aid Trends in International Communities The World Bank, UNDP, EU, CIDA, USAID and DFID and other donors as well as the above mentioned UN agencies, OECD/DAC and the Government of Canada have already been active in development cooperation for peacebuilding assistance. The

Development cooperation

Multinational forces

UN PKO

Military sector

Civilian sector

Prevenive diplomacy

Arms control

Mediation

Conflict Prevention Lens

Peacebuilding assistance

Military framework

Political framework

5

World Bank, UNDP, CIDA, and DFID have established divisions specializing in areas related to support for post-conflict reconstruction and development. It has been pointed out, however, that boundaries between different mandates of donor agencies are likely to result in chronological or quantitative gaps between the assistance to Basic Human Needs (BHN) in immediate post-conflict periods and the support for medium to long-term development in a specific situation of post-conflict reconstruction and development assistance. To eliminate these gaps, partnership among different donors has been emphasized in emergency humanitarian assistance as well as in support for reconstruction. Such partnership can be found in JAM (Joint Assessment Mission) and CAP (Consolidated Appeal) in which international agencies and NGOs appeal for financial support from donor countries only after the internal coordination takes place among all parties concerned including recipient countries themselves. UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees) has adopted the 4Rs Initiative10 which addresses the return and reintegration of refugees and IDPs, and rehabilitation and reconstruction, aiming at providing more seamless assistance ranging from the problem of refugees and poverty reduction to good governance establishment. In addition, the international community is currently focusing attention on the above mentioned �Conflict Prevention Lens� in development assistance, conflict analysis, comprehensive Security Sector Reform (SSR), and correlation between business and conflict and between governance and conflict. At the same time, what development assistance should accomplish in DDR (Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration of ex-combatants) as well as efforts with regard to small arms, landmines and terrorism are widely being discussed.

Acknowledging the importance of conflict analysis for mainstreaming a Conflict Prevention Lens in development assistance, governments and agencies have been developing various conflict analysis methods11. Up until now, these agencies have nearly completed the development of conflict analysis methodologies and have started applying them to actual situations. Lessons learned and experiences gained by these countries and agencies in the development have been published and shared in donor community meetings such as DAC/CPDC (DAC Network on Conflict, Peace and Development Co-operation) and CPR (Conflict Prevention and Post-conflict Reconstruction Network)12. In addition, the correlation between �Human Security 13 � and conflict has been attracting attention. �Human Security� is a concept that UNDP�s Human Development Report introduced in 1994. The Commission on Human Security14 10 4Rs are Repatriation, Reintegration, Rehabilitation, and Reconstruction 11 JICA developed PNA (Peace-building Needs and Impact Assessment) in collaboration with NGOs, based on PCIA (Peace and Conflict Impact Assessment) established by CIDA. Some donor agencies, including UNDP, have prepared their own conflict analysis methods based on the conflict assessment methodology developed by DFID. 12 For CPDC and CPR, refer to �Glossary.� 13 The concept of human security emphasizes the preservation and protection of the life, a state of well-being and dignity of individual human beings from various threats in a context beyond the conventional understanding of security of the state. These threats include a number of issues related to peacebuilding such as armed conflict, the outflow of refugees, and anti-personnel landmines as well as poverty, environmental destruction and HIV/AIDS. 14 The commission launched through the initiative of the Government of Japan with 12 internationally prominent members including Mrs. Sadako Ogata, former United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and Professor Amartya Sen, Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, serving

6

established in January 2001 stated in its Final Report that conflict has been and will be a major threat to human security. 1-4 Trends in Japan�s Assistance Japan has been underlining the role of development assistance for peacebuilding. Development assistance is an important pillar in Japan�s support for peacebuilding in addition to the other two pillars: diplomatic measures and support to Peacekeeping Operations. Prime Minister Juichiro Koizumi stated in Sydney in May 2002 that the Government of Japan would enhance its international cooperation focusing on the �Consolidation of Peace and Nation-building� and in line with the above policy expressed by Koizumi, the Japanese Government newly formed �the Council on International Peace and Cooperation,� an advisory panel of well-informed personalities. The Council presented concrete proposals in December 2002 for more effective use of ODA, the development and improvement of systems and legal frameworks necessary for prompt deployment of peacekeeping operations, active dispatch of civilian specialists and police, human resources development, safety measures and compensation systems, support to NGOs and better understanding and greater public participation15. The following sections describe Japan�s contribution to peacebuilding in development assistance, diplomatic means and support to peacekeeping operations. (1) Development Assistance

The Government of Japan declared in its �Basic Philosophy of ODA Charter� in 1992 �it is an important mission for Japan, as a peace-loving nation, to play a role commensurate with its position in the world to maintain world peace and ensure global prosperity.�

�Medium-Term Policy on ODA� released in August 1999 referred to �conflicts, disasters and development� as one of its key issues,� stating that regional conflicts �continue to create serious human rights problems and wreck havoc on the environment, thereby eroding the gains of past development efforts� and �conflict prevention, conflict resolution and post-conflict peacekeeping and reconstruction represent crucial challenge to the global community.16�

�G8 Miyazaki Initiative on Conflict Prevention17� adopted at the Kyushu-Okinawa Summit in July 2000 stressed the need of consolidating a �culture of (conflict) prevention� in a global community and the importance of a comprehensive approach for conflict prevention by making consistent efforts at all stages of conflict from the pre-conflict to post-conflict phases. This Initiative gave special attention to the issue of �conflict and development� as one of its key issues, and at the summit, G8 recognized the importance of taking initiatives in the following three areas: (1) promoting the consideration of conflict prevention in development assistance strategies, (2) focusing assistance to ensure quick action for conflict prevention, and (3) ensuring a smooth and

as co-chairs. Even after the presentation of its Final Report, the commission has still been active in symposiums mainly supported by MoFA of Japan. For more details, see http://www.humansecurity-chs.org/japanese/. 15 http://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/singi/kokusai/kettei/021218houkoku_s.html. 16 http://mofa.go.jp/mofaj/gaiko/oda/seisaku/seisaku_1/senryaku/4_shiryo/shiryo_4_3.html 17 http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/gaiko/summit/ko_2000/documents/initiative.html

7

seamless transition from emergency humanitarian assistance to development assistance in the post-conflict stage.

In response to the Miyazaki Initiative, the Government of Japan published its �Action from Japan18� program in 2000. This program recommended that the government of Japan reinforce its cooperation for conflict prevention in development assistance by strengthening the foundation of democracy in a recipient country, promoting collaboration with NGOs, international organizations and private sectors and underlining post-conflict reconstruction and development assistance to prevent the recurrence of conflict. In addition, the government of Japan set up a special aid mechanism called �The Japan Platform 19 � in August 2000 for providing international emergency relief more pro-actively through equal partnership and closer cooperation between NGOs, business and government, with each of them making full use of its resources and characteristics. �Japan Platform� is aimed at improving the efficiency and effectiveness of emergency humanitarian assistance by facilitating initial activities of Japanese NGOs on the spot of natural disasters or conflicts, including an initial field investigation, a setup of local systems, and the delivery of relief supplies. The MoFA provides necessary information and funds to Japan Platform as well as support to its human resources development and capacity enhancement. Following these moves by the government of Japan, JICA has been also active in supporting post-conflict reconstruction and development in Bosnia-Herzegovina, East Timor, Afghanistan, and the northern and eastern regions of Sri Lanka ever since its post-conflict reconstruction and development assistance programs in Cambodia starting from 1992. Since JICA became an �independent administrative institution (a new form of government agency)� in 2003, �reconstruction� has been specified as one of the major objectives of the new JICA by �the Law concerning specific rules of an independent administrative institution.� In this way, systems in JICA for comprehensively dealing with reconstruction and development assistance, including safety measures and compensations for its staff and human resources development, are being developed and upgraded. The new ODA Charter adopted by a Cabinet meeting in August 2003 specified �contribution to peace and development in the international community� as one of the objectives of official development assistance, and identified �peacebuilding� as one of the priority issues. The Charter noted that Japan should more proactively carry out its ODA to achieve poverty reduction and the correction of disparities for preventing conflict in developing countries and regions. (2) Diplomatic approaches Japan has been continuously making diplomatic efforts for post-conflict reconstruction and development since its contribution to post-conflict reconciliation, reconstruction and stability in Cambodia in 1992. As seen in the recent cases concerning conflicts at the Aceh province in Indonesia and Sri Lanka, the Japanese government has invited parties concerned to hold meetings in Japan for diplomatically accelerating the peace negotiations, following cease-fire agreements before the signing of peace accords. The following section chronologically describes relevant meetings and events that recently 18 http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/gaiko/prev/action_fj.html 19 For participants of the �Japan Platform,� refer to Appendix 4.

8

have taken place in Japan. In June 1992, Japan hosted �Ministerial Conference on Cambodian Reconstruction� and chaired the International Committee on the Reconstruction of Cambodia (ICORC),� a coordinating mechanism for assisting mid- to long-term reconstruction, for three years from 1993. Japan also held the first meeting of the Consultative Group for Cambodia (CG), a new coordinating meeting on international assistance, in Tokyo in July 1996. Following the armed conflict between the two governing parties in Cambodia in July 1997, Japan promoted the holding of a free and fair election in the country and presented the Four Pillar Proposal and other proactive diplomatic efforts for overcoming the political stalemate. Then Japan made a financial contribution and dispatched experts for the election of the members of the National Assembly held in Cambodia in 1998. In 1999, the �East Timor Donors� Meeting� was held in Tokyo in which Japan called for international and East Timor�s attention to its efforts in peacebuilding in the region. In January 2002, Japan hosted �the International Conference on Reconstruction Assistance to Afghanistan� in Tokyo. The conference was attended by a number of representatives from the Afghanistan Interim Administration (AIA) including Hamid Karzai, ministries from 61 countries and representatives from 21 international organizations. The conference ensured that AIA would continuously seek reconciliation, reconstruction and development in Afghanistan in accordance with the processes and objectives specified in the Bonn Agreement. The conference also gave the international donor community an opportunity to provide its political support to these processes by presenting specific assistance measures. In December 2002, �the Preparatory Conference on Peace and Reconstruction in Aceh� (�Tokyo Conference�) was held in Tokyo. In this conference Japan provided indirect support for promoting political dialogues between the Government of Indonesia and the Free Aceh Movement (GAM). In May 2003, through the intermediation of the Henry Dunant Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue (HOC), the Government of Indonesia and GAM held a meeting in Tokyo for peacefully resolving the conflict. �The Tokyo Conference on Reconstruction and Development of Sri Lanka �was held in June 2003 and attended by representatives from 51 countries and 22 international organizations. The conference issued �Tokyo Declaration on Reconstruction and Development of Sri Lanka.� The Declaration reconfirmed the initiation of the peace process and the introduction of a federal structure within a united Sri Lanka, and recognized the role of the conference itself as a donors� community for helping the reconstruction and development of Sri Lanka as a whole as well as of the northern and eastern regions of the country. The Declaration also underlined the need of immediately establishing an interim administrative system and of reporting the result of this conference to the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LITE). In addition, the Declaration emphasized the concept of the �linkage� between donor support and progress in the peace process in which the donors� assistance should be carried out in accordance with the progress in peacebuilding. In addition to support to donors� conferences, Japan�s diplomatic activities have been underlining arms control, and Japanese delegates have been leading disarmament efforts in the international community. For example, Mr. Mituro Donowaki, former Ambassador of Japan to the Conference on Disarmament, chairs the UN Small Arms Panel and the UN Group of Government Experts on Small Arms. He also chaired the

9

UN Small Arms Conference in 2001. Furthermore, Ambassador Kuniko Inoguchi, Permanent Representative to the Conference on Disarmament, chaired the UN Biennial Meeting on the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons held in New York in July 2003. (3) Support to PKO (Peace Keeping Operations) PKO has been carried out by the United Nations, other international organizations and countries as a means of peacekeeping and of reconstructing areas of conflicts. Japan has been providing both financial and personnel cooperation to UN-led activities for securing peace and stability in the international community. Since the enactment of the PKO Law (the International Peace Cooperation Law) in 1992, Japan has participated in eight PKO, three humanitarian emergency relief and five election monitoring missions, dispatching personnel to each mission. (Refer to Table 1 below.) Currently Japan has dispatched transport units and headquarters staff officers to UNDOF (United Nations Disengagement Observer Force) in the Golan Heights in Syria. Japan has also sent 522 members of the Ground Self-Defense Force to UNMISET (United Nations Mission of Support in East Timor) for the repair and maintenance of roads and bridges, providing logistical support to UNMISET. This UNMISET mission is Japan�s largest commitment of personnel to a UN peacekeeping operation so far, and has great significance as Japan�s proactive commitment to UN-led efforts for ensuring peace and safety in the international community. Table 1-1: Japan�s commitments of personnel to UN-led peacekeeping operations (in accordance with the International Peace Cooperation Law) Month/Year Description Dispatch personnel June 1992 Enactment of the International Peace Cooperation Law Sept. to Oct. 1992 United Nations Angola Verification Mission

II (UNAVEM II) 3 electoral observers

Sept. 1992 to Sept. 1993

United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC)

8 cease-fire observers 75 civilian policemen 600 combat engineers 41 electoral observers

May 1993 to Jan. 1995

United Nations Operation in Mozambique (ONUMOZ)

5 headquarters staff officers 48-member movement control units 15 electoral observers

Mar. to Apr. 1994 United Nations Observer Mission in El Salvador (ONUSAL)

15 electoral observers

Sept. to Dec. 1994 International Relief Cooperation Assignments for Rwandan Refugees

283-member relief team for Rwandan refugees 118-member air transport team

Feb. 1996 to present

United Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) (1st to 15th)

2 headquarters staff officers 43-member transport units

June 1998 Amendment of the International Peace Cooperation Law Aug. to Sept. 1998 OSCE Election Monitoring in Bosnia and

Herzegovina (General and regional assembly elections)

25 electoral supervisors 5 electoral observers

July to Sept. 1999 United Nations Mission in East Timor (UNAMET)

3 civilian policemen

Nov. 1999 to Feb. 2000

Humanitarian Relief Operation for East Timorese Displaced Persons

113-member airlifting units

Mar. to Apr. 2000 OSCE Election Monitoring in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Municipal assembly elections)

11 electoral supervisors

10

Aug. to Sept. 2001 Teams of International Peace Cooperation in East Timor (East Timor Constituent Assembly Election)

14 electoral observers

Oct. 2001 Aid for Afghan Refugees in Pakistan 140-member airlifting units Nov. 2001 International Peace Cooperation in Kosovo 6 electoral observers Feb. 2002 to present

United Nations Mission of Support in East Timor (UNMISET) (1st to 3rd)

10 headquarters staff officers 680 combat engineers (522 combat engineers in the 1st and 3rd missions)

April 2002 United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) (Presidential election)

8 electoral observers

Sources: Websites of Cabinet Office and Ministry of Foreign Affairs

11

Chapter 2: JICA�s Policy on International Cooperation As mentioned in the previous chapter, recent conflicts have resulted in increased civilian casualties. Collapsed political structures, paralyzed political functions and public services, destruction of infrastructure and social capital in war/conflict affected countries have slowed or even reversed the progress of long-term sustainable development. Various issues related to development, including the disparity between the rich and poor and political unfairness, may have contributed to the increase in conflicts. Peacebuilding, therefore, is essential for overcoming threats to human life and dignity and the quality of life. Peacebuilding can be instrumental in making better use of each person�s abilities to improve his/her quality of life and realize sustainable development. The revised version of the ODA Charter approved by the Cabinet on August 29, 2003 identified �peacebuilding� as a high priority among ODA activities. JICA should, therefore, play a leading role for minimizing the possibility of conflict through development co-operation. JICA will also contribute to developing foundations so that post-conflict countries themselves would take the initiative in consolidation of stability and nation-building as well as setting a road map to sustainable development. This chapter first presents the goal of peacebuilding assistance and explains peacebuilding assistance activities. It then describes basic policies and issues to be considered in peacebuilding assistance. 2-1 Goal of peacebuilding assistance and seven priority areas 2-1-1 Goal JICA�s peacebuilding assistance aims at strengthening recipient countries� capacities to prevent conflict and to reconstruct the countries towards long-term sustainable development in conflict prone countries1. This guideline defines �peacebuilding assistance� as the process of preventing the occurrence and recurrence of conflict, reconstructing war-torn societies, economies and people�s lives, and thereby contributing towards the reconstruction and sustainable development of conflict-prone countries/regions. 2-1-2 Seven priority areas JICA carries out peacebuilding assistance mainly in the following seven areas. (1) Reconciliation Lingering distrust, resentment and antagonism among population in post-conflict countries/regions can become major impediments to peacebuilding. Efforts to foster reconciliation between antagonizing groups, ethnic groups or political factions are, therefore, important for preventing a recurrence of conflict. JICA will strengthen its efforts to promote the repatriation and resettlement of refugees and internally displaced people with the viewpoint of national reconciliation and to promote peace education. At the same time, JICA will promote dialogue and reconciliatory interactions among

1 �Conflict prone countries� refers countries with conflict factors, countries which have conflicts in some regions and post-conflict countries.

12

opposing groups in implementing peacebuilding assistance. (2) Governance Post-conflict support for representative political regimes and restoration of legitimate political functions that were lost in the conflict can serve as a basis for rebuilding a nation. JICA has so far provided administrative support focusing on human resources development and has assisted the establishment of legal systems. JICA will continuously support the upgrading of governance systems from early stages of the reconstruction phase. From a reconciliatory viewpoint, in conflict-prone countries and developing countries, unequal distribution of wealth as well as problematic political systems (where access to political and economic power is limited to certain ethnic or religious groups) are often seen. JICA should pay special attention to these issues and support building good governance which reflects the views and interests of the populace. (3) Security improvement Security improvement is an essential part of peacebuilding activities that include the repatriation and resettlement of refugees and IDPs, the reconstruction of people�s living and the restoration of political stability. For improving security, disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of ex-combatants as well as reform of police, military and judicial systems and the control of small arms are indispensable. JICA will reinforce its efforts to support the reform of the police, the creation/strengthening of judicial system as well as vocational training, agricultural education and job creation for ex-combatants. (4) Rehabilitation of social infrastructure Rehabilitation of social infrastructure, including medical care, public health and water supply facilities, is essential for reconstructing the foundation of people�s lives. With so many needs in post-conflict countries, JICA will primarily reconstruct basic infrastructure necessary for people�s basic needs. JICA�s assistance places emphasis on the smooth transition from the emergency humanitarian relief phase to longer-term reconstruction of social infrastructure so that people�s basic needs can be continuously met. To make development and upgrading of infrastructure more appropriate, JICA�s assistance takes into account mid- to long-term development of recipient countries� capacities, including their capacities for operating and maintaining social infrastructure as well as the pre-conflict conditions of their social infrastructure. Moreover, removal of anti-personnel land mines is a prerequisite for the rehabilitation of social infrastructure. JICA will address this problem by providing resources and equipment necessary for removing anti-personnel land mines and by supporting recipient countries� capacity building in this sector. (5) Economic recovery Economic recovery addresses basic economic needs by fostering small-scale job creation and technical training, and by reestablishing or introducing micro finance systems. Economic recovery also aims at stabilizing a country�s economic base by restoring economic infrastructure, supporting industrial development, strengthening financial and monetary policies, and providing vocational training and job creation. Economic recovery indeed plays a significant role in preventing recurrence of conflict since disparity between the rich and the poor and problems of unemployment may easily re-ignite conflict. JICA will flexibly meet economic recovery needs that change from

13

time to time in post-conflict countries, by helping create job opportunities and encouraging industrial development. (6) Assistance for socially vulnerable people The impact of violent conflict on people varies. Socially vulnerable people such as those with disabilities, child soldiers, widows, street children, and those with psychological trauma are often severely affected by conflict. The degree of influence of conflict on people also varies according to gender. JICA�s assistance for the socially vulnerable targets those physically disabled or psychologically traumatized by conflict, child soldiers and war orphans, as well as those who were marginalized from mainstream society even before conflict, such as the disabled people, women, street children, and ethnic minorities. JICA should pay special attention to the socially vulnerable when supporting the reconstruction of social infrastructure such as medical care, public health and education systems, assisting the repatriation and resettlement of refugees and IDPs, and helping economic development and the establishment/improvement of judicial systems. When designing programs, JICA will take into consideration the potential contribution of the socially vulnerable to reconciliation and good governance. (7) Humanitarian emergency assistance Humanitarian emergency assistance saves the lives of the victims of conflicts and addresses basic emergency needs. In Japan, the PKO Law (International Peace Cooperation Law) enacted in 1992 specifies that peacekeeping operations (PKO) shall be responsible for responding to the needs caused by armed conflicts, while Japanese Disaster Relief (JDR) teams shall provide emergency assistance to victims of natural disasters. Accordingly, JICA�s direct assistance to victims of conflicts has been limited. JICA will reduce the burden of countries/regions that accept refugees and displaced people and will reinforce their capacity for accepting refugees so as to indirectly support emergency assistance activities. In addition, to effectively link these indirect support activities to larger-scale support for post-conflict reconstruction, JICA should incorporate into assistance activities the perspective of mid- to longer term interventions. 2-2 Process of peacebuilding assistance Peacebuilding is a comprehensive process which covers before, during and after a conflict. JICA classifies the process of peacebuilding assistance into (1) pre-conflict �development assistance (conflict prevention),� (2) �support for recovery and reconstruction� in post-conflict countries/regions, and (3) subsequent �development assistance (preventing the recurrence of conflict).� (1) Development assistance (prevention of occurrence ((1) above) and recurrence of

conflict ((3) above)) Development assistance aiming at conflict prevention is to avert the outbreak of armed conflict in countries that face rising tensions due to various factors such as political or social instability, worsening security, a stagnant economy, and regional conflicts. Post-conflict development assistance aims at reinforcing the basis of peace and sustainable development as well as securing reestablishing systems and activating social and economical development of the recipient country. Thus, its aim is not merely

14

to restore the pre-conflict status quo.

Figure 2-1 Process of peacebuilding assistance (2) Recovery and reconstruction The initiation of JICA�s support for reconstruction depends on the following three milestones: (1) A cease-fire agreement or peace agreement, (2) International recognition of a post-conflict state or an interim administration, and (3) the Japanese government�s political decision on reconstruction assistance. JICA�s support aims at seamlessly linking humanitarian relief to address basic human needs immediately after the conflict, to the recovery and reconstruction of conflict-torn areas, and to sustainable development. Support for reconstructing post-conflict countries should also have viewpoints: Preventing the recurrence of another conflict should be an objective of support for reconstructing post-conflict countries. 2-3 Policies for JICA�s peacebuilding assistance 2-3-1 Focus on reconstruction assistance JICA intends to more actively and comprehensively take part in peacebuilding activities, particularly in support for recovery and reconstruction in post-conflict countries. So far, in principle, JICA�s support has been provided only in countries that have reached peace agreements. In the future, in accordance with the Japanese Government�s policies, JICA will assist countries from the early stage of ceasefire to conclusion of

Outbreak of Conflict

Tension

Conflict prevention lens

Cease-fire agreement

Dev. Assistance (Conflict prevention)

Peace agreement

Multinational military forces

UNPKO

Arms control (Control on manufacturing, import and export of arms)

Preventive diplomacy

Mediation and peace process

Military framework

Political framework

Development cooperation Recovery and reconstruction

Dev. Assistance (Prevention of the recurrence of Conflict)

Emergency relief

15

peace agreement to promote a peace process. JICA will support those who have been displaced from the areas where violent conflicts have taken place to deal with the adverse effects of the conflicts. JICA will make efforts for reducing conflict factors to prevent the further spread of conflicts. JICA�s assistance for reconstruction of conflict-affected countries/regions will place emphasis on the rehabilitation of social infrastructure that is essential to the improvement of living conditions and subsequent sustainable development. In addition, by making better use of its experience with rural development and human resources development, JICA tackles new issues, such as support for repatriation and resettlement of refugees and IDPs, and reintegration of ex-combatants and reconciliation between opposing groups. 2-3-2 Prompt assistance with a mid- to long-term perspective JICA�s peacebuilding assistance should meet urgent needs during the period immediately after conflict and pay attention to the consistency between short-term and mid- to long-term assistance. In this way, JICA�s assistance will effectively link emergency relief to long-term development. Reaping �peace dividends� through rehabilitation of social infrastructure (such as medical care, public health and water supply) as well as prompt improvement of people�s lives are crucial for peacebuilding. Therefore, JICA should ensure more immediate effects of aid from earlier stages. JICA�s assistance will also play a key role in meeting mid- to long-term needs, including local human resources development, establishment of good governance and pro-poor growth. 2-3-3 Promotion of �conflict prevention lens� Countries of receiving peacebuilding assistance are often fragile and likely to experience recurrence of a violent conflict. The first stage of peacebuilding assistance is, therefore, to analyze the causes, escalation and persistence of violent conflict, and consequences of a specific conflict that has occurred. Then, based on the findings, JICA should provide assistance that can directly reduce or eliminate conflict factors and apply a �conflict prevention lens� to every assistance project to control conflict factors. Peacebuilding in conflict-prone countries/regions where tensions arise from inter-ethnic or religious conflict should take the approach that promotes exchange and collaboration among opposing groups while implementing projects such as training and community development. In this way, JICA will help prevent new or renewed conflict. The selection of beneficiaries or target areas in peacebuilding assistance must be well-balanced so as not to foster the feeling of unfairness and antagonism among different groups. Since factors responsible for the outbreak or recurrence of conflict vary according to countries/regions, the integration of conflict prevention lens should reflect specific conditions of each recipient country/region. For this reason, JICA will apply PNA (Peacebuilding Needs and Impact Assessment) in planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating peacebuilding-related projects. PNA is an approach for analyzing and comprehensively identifying needs specific to post-conflict countries/regions. 2-3-4 Support for self-initiatives by a post-conflict country/region

16

The key to building and consolidating peace is to strengthen the peacebuilding capacity of government institutions, private organizations and citizen groups in recipient countries/regions. Such capacity building should be initiated by recipient countries /regions themselves and should be based on the knowledge and resources particular to each community and country. JICA will focus more on local values and cultures particular to recipient countries/regions. For example, when supporting the establishment/improvement of judicial systems, JICA will reflect local values and cultures, while respecting Western and Japanese systems at the same time. 2-4 Issues to be considered 2-4-1 Participation in aid coordination and JICA�s earlier decision-making Immediately after the end of a conflict, post-conflict areas are flooded with the emergency relief and reconstruction support activities of NGOs, international agencies and donor governments. UN agencies generally play a leading role in donor coordination on behalf of a recipient country�s government which lacks the ability for aid coordination and planning of development programs. JICA should collect information by taking part in reconstruction support from earlier stages and exchange opinions in the planning of reconstruction programs as well as in donor coordination. This kind of earlier involvement is essential for the international community�s cohesive and seamless assistance linking emergency relief to the long-term effects of assistance. (1) Participation in donors� joint assessment mission In most cases, a number of donors jointly carry out needs assessment in each sector to identify emergency needs that must be addressed in the earlier stages and those to be addressed in mid- to long-term assistance26. It is recommended that JICA participate in these needs assessment missions, share information with other donors, and express its intention to cooperate in sectors where JICA has extensive experience. JICA often refrains from sending its staff to conflict-affected countries immediately after the conflict for safety reasons, except those dispatched as members of joint needs assessment missions. It is recommended that, to understand local situations in a recipient country, JICA always be prepared to send human resources knowledgeable in the relevant sectors. Each donor, in general, takes part in this needs assessment with its target assistance areas in mind. JICA should determine the basic directions of its aid activities in advance by sending on-site survey teams or contracting out the collection and analysis of information to consultants in Japan or in third countries before taking part in such assessment missions. (2) Continuous involvement in the donor coordination framework Since the capacity of recipient countries to accept donors is limited in the earlier stages and since post-conflict areas are flooded with various donor activities, UN agencies and other donor agencies play a leading role in creating a framework for donor coordination and for supporting a recipient countries� administration. In cases such as East Timor where a completely new administration was to be established after conflict, the UN-led framework often serves as a substitute for government offices. JICA should dispatch 26 The joint needs assessment includes JAM, CCF, UNDAF.

17

its staff to and take part in these donor coordination mechanisms from earlier stages to collect information on on-site conditions and on other donors. JICA should also ensure its significant voice in decision-making regarding the formulation of aid policies. Since aid coordination is generally conducted by major donors, JICA should send advisors and specialists so as to continuously take part in aid coordination mechanisms concerning priority sectors of Japan�s official assistance. When it is difficult to dispatch experts to a recipient country�s administrative offices, it should be considered to dispatch planning and research staff or study teams instead. 2-4-2 Concurrence of emergency restoration of basic living infrastructures and support for mid- to long-term reconstruction (1) Emergency restoration of basic living infrastructures and support for mid- to

long-term reconstruction In earlier stages of post-conflict reconstruction, a newly established administration must secure support from the international community. At the same time, it must visibly rehabilitate and reconstruct war-torn living infrastructure and basic social services so as to allow the general public to fully realize �peace dividends� and gain the people�s trust and support. In this situation, JICA is required to promptly address the new administration�s emergency needs. Conventional JICA schemes have, however, found it difficult to deal with such emergency needs, since typical JICA schemes are supposed to serve for long-term development assistance. More recently, �Emergency Relief Study� examines possible directions of mid- to long-term reconstruction and development cooperation, then, pilot projects are designed and implemented to urgently reconstruct schools, hospitals, residential roads and water/power supply systems. In addition, preparatory studies are implemented for formulating emergency grant projects regarding large-scale emergency infrastructure development and for other general grant aids. In the formulation of these rehabilitation projects, careful considerations must be given to secure participation of every group concerned. Also project areas should be carefully selected in terms of balance of regions, and ethnic/religious groups. Further, activities supporting aid projects that improve people�s living conditions are effective when they substitute for conflict-torn administrative services. Such activities can be carried out through contracts with local NGOs or consultants by contracting out the activities in the framework of the Emergency Relief Study or by using the amounts budgeted for the on-site operations of experts. Moreover, JICAs overseas offices are able to directly contract local consultants and other experts for conducting emergency rehabilitation projects. When the collection of basic data is often extremely difficult in countries long affected by conflict, the facilities that Japan has once supported are likely to have some relevant information or resources. In addition, records of past studies, technical information accumulated by companies taking part in these studies and human networks concerning the past studies may be of some use. If these resources are made the best use of, the recovery and reconstruction of the facilities will lead to the visible progress of quick-impact assistance. Needs for assistance may change with time, however, and the formulation of aid plans must be based on the deep understanding of present needs as well as on review of past records and accomplishments. Flexibility in costs assignment for operating expenses, maintenance cost and personnel expenses is essential, since self-help efforts in recipient countries or agencies are limited. Further, when post-conflict infrastructure development projects are intensively carried out, it often causes a sharp rise in costs and the concentration of wealth. Accordingly, special consideration should be given to avert such adverse effects.

18

(2) Perspective of mid- to long-term reconstruction and formulation of aid programs transcending the borders of different schemes

To secure minimum social services essential for basic living conditions, the rehabilitation and strengthening of administrative agencies and local communities as well as the support for human resources development are necessary in addition to the emergency reconstruction of facilities. These activities should be carried out with mid- to long-term perspectives. Accordingly, JICA is required to identify its basic directions of cooperation activities based on aid coordination and to promptly cooperate with other donors and recipients in liaison with various schemes. To this end, it is recommended that survey teams transcending the borders of individual schemes are dispatched at earlier stages and that an agreement with a recipient government concerning the S/W of technical cooperation and development studies is reached. At the same time, on-site systems for carrying out aid projects must be established. Furthermore, in the implementation of subsequent projects, various divisions of JICA should cross-sectionally discuss policies concerning projects. JICA should also call for the involvement of relevant agencies that have human resources specializing in or have accumulated expertise in international cooperation. Such efforts will enable timely response to on-site needs by JICA. 2-4-3 Regional Perspective Neighboring countries of a post-conflict country must be taken into account in the reconstruction support. These countries often directly accept refugees as well as have served as the bases for logistical support. In some cases, neighboring countries have been supporting certain political powers of a conflict-torn country, and some of the conflicts themselves may have reflected the power balance among these countries. Accordingly, support for specific neighboring countries must be carefully implemented so as not to have adverse effects on the peacebuilding process in and around a post-conflict country. 2-4-4 Mobilization of external resources When supporting the post-conflict reconstruction, the JICA staff may often find it difficult to enter or stay long in the areas which experience poor security conditions. In addition, the number of Japanese organizations staying operational in recipient countries immediately after the end of conflict is quite limited. At the same time, areas of poor security are unlikely to enjoy the benefits of the external assistance, and disparity can create susceptible factors for another adverse cycle of destabilized society and possible conflicts. To promptly and effectively carry out aid projects under such circumstances, it is recommended that JICA reach out to and seek partnership with human resources that have good experience or are ready to actively take part in assistance under difficult conditions. 2-4-5 Other development issues As impediments and issues dealt with in development cooperation vary with regions, issues to be considered in post-conflict reconstruction vary according to the history and background of each conflict. Though some development issues, such as geographical and climate conditions, are not directly attributable to conflict, these factors should be carefully reviewed in formulating aid plans and in carrying out reconstruction assistance from the mid- to long-term development perspective.

19

2-4-6 Issues to be considered during the period between ceasefire and peace agreement (1) Domestic situations and political trends Situations in the transitional period, from ceasefire to peace agreement, change every moment and have a significant influence on the directions of JICA�s subsequent cooperation activities. Accordingly, identification of domestic situations and political trends is important. In particular, moves by groups not directly concerned with the conflict (including opponents of a peace agreement) should be carefully monitored. (2) Consideration of the effects on peace negotiation Any JICA assistance is likely to attract attention as �Japanese� assistance. Accordingly, special considerations must be given so that JICA�s assistance will not be politically manipulated. In particular, the benefits of JICA�s projects should not be unequally distributed from the viewpoint of regions and ethnic/religious groups so as not to create a sense of unfairness. When violent conflict has occurred in a part of a recipient country, consideration must also be given to conflict-free areas. In addition, when neighboring countries have been involved in peace negotiations, a host country sometimes prefers not to accept assistance from other countries (including Japan) for political or military reasons. Accordingly, JICA should also keep track of diplomatic policies of both Japan and neighboring countries of a conflict. (3) Initial response to humanitarian needs To promptly respond to high level of humanitarian emergency needs, JICA must be flexible enough to transcend the borders of schemes. To allow people to fully realize the blessings of peace, the use of NGOs familiar with local conditions is highly effective, regardless of whether they are Japanese or local. Thus, to enhance the effectiveness of the assistance, the coordination, collaboration and networking with NGOs are important. Until the peace agreement is reached, however, poor security and low sustainability of projects may make it difficult to carry out projects with long-term perspective. (4) Postponement, interruption, and suspension of projects Projects implemented in collaboration with external resources need clarification of contract terms and conditions, and legal arrangements should be considered to avoid contractual disputes. An aid project-related contract must clarify that the project under the contract is subject to postponement, interruption, or suspension due to the progress of the peace process and security conditions and that the parties concerned will accept postponement, interruption, or suspension. To this end, JICA must be prepared to collect and provide the latest information on the peace process to the parties concerned. In addition, an organizational system carrying out the projects should be flexible enough to respond effectively to rapid changes in the progress of peace negotiations and local security situations. (5) Parties concerned with peace negotiations Until a peace agreement is reached, one of the negotiating parties might be still be illegitimate. Considering the balance of aid impacts, ideally, every party should be pleased with assistance. However, special attention must be paid not to assist illegal

20

organizations, though assistance to people living in areas controlled by such groups is permissible. 2-5 Prompt and flexible response Reconstruction assistance needs to flexibly respond to rapidly changing situations. Since JICA�s conventional projects are supposed to serve for long-term development assistance, timely decision-making and the flexible use of existing budgets and schemes are required. Details on these issues are available in the research report �Study of Framework for Effective Reconstruction and Development�, published in July 2002. The key issues to be considered are as follows: 2-5-1 Establishment of a relevant structure at HQ (1) Timely decision-making and consensus building among relevant

divisions/departments Reconstruction assistance needs to promptly and flexibly respond to the rapidly changing situations engendered by various political decisions. Thus, to speedily make a decision based on consensus, a cross-sectional committees should be established at JICA HQ. In addition, liaison meetings should be held for sharing information and discussing issues on the implementation among persons in charge of projects at the different divisions. (2) Establishment of �Peacebuilding Assistance Bureau (tentative name)� Reconstruction assistance often should be carried out under difficult conditions and should develop and upgrade the bases which implement projects. At the same time, those in charge of projects must keep track of rapid changes in political trends, security conditions and moves of other donors while responding to relevant agencies and media in Japan. To this end, even in peacetime, the office tentatively named �Peacebuilding Assistance Bureau� is required to collect information and monitor trends concerning violent conflict to formulate policies for peacebuilding. In this way, JICA can establish a system capable of responding to the outbreak of conflict without delay. JICA�s Regional Departments play a leading role in the timely deployment of staff from the Peacebuilding Assistance Bureau and from other divisions who are familiar with local conditions to enhance the effectiveness of JICA�s assistance, once the implementation of the reconstruction assistance has been decided. At the same time, JICA should open and extend channels to the Regional Bureaus and the Economic Cooperation Bureau of the MoFA, other government-affiliated agencies, Japanese NGOs and private businesses familiar with recipient countries. In this way, JICA can be prepared for quickly responding to needs in the reconstruction assistance. It is recommended that methodologies related to the reconstruction assistance, including PNA, are reviewed and revised as needed to enhance the effectiveness of the monitoring and evaluation of peacebuilding projects. In addition, liaison between the Peacebuilding Assistance Bureau and other relevant divisions should be further strengthened. 2-5-2 On-site implementation system (1) Early establishment of regional offices

21

Many donors simultaneously start aid activities at conflict-affected regions in the post-conflict reconstruction period. For this reason, donors should secure bases for implementing projects and local staff as early as possible to launch an on-site implementation system without delay. Constant changes in local security conditions must be taken into account for upgrading security measures during the construction of the bases. At the same time, there is a pressing need to establish a means of satellite and radio communications and to ensure contact with persons in charge of constructing the on-site implementation system. In addition, there is a special need to consider how to manage the official budget in case local financial institutions are unreliable. (2) Logistical support In post-conflict countries, distribution channels have often collapsed, making it more difficult to procure the necessary equipment and materials to start projects. For this reason, equipment and materials have to be procured in or through neighboring countries by developing transportation routes. To facilitate the dispatch of experts and survey teams and the acceptance of trainees from conflict-affected areas that are inaccessible by ordinary means of transportation, logistical support bases must be established at stopping points in third countries. 2-5-3 Prompt dispatch of staff (1) Accumulation of information on human resources The quick construction of the bases is essential for responding to needs of emergency relief. At the same time, information from relevant agencies, human networking, local workforce, and safety management must be secured. To be prepared for the timely dispatch of human resources familiar with local circumstances and those experienced with emergency logistical support, the accumulation and sharing of information on human resources must be constantly up-graded. It is also recommended that the know-how and information on human resources of the Secretariat of the Japan Disaster Relief Team (JDR) are made better use of27. (2) Budget allocation and procedures Reconstruction assistance is generally initiated on a considerable scale all at once. Accordingly, JICA is required to respond to a wide range of requests within a short period of time. To this end, flexibility in budget allocation as well as timely implementation of aid activities are required. 2-5-4 Safety measures There is some uncertainty in security in reconstruction assistance due to the lack of a police function following the end of a violent conflict, though the international community strives to maintain law and order. Accordingly, JICA must make the maximum effort to ensure safety when implementing reconstruction assistance. Possible safety measures are as follows: (1) Sending advance missions to confirm safety

27 JICA utilized the know-how and information on human resources of the Secretariat of Japan Disaster Relief Team (JDR) when dispatching experts to Syria for upgrading emergency medical facilities in May 2003 in response to the need to accept refugees from Iraq.

22

Advance missions should be dispatched at an earlier stage to confirm safety. And to avert risks, the missions should carefully examine project areas, necessary safety measures, evacuation routes, and the abilities of staff, such as health condition, accompanying family members and language skills, and the number of staff members. (2) Setting up bases Adequate safeguards for the bases (including offices and housing) should be provided in accordance with local safety conditions, for example, by reinforcing boundary fences, hiring security guards and deploying bulletproof vehicles. (3) Collecting information Effective safety measures require the extraction, identification and adequate dissemination of risk factors by the collection and analysis of information. (4) Emergency communication channels Emergency communication channels must be established by utilizing wireless applications, cellular phones, satellite phones and other communication equipment. (5) Dispatching resident specialists in safety measures Resident specialists in safety measures should collect and analyze security information, carry out safeguard measures, and formulate and review emergency measures and safeguard plans accordingly. 2-5-5 Strategic public relations Japan�s contribution to reconstruction assistance should be carried out in a more visible manner while the aid coordination is essential in the reconstruction assistance. . Accordingly, projects that can be more widely recognized should be implemented and, at the same time, strategic public relations should be conducted to raise people�s awareness of Japan�s contribution to peacebuilding. Projects that can be widely appreciated include support for media infrastructures, the upgrading and renovation of facilities required by a wide range of people, including hospitals and schools, and the reconstruction of facilities that used to be the targets of Japanese technical or financial cooperation. It is also recommended that persons familiar with the media industries be employed as staff in charge of media relations． In the case of remaining forces that have ill feelings toward reconstruction assistance from foreign countries or organizations, it is necessary for the donor staff to keep a low profile. With increasing domestic interest in reconstruction assistance, the promotion of public relations targeting government officials, NGOs and the general public is essential for enhancing public understanding and support for JICA�s activities. For domestic public relations, JICA should encourage the publication of its activities through websites, printed media and press releases. JICA should also promote the sharing of information on survey results, assistance policies and project achievement with Japanese NGOs that carry out reconstruction assistance in a recipient country.

23

Figure 2-2 Concept of JICA�s peacebuilding assistance

JICA�s basic principles ○ Focus on reconstruction assistance ○ Prompt assistance from viewpoints of mid-to

long-term development ○ Promotion of Conflict Prevention lens ○ Support for self-initiatives by post-conflict

countries/regions

Sustainable development

・ To protect people exposed to severe threats to their survival, livelihood and dignity

・ To improve their livelihood

JICA�s peacebuilding assistance

Humanitarian emergency assistance

Assistance for socially vulnerable people

Economic recovery

Security improvement

Rehabilitation of social infrastructures

ReconciliationGovernance

Seven priority areas

Peacebuilding

24

Chapter 3: Approaches to Peacebuilding Assistance 3-1 Basic concept As mentioned in Chapter 2, the priority areas in JICA�s peacebuilding assistance are reconciliation, governance, security improvement, rehabilitation of social infrastructure, economic recovery, support for socially vulnerable people and humanitarian emergency relief. This chapter outlines the basic concept and assistance menus of these priority areas as well as important issues to be considered. It also introduces relevant cases in each sector. In which areas, among these seven areas, JICA puts the most emphasis on varies in accordance with present conditions of a recipient country, social and economic circumstances of a recipient country/region before and after the conflict and characteristics of the conflict, including conflict factors, the duration of the conflict, impact of the conflict on people and parties concerned, the condition of how the conflict ended, and types of post-conflict international aid systems. For this reason, careful considerations should be given when determining the sector for assistance. What type of peacebuilding assistance should be implemented in accordance with specific local needs should be based on conflict analysis using PNA (Peace-building Needs and Impact Assessment). The following figure indicates the correlation between PNA and the priority areas. Figure 3-1 Correlation between PNA and the seven priority areas

Screening

Possible m

easures for

peacebuilding (based on the seven priority areas)

Conflict analysis

Formulation of peacebuilding projects

based on the seven priority areas

Seven steps of PNA

Situation analysis

Peace & conflict assessment in the project

areas Stakeholder analysis

Step ① ② ③ ④ ⑤ ⑥ ⑦

25

Figure 3-2 Framework for post-conflict reconstruction in peacebuilding support

26

When implementing activities, careful consideration must always be given to gender issues and the needs of those often left behind by the process of post-conflict reconstruction and development, including women, children, persons with disabilities, ethnic minorities, widowed women and child soldiers. The United Nations and OECD/DAC have already been advocating implementation of projects targeting women in the peacebuilding process as well as promoting active participation of women as promoters of peacebuilding. The following section outlines the seven priority areas: (1) reconciliation, (2) governance, (3) security improvement, (4) rehabilitation of social infrastructure, (5) economic recovery, (6) support for socially vulnerable people and (7) humanitarian emergency relief. 3-2 Reconciliation 3-2-1 Basic concept Post-conflict reconciliation is the process of healing and reconstructing social capital and mutual confidence among people in conflict-torn/war-torn society. Reconciliation is considered as the creation of the dynamic social space where seemingly paradoxical concepts of �disclosure of truth,� �mercy,� �the pursuit of justice� and �peacekeeping� can intersect and truly meet. Reconciliation can take place at various levels, including levels between individuals, organizations and states. Since the end of the Cold War, conflicts within states have been increasing and thereby, an increasing number of civilians have witnessed or experienced violence or destruction. Most members of the society have been involved in conflicts as victims and victimizers, or had acquaintances or relatives who were casualties of conflicts. In short, many have experienced violence or the loss of a loved one. Such societies where memories of conflict linger are likely to find it difficult to escape the shadow of violent conflict even after the conflict ends. In view of this, an entire post-conflict society is thought to be impaired by a collective trauma (despair, a loss of confidence, depression and apathy). Such negative states of mind make reconciliation with past enemies more difficult. For this reason, the healing of the trauma is supposed to be a precondition and the first step necessary for reconciliation. Traditionally, a trauma has been supposed to be healed by resolution of PTSD symptoms of individual patients with the aid of psychological or psychiatric treatment. More recently, however, a collective approach is being taken that targets a group or a society which suffers from trauma. (For example, GTZ has been engaged in trauma-treatment from this perspective.) In this way, the collective treatment to heal conflict-related trauma has attracted attention as a field where each donor can make the best use of its resources at different levels, including community and national levels. Under such circumstances, even when the progress of the political peace process seems to have put an end to a violent conflict, a high level of tension lingers and is likely to cause further hostility. This could lead to another violent conflict, unless conflict-affected human relationships and mutual confidence are restored. For this reason, reconciliation is essential to the reconstruction of a post-conflict country. The role of reconciliation in post-conflict peacebuilding assistance is to avert hostility and prevent another conflict. To this end, the process of reconciliation should assure conflict-victims that they will be safe and violence and casualties will not be repeated,

27

break a cycle of hatred and vengeance and build positive relationships among the parties concerned. In addition, the process of reconciliation puts emphasis on how to address past war crimes. Whether the reconciliation will succeed or not depends on the way a post-conflict state handles the responsibility for war crimes, violation of human rights and other illegal acts during past conflicts. Institutional mechanisms designed to encourage reconciliation between victims and offenders, regardless of whether they are civilian or military, can be classified to two categories: (1) criminal courts as were the cases in Cambodia and Rwanda, and (2) truth and reconciliation commissions which grant individual amnesties for those who are willing to come forward and tell the truth about their crimes, as were the cases in Guatemala, East Timor and South Africa. Further, the return or resettlement and reintegration of refugees and IDPs which take place at the local and municipal level are the first important step toward reconciliation, reconstruction and development of conflict-torn countries/regions. Support for the integration of these returnees is essential, and peace education through schools, communities and the media significantly contributes to reconciliation. In addition, careful considerations are required in activities not directly intended for reconciliation so as to facilitate reconciliation and not re-ignite hostilities. 3-2-2 Menus of JICA�s peacebuilding assistance (1) Promotion of the return of refugees and IDPs The return or resettlement of refugees and IDPs is a part of the mandate of humanitarian organizations. Yet the social reintegration of these people, including the reestablishment of independent livelihood and mid- to long-term social rehabilitation, requires that development agencies play a leading role. Impediments to the return of refugees and IDPs include hindrance to their return and resettlement by opposing people, difficulties in restoring housing and property rights to refugees and IDPs whose possessions have been illegally occupied, the destruction or lack of basic social infrastructures, including water supply, medical care and basic education, unemployment and lack of livelihood opportunities, landmines and unexploded ordinance, and security problems. Accordingly, repair and restoration of facilities and services in water supply, public health and basic education sectors, vocational and technical training for employment, income improvement and job creation can contribute to the development of the local communities that refugees and IDPs are returning to, thereby facilitating and supporting their return and reintegration. (2) Peace education �Peace Education� is defined as the process of promoting the knowledge, skills, attitudes values needed to bring about behavior change that will enable children, youth and adults to prevent conflict and violence, resolve conflict peacefully and create peace" (in UNICEF).27 JICA�s experience is relatively limited in this area. Even after the conclusion of cease-fire and peace agreements, antagonism among ethnic or other groups, psychological division of residential communities, the collapse of social capital, and prevailing violence still remain. For this reason, peace education is essential for sustaining and nurturing the process of reconciliation. It should be recognized that achieving sustainable behavior change requires a long period of time. 27 UNICEF Peace Education Working Group �Peace Education in UNICEF,� June 1999

28

1. Peace education in pre-school and school education Peace education in preschool and school education support the creation of institutions that enable all ethnic groups and minorities to learn together. To this end, specialists� advice on educational policies and school curriculum reform, training for teachers, and the provision of relevant material and equipment are helpful. Recreation, including sports programs, can also play a role in encouraging mutual understanding. 2. Peace education at community level Rural and community development activities can integrate civic education, informal education and enlightenment activities on peace. In addition, as in school education, promotion of mutual understanding through recreation and sports programs as well as assistance in upgrading media program production and broadcasting equipment can contribute to peace education at the community level. Further, the establishment of mobile theaters and libraries for disseminating peace messages through plays, songs, wall banners and illustrated books in various locations will be effective. BOX 3-1 Example: Peace education activity through school education: Sri Lanka �Tolerance toward Differences� (UNICEF) Level: Secondary school Objective: To help children understand and tolerate differences between people in terms of their religion, culture, personal values and belief systems. Preparation: Select the types of differences you want the children to study (e.g., religious differences, racial differences, national differences, occupational differences, intellectual differences, personal and attitudinal differences). Then assign children to study these differences by analyzing their backgrounds, sources and historical developments. All of the children in the classroom should form pairs, choosing one person to be A and one person to be B. In each pair, one assumes the role of one belief, for example, speaks out as a Christian for 5 minutes and B listens caringly. B can ask questions for further clarification. No argument is allowed. Once A�s turn is over, B speaks out differently, e.g., as a Buddhist. A takes the role of the patient listener. The class then starts a discussion with all of the children participating. Suggested questions to lead the discussion 1. What were the feelings you had when listening to someone who was different from you? 2. Did you find it difficult to listen? What made it difficult inside you? 3. How do you think you can overcome this difficulty? BOX 3-2 Example: Peace education activity through sports program: the Balkans �Open Fun Football Schools� (UNICEF and the Danish Football Association) Currently 109 football schools have been established in Bosnia Herzegovina, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, and Yugoslavia. Approximately 22,000 boys and girls aged 8 to 14 have taken part in week-long football training camps where an ethnically and religiously diverse staff and children participate. This program emphasizes the social and playful aspects of the game in addition to its technical aspects. The program aims to make everyone participating the game open up to each other, featuring the rules of sportsmanship and the democratic values. (3) Promoting reconciliation Activities not directly aimed at reconciliation can still contribute to bringing about the

29

effects of reconciliation by encouraging dialogue between opposing groups. Every project should incorporate a reconciliatory aspect. For example, when residential quarters are strictly divided by ethnicity or religions, support for the preparation of a nationwide master development plan and the identification of �target areas� transcending the borders between opposing communities would be helpful. A number of programs have tried to bridge the antagonism between opposing groups by bringing together members of the younger generations from opposing groups to construct housing or to take part in recreation programs, when there is no residential segmentation based on ethnicity or religions and yet resentment lingers. In this way, the formulation and implementation of projects could allow different groups to share common future objectives, encouraging constructive dialogue and partnerships between them. These activities not directly aimed at reconciliation also require special attention so as not to promote antagonism between opposing groups. In post-conflict reconstruction, a recipient country�s government may assign a high priority to development of infrastructures and building up of the economy. During the transition from the later stages of the post conflict reconstruction to development assistance, however, promoting assistance to cross-regional issues not affected by inter-group tensions, such as supporting collaboration among people from different groups for preservation of the natural environment or mitigation of global warming, could also contribute to reconciliation through an increased sense of togetherness and dialogue. BOX 3-3 JICA�s project for prompting reconciliation (1) Rehabilitation of public transportation system in the city of Mostar, Bosnia Herzegovina (JICA�s grant aid cooperation: June 2001 to May 2002) Mostar is a city inhabited by both Croats and Muslims. Muslims mainly reside in the east side of the city, and the Croats in the west side. Initially, two ethnically separated bus companies which used to be a single bus company before the conflict asked Japan to supply funding. In response to this, as a condition the Japanese side requested that, in order to promote cooperation between the two ethnic groups, the two bus companies merge. As a result, a consolidated public bus company was re-established, with one office managed in turn by presidents from the two ethnic groups. JICA approved of this unification, and JICA�s positive promotion of reconstruction has been highly appreciated by other donors. In the process of achieving �conditionality� in Mostar, a loop route service connecting public facilities for both groups in the city was initiated by the local operators themselves, and the planned purchase of 40 new buses was expected to further promote reconciliation between the two ethnic groups. BOX 3-4 JICA�s project for prompting reconciliation (1) Rehabilitation of public transportation system in the city of Mostar, Bosnia Herzegovina (JICA�s grant aid cooperation: June 2001 to May 2002) Mostar is a city inhabited by both Croats and Muslims. Muslims mainly reside in the east side of the city, and the Croats in the west side. Initially, two ethnically separated bus companies which used to be a single bus company before the conflict asked Japan to supply funding. In response to this, as a condition the Japanese side requested that, in order to promote cooperation between the two ethnic groups, the two bus companies be merged again. As a result, the merged public bus company was re-established, with one office managed in turn by presidents from the two ethnic groups. JICA approved of this unification, and JICA�s positive promotion of reconstruction has been highly appreciated by other donors. In the process of achieving �conditionality� in Mostar, a loop route service connecting public facilities for both groups in the city was initiated by the local operators

30

themselves, and the planned purchase of 40 new buses was expected to further promote reconciliation between the two ethnic groups. (4) Other assistance activities Support for �Truth and Reconciliation Commissions� may include dispatch of experts in laws and human rights, provision of material and equipment for holding commissions and printing publications. BOX 3-5 �Truth and Reconciliation Commission� (TRC) What is a Truth and Reconciliation Commission? The concept of a �truth and reconciliation commission� is to grant individual amnesty to those who are willing to come forward and tell the truth about their crimes (mainly, violent war crimes). The truth and reconciliation commission was first established in the 1980s in Latin America. In particular, the truth and reconciliation process in the post-apartheid South Africa is well known. (Example: supporting truth and reconciliation commissions:) OHCHR (UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights) assistance to the truth and reconciliation process in Sierra Leone: Preparation of the establishment of the truth and reconciliation commission OHCHR supported the preparation for the establishment of the truth and reconciliation commission in Sierra Leone. In this preparation phase, OHCHR�s assistance activities included: (1) public relations and education, (2) preparation of conflict maps in Sierra Leone, (3) studies on methods of the resolution and reconciliation of long-standing conflicts among groups of different cultural backgrounds, (4) election of commission members, and (5) implementation procedures, the opening of the commission office, staff recruitment and preparation for the establishment of the commission. Source: OHCHR Technical cooperation projects� website 3-2-3 Issues to be considered (1) Considerations for different groups Support for the return of refugees and internally displaced people should be accompanied by careful consideration of the needs of other groups (including people who did not evacuate or were not displaced during the conflict as well as ex-combatants). Assistance should be carefully designed and implemented so as not to cause disparity between different groups, and in turn, not to stir disparity-based antagonism. In addition, incorporating the promotion of reconciliation in the projects as an approach requires careful attention to fairness in selecting project beneficiaries. At the same time, in some cases, assistance targeting those traditionally marginalized from society is helpful for promoting reconciliation. (2) Difficulties in restoring housing and property rights to refugees and IDPs Post-conflict resettlement of refugees and IDPs is often blocked by confusion over assets and property rights (including housing rights and land ownership). Accordingly, before planning for construction of facilities/buildings, confirmation of assets and property rights must be conducted. In addition, one should bear in mind the possible hindrance by administrations or local people that may cause forced repatriation. (3) Housing needs Though construction of housing is essential for the return of IDPs and refugees, it may

31

be difficult for JICA to deal with this issue since the beneficiaries of the housing construction are individual persons. Instead, JICA�s realistic approach would be to construct and upgrade the facilities of high public need (including community centers). (4) Means of supporting peace education Peace education is necessarily a long-term process. In view of this, JICA assistance, which is supposed to achieve an intended effect within a limited period of time, should seek an innovative approach for promoting peace education. Integration of peace education in ordinary education projects as well as in partnership with agencies well experienced and knowledgeable in peace education, including UNICEF, UNHCR, NGOs and universities, would be effective. (5) Considerations required in partnership with NGOs Partnership with NGOs requires careful considerations to neutrality, transparency and the balance of ethnic and religious diversity of each NGO because of political implications in the process of promoting reconciliation. It should always be considered that, in particular, the process of reconciliation will greatly depend on culture and values of a recipient country, and that compatibility between the concept of reconciliation and local religions is critical. 3-3 Governance 3-3-1 Basic concept Assistance for governance within the framework of peacebuilding has two dimensions: one is the establishment of good governance in post-conflict reconstruction assistance, the other is assistance with a conflict prevention lens at the pre-conflict stage. Establishment of good governance in post-conflict countries aims at assisting the construction (or reconstruction) of a political regime that can serve as the basis of nation building as well as at restoring war-torn governmental functions. Thus, establishment of good governance in post-conflict countries incorporates mid- to long-term perspectives. In supporting the post conflict reconstruction, the nation building is one of the priorities. Accordingly, it is essential to start assistance for democratization, establish judicial systems and support for administration with emphasis on the ownership of a recipient country. The significant difference between the post-conflict assistance to governance and general support for governance is that the former needs support in every sector essential for establishing good governance of a conflict-torn country/region which has experienced collapse of its basic national governance and administrative systems, as were the cases in East Timor and Afghanistan. In these cases, external support is required in all aspects, including judicial systems, administrative functions and human resources development. In addition, the process of new nation-building requires special considerations to ensure the fairness of a newly reconstructed society. This means the nation-building process should encourage equal participation of citizens, including women, ethnic minorities, persons with disabilities, child soldiers, ex－combatants and those often marginalized from society. Assistance for governance with a conflict prevention lens addresses and mitigates the unequal access to political and economic opportunities and the inability of social and economic services that might trigger violent conflict.

32

Assistance for good governance serves as the basis of nation-building. Yet particular attention should be given because abrupt progress in assistance for governance might inadvertently fuel regional instability. In fact, due to local circumstances and conflict factors, fast-track assistance for governance could destabilize a post-conflict country/region and re-ignite another conflict. Accordingly, decisions on implementing specific activities require careful analysis of conflict factors and post-conflict political systems. 3-3-2 Menus of JICA�s peacebuilding assistance I. Support for democratization A. Basic concept �Support for democratization� is to create a mechanism to peacefully resolve an antagonism between different groups without stirring up another violent conflict. In short, it is an assistance devoted to establishing a democratic society. Support for democratization consists of various activities. JICA�s support focuses on election and media sectors, areas in which JICA is experienced. B. Menus of JICA�s peacebuilding assistance a. Support for election Election support helps accelerate public participation in politics and ensure the legitimacy of the government in a country where political rights are suppressed through the restriction on voting rights and legal arrangements. Election support consists of various activities, including the establishment of election and legal systems, support for election supervisors, election education and support for election monitoring teams. Some of these activities are initiated immediately after the end of a conflict. Midterm assistance can be implemented later depending on local needs and the status of the democratization process in a given country. Specific assistance activities that JICA can provide in election support include the following: (1) dispatch of experts and acceptance of trainees for establishing and supporting election and legal systems, (2) dispatch of experts to support election administration commissions and on-site training, provision of materials and equipment for conducting an election, and development and improvement of technologies related to public information campaign and communication technologies, and support for setting up computer systems for establishing a base for conducting elections, and (3) election education for local communities in collaboration with Japanese and local NGOs. In principle, cooperation for administering an election is conducted through the Japanese Cabinet Office in accordance with the PKO law. b. Support for media sector Support for the media sector consists of the following: (1) support for systems and organizations that guarantee freedom and independence of media, and (2) support for facilitating the democratization process through media. The former mainly targets systems and organizations, promoting the deregulation of censorship and control of freedom of speech, establishment or support for committees that advise on complaints or the fairness of press and media activities, and support for independent press and

33

media. JICA has relatively limited experience in this field. In the latter sector, JICA is supporting broadcasting of the process of the �loya jirga (Afghanistan National Assembly)�, intended to facilitate the reintegration of people and public participation in politics. Activities contributing to both sectors include assistance to systems and institutions regarding press and media, support for policies regarding the broadcasting industry, technical assistance for program production, and upgrading of broadcasting facilities. Specific activities that JICA can conduct in supporting media include the following: (1) development studies on the broadcasting sector, (2) support for the formulation of broadcasting policies and program production, (3) dispatch of experts and acceptance of trainees related to technologies that support visual and audio media, and (4) provision and upgrading of broadcasting equipment. C. Considerations for implementing support for democratization Support for democratization mainly consists of assistance to protect human rights, including voting rights and rights to express one�s ideas freely. Accordingly, support for democratization inevitably involves intervention in the politics of a recipient country. In view of this, JICA should respect the independence of a recipient country and maintain the political neutrality of their assistance. For this reason, in-depth analysis and understanding of conflict factors and effects of democratization are of significant importance in formulating and planning aid programs. In addition, consideration should be given to facilitating the political participation of those often marginalized from society, including women, ethnic minorities and handicapped people. II. Promotion of legal systems A. Basic concept �Promotion of legal systems� is focused on the construction and reinforcement of an administration system. In other words, it indirectly supports a developing country�s efforts for creating legal systems. Promotion of legal systems underlines the followings: (1) assistance in the drafting and enactment of bills, (2) creation of systems for the enforcement and operation of the law, and (3) reinforcement of the rules of law, including human resources development in legal communities. B. Menus of JICA�s peacebuilding assistance a. Assistance in the enactment of bills In principle, assistance in the drafting and enactment of bills is supposed to mainly support the ministry of justice of a recipient country. The assistance effort is directed to the drafting of basic laws, including civil laws and criminal laws, and the formulation of a constitution through law amendments and other legal arrangements. In addition, JICA�s assistance in this sector includes the transfer of knowledge and technologies on specific laws, development of relevant laws, technology transfer for legislation, and assistance to bill-screening organizations. Specific activities that JICA can conduct in this sector include technical cooperation through the dispatch of experts and the acceptance of trainees. b. Support for relevant organizations

34

Support for relevant organizations in this sector consists of (1) assistance to a legislative body, including supporting law enforcement and operation and the provision of materials and equipment, and (2) assistance to a judicial body, including the establishment and enhancement of lawmaking organizations (including a national parliament). The assistance to judicial bodies emphasizes the establishment and upgrading of judiciary committees for ensuring their sustainability, as well as a wide range of support for the establishment and improvement of judicial administration, including support for government agencies and authorities that handle civil/criminal cases and judicial proceedings. Further, in assisting legislative bodies, the establishment of a mechanism to peacefully resolve conflict of interest between political powers is essential for conflict prevention as well as for public participation in politics. JICA has relatively limited experience in this sector. Yet JICA can help upgrade relevant institutions and abilities for reinforcing the functions and roles of legislative bodies and can assist the institutions that are designed to facilitate public participation in politics. Specific activities of JICA that could contribute to this sector include the following: (1) holding seminars on democratization, (2) training in Japan or in a recipient country for elected assembly members and assembly office staff, (3) dispatch of experts, (4) support for the upgrading of information and communication technologies, and (5) implementation of civil education. c. Support for human resources education Support for human resources education in legal sector includes (1) training and fostering judicial officers (judges and prosecutors) and attorneys, and (2) development and upgrading of legal research and training institutions and state law examinations. Fostering human resources in the legal sector is essential for advancing post-conflict reconciliation in addition to support for drafting laws. A nation which lacks human resources often lacks educational materials and appropriate curricula necessary for legal education as well as those who can lead legal human resources development. In view of this, support for legal human resources development through training programs and the development of educational materials are important. In addition, support for university faculties of law and graduate schools of law as well as the acceptance of trainees could be considered from a mid- to long-term perspective. d. Assistance to awareness-raising activities (for promoting social awareness) Assistance to awareness-raising activities in this sector is aimed at increasing public awareness and understanding of laws. Assistance that targets enhanced legal literacy among the general public and public relations activities could be an effective means of raising public awareness. These activities could be helpful, particularly in a country with a low literacy rate or a marked disparity in educational achievement, for promoting democratization and realizing a society where people have easy access to legal services as needed. C. Issues to be considered First, JICA has to keep in mind that the needs in assistance for legal systems in peacebuilding are not necessarily the same as typical needs in ordinary development assistance and so assistance activities should be planned accordingly. For example, in a newly independent country without a constitution, donors providing assistance should consider possible support for the establishment of a constitution, the development of

35

relevant institutions and human resources development in the legal sector. Secondly, assistance for the development of legal systems in peacebuilding requires JICA�s support from earlier stages. This is because the establishment of a constitution is a cornerstone of the development of a framework for supporting post-conflict reconstruction. In addition, the establishment of a country ruled by law is an urgent need, since a post conflict country immediately after the end of conflict often undergoes a period of human rights violations, violence and confusion over assets and property rights housing rights and land ownership as refugees and IDPs return home. Thirdly, in assistance to establish legal systems, JICA must respect the independence and values of a recipient country, and should prepare draft laws in accordance with the specific political, economic and social conditions of a recipient country. JICA should not impose legal systems and values upon a recipient country. For example, in some traditional communities, an informal means of resolving a conflict through mediation at the local level by village elders or groups of arbitrators is more effectively prevents conflicts than formal legal arrangements. In view of this, it is important to make the best use of these informal systems and practices. In addition, attention should be given to the rights of women and ethnic minorities (�minority rights�). III. Support for administration A. Basic concept �Administrative support� in the �assistance to governance� is aimed at constructing and restoring the functions of a war-torn state and municipal governments and their financial foundations. The scope of �the administration� involves a decision on how to officially use and assign the domestic and overseas resources of a recipient country. In addition, JICA�s assistance to governance must pay special attention to corruption, bribery, and abuse of laws that may prevent the sound management of a country. B. Menus of JICA�s peacebuilding assistance a. Development and improvement of administrative functions Development and improvement of administrative functions aims at establishing, restoring and reinforcing administrative structures of a war-torn state and regional governments. These activities enable the provision of a wide range of basic public services for post-conflict reconstruction and development, including safe water supply, power supply, medical services and social services. In this way, development and improvement of administrative functions can contribute to the process of building a new nation. The following section outlines menus of JICA�s peacebuilding assistance regarding the development and improvement of administrative functions. Assistance for administrative sectors (including human resources development) in each sub-sector (ex. education, food supply, agriculture, public health and medical services) is outlined later in the sections that describe other sectors (mainly in �rehabilitation of social infrastructures� and �economic recovery�). For development and improvement of administrative functions, JICA can conduct the following: (1) assistance for the organization of state ministries and agencies and to the establishment of the personnel system for public servants, (2) support for capacity building of government administrators, public service sectors, and development of data collection and management systems, and (3) support for functional enhancement of

36

regional governments that would facilitate regional development. Further, the introduction of government performance evaluation methods, the establishment of an institution that audits government performance, and support and advice on the privatization of public corporations would be helpful, depending on pre-conflict conditions, the degree of destruction during the conflict, and the quality and quantity of local human resources who have survived the conflict. Specific activities that JICA can effectively implement in this sector include the following: (1) dispatch of policy advisers and experts, the creation of institutions and the development of statistics for policy support, and (2) development studies for functional enhancement of regional governments. The development studies are expected to aid preparation of a feasible master plan and, simultaneously, implementation of a pilot project. In addition, to nurture government administrators, group training targeting each sector and individual training can be effectively utilized. b. Assistance to the development and upgrading of economic bases The development and upgrading of economic bases are efforts designed to strengthen economic foundations through the establishment and improvement of taxation systems, and to develop systems and human resources that enable the sound management of public finance. Assistance menus of JICA�s contribution to this sector include the following: (1) introduction and improvement of tax collection systems, (2) support for the development and upgrading of systems for budget implementation and management by introducing relevant public accounting methods, and (3) introduction of account auditing methods. Assistance for development of a computer database also would be helpful. Specific assistance activities JICA can provide are the dispatch of experts, development studies and utilization of training courses. c. Actions against corruption and bribery Resources of a recipient country must be fairly distributed among its people, once post-conflict administrative systems and economic bases are established and ready to mobilize the country�s resources. The fair distribution of the resources is essential for the general public to realize �peace dividends.� Corruption and bribery of government administrators could hinder fair distribution of peace dividends, and public resentment over the unfairness may rekindle violence. To ensure the reconstruction of a conflict-torn country and prevent renewed violent conflict, assistance for actions against corruption and bribery is important. Specific activities that JICA can effectively provide in this sector include support for establishing functions that prevent and mitigate corruption and bribery through the introduction of government auditing systems for financial accounting. Further, group training courses in this sector should be utilized. C. Issues to be considered JICA should note that ensuring accountability (transparency in administrative procedures) and incorporating a Conflict Prevention Lens in project activities are the first steps to preventing conflict. In addition, establishing systems for soliciting opinions from citizens, such as the

37

introduction and establishment of a citizens� ombudsman, should be considered where possible. The creation of institutions and human resources development also require considerations to be given to the human rights of the socially vulnerable people and the fairness in appointing government administrators and staff and in selecting beneficiaries. In this way, JICA must ensure fairness and eliminate discrimination based on ethnicity, sex, age, social class, birthplace and belief/religion. Decentralization of power from central government to local governments is one of the important supports. This issue should, however, be carefully discussed with considerations given to the economic and social circumstances of each country. Special attentions are required since abrupt decentralization could lead to a widening gap between the rich and the poor and create factors for political instability. The actions against corruption and bribery should always be noted in every intervention. 3-4 Security improvement 3-4-1 Basic concept Poor security in a post conflict country makes the return of refugees and IDPs and the restoration of normal living conditions difficult. Further, economic activities for reconstructing a war-torn economy are hampered by the lack of civil order. Increasing the presence of armed forces, the proliferation of small arms among the general public and dysfunctional authorities, rather than ensuring public safety in a post-conflict nation/region, could trigger antagonism and, in turn, another violent conflict. Security improvement is the essence of the reconstruction and development of a post-conflict country, based on the return and resettlement of refugees and IDPs, restoration of ordinary living conditions, and political stability. To improve security, a comprehensive approach based on consistency in defense and diplomatic policies is essential. In disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of bloated military forces, small arms control and security sector reform, the ministry of defense and military forces of a recipient country play a significant role. In view of this, the international community has been discussing how far outside intervention can contribute to security improvement. Although JICA cannot select the ministry of defense or military forces as its counterparts (local experts who work with JICA), to complement the comprehensive approach, JICA should reinforce the functions of the police, help reintegrate ex-combatants, help raise public awareness for improved security and construct a �culture of peace.� 3-4-2 Menus of JICA�s peacebuilding assistance I. Security Sector Reform (SSR) A. Basic concept Security Sector Reform aims at reinforcing the ability of organizations that are supposed to ensure public safety, through reforming institutions, functions and the behavior patterns of these organizations. In the framework of development assistance, the assistance to security sector reform should be regarded as a part of governance reform. Security sector reform must be carried out in a manner that ensures the functioning of administrative, legislative and judicial authorities responsible for public safety in accordance with the principles of good governance. The principles of good

38

governance include democracy, transparency, accountability, actions against corruption, and auditing. Parties involved in security improvement can be classified into (1) state agencies with public authorities (military forces, quasi-military agencies, police, including national police, regional police and border controls), administrative divisions of the government (customs and immigration control included) and intelligence agencies, (2) civilian and private-sector organizations responsible for monitoring agencies in the security sector (including government offices responsible for judicial affairs, financial affairs, foreign affairs and defense, NGOs and ombudsman organizations), (3) judicial systems and law enforcement agencies (including legislative bodies, judicial branches such as prisons, punishment systems and civil rights committees), and (4) illegal armed forces (paramilitary fighters, guerillas, private armies and the armed forces of a political party). Among the above, JICA provides assistance to the following three sectors: (1) reform of the police and customs responsible for guaranteeing the security of the nation and its citizens, (2) capacity enhancement of legislative and judicial bodies responsible for monitoring agencies in the security sector, and (3) establishment and improvement of laws and capacity enhancement of law enforcement agencies. BOX 3-6 Considerations concerning the security sector in a post-conflict country Government agencies responsible for guaranteeing the safety of people, including civilian police, usually do not function immediately after the end of a conflict. Further, poor functioning of legislative bodies, parliaments and democracy-based legal systems that are supposed to regulate and monitor these agencies makes the situation worse. Some post-conflict nations have witnessed the undue intervention of powerful military in politics and economic activities. Indeed, in some post conflict countries, the military has greatly influenced the distribution of land and key government positions which the military is not supposed to control.28 In earlier stages of post-conflict reconstruction, in some cases, the UNPKO and multinational forces are responsible for security. As is the case of East Timor and Bosnia Herzegovina, however, delayed establishment of a recipient country�s own security institution and a vacuum in the responsibility for public security after the withdrawal of the PKO and multinational forces are serious concerns. B. Menus of JICA�s peacebuilding assistance a. Improvement of the expertise of the civil police and customs To enhance the functions of guaranteeing public safety, the civil police and customs should carry out (1) enhancement of their capacities to control illegal trade of arms and drugs and to investigate crimes, (2) training in respect for and protection of human rights and international rules, and (3) the dispatch of experts and the provision of training for enhancing sound financial management to ensure transparency, act against corruption and prevent organized crime. b. Capacity development of legislative and judicial bodies responsible for regulating

and monitoring the security sector To ensure the appropriate functioning of organizations responsible for guaranteeing public safety, enhancement of the role and capacity of legislative bodies, administrative

28 In post-conflict Cambodia, there have been reports of the military�s undue intervention in politics.

39

bodies, NGOs and citizen groups is essential. To this end, the following activities are helpful: (1) establishment of policies and lawmaking procedures concerning the security of people and the maintenance of public order, (2) tightening of control over government spending by the security services including the police, and (3) dispatch of experts and training for establishing a mechanism necessary for ensuring the appropriate functioning of the controls on spending, policies and procedures. c. Development of legal systems and capacity development of law enforcement

organizations For ensuring the appropriate functioning of organizations responsible for guaranteeing public safety, the clarification of roles and responsibilities of organizations responsible for security improvement and of administrative bodies is necessary. In addition, their enforcement in accordance with relevant laws and regulations is essential. Possible assistance that JICA can provide in this sector includes (1) support for the development of legal systems concerning the roles and responsibilities of the organizations responsible for public safety, and (2) training on human rights and international laws and the dispatch of experts to legal communities. C. Issues to be considered a. Perspective of governance As mentioned above, JICA, as one of the development assistance agencies, should place emphasis on governance reform for security sector reform. b. Planning of comprehensive security sector reform JICA�s assistance to security sector reform is part of a comprehensive approach. This calls for close collaboration with assistance in other sectors and requires careful considerations in terms of planning of comprehensive security sector reform as well as to the role and position of JICA�s assistance in the plan. c. Backlash from vested interests Security sector reform may backlash due to vested interests in the police and military forces. In view of this, careful attention should always be given to the possible effects of the reform on the power structure of a recipient country. II. Disarmament, demobilization, reintegration of ex-combatants (DDR) A. Basic concept DDR is a process that facilitates disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of former soldiers and paramilitary fighters. In disarmament and demobilization, the national military forces of a recipient country, multinational forces and UN peacekeeping forces play leading roles. With the exception of financial assistance, the role of development assistance is limited in disarmament and demobilization. Development assistance can greatly contribute to the reintegration of ex-combatants into society, the last phase of DDR. A smooth and prompt transition from disarmament and demobilization to reintegration of ex-combatants is the key to DDR success . DDR can be considered only when smooth

40

progress of social reintegration of ex-combatants takes place. Unless the smooth reintegration succeeds, factors responsible for social instability remain and may become a factor for recurrence of conflict. BOX 3-7 Issues concerning armed forces and peacebuilding During a conflict, the ranks of national military forces, paramilitary forces and vigilante groups swell dramatically and military spending increases proportionately. After the end of conflict, the presence of a large military force poses a political threat, and impedes national reconciliation and political stability. In addition, massive military spending places an enormous fiscal burden on the national budget and delays economic development. In view of this, consolidation of peace in a post-conflict country requires a smooth transition from a war regime to a peace regime . A problem commonly seen in many post-conflict countries is a significant delay in the progress of disarmament following a peace agreement that calls for disarmament, since the implementation of DDR requires further political commitment. In addition, massive military spending commonly prevents the allocation of a sufficient administrative budget for post-conflict reconstruction and development. BOX 3-8 General process of DDR 1. Disarmament and demobilization First, national military forces, UN peacekeeping forces or other authorized forces play a leading role. They will instruct ex-combatants to appear at billeting accommodations. Then these forces confirm the number of ex-combatants who have appeared and the weapons they have, and the weapons and military uniforms collected there are handed over to national military forces or UN peacekeeping forces. Then a citizenship certificate and an identification card are issued to each ex-combatant, making his/her disarmament and demobilization official. During the demobilization process, the correct number of demobilized ex-combatants is checked, and their personal profiles (birthplace, social status, specific needs for assistance after demobilization) are recorded. At the same time, ex-combatants receive a physical examination, HIV/AID screenings and orientation courses on the disease, trauma counseling, and orientation courses on how to utilize a government assistance package for their social reintegration. In some post-conflict countries, workshops for ex-combatants are held addressing literacy education, gender issues, democracy, human rights, public health and laws, as in the cases of Eritrea and Cambodia. The length of their stay in these processing areas varies significantly from country to country. In some countries, upon demobilization, ex-combatants are transferred from military camps to reception centers operated by civilians. Weapons collection, central to disarmament, is conducted mainly by authorized military forces. The process of demobilization, which usually consists of ID cards issuance, cash payment to demobilized soldiers and data recording and orientation courses in the processing areas, is done jointly by authorized military forces and civilian organizations. Generally, civilian organizations aimed at either demobilization or reintegration or both are established within a post-conflict government structure. In some post-conflict countries, as in the case with post-conflict Cambodia and Eritrea, in addition to demobilization, a reinsertion phase is created in order to provide a transitional allowance to the demobilized soldiers to cover his/her personal or family�s basic needs over a certain period of time. Reinsertion is basically a part of the demobilization process. 2. Social reintegration of ex-combatants Reintegration of ex-combatants into society is generally led by civilian organizations that have been established for the implementation of DDR. After leaving military camps or processing areas, ex-combatants are transferred to a location (hometown) of their choice. In general, during the reintegration process, cash or goods are continuously provided to ex-combatants as a temporary allowance to cover their basic living expenses29. In addition, to support reintegration of ex-combatants into society, assistance is given in the form of vocational training, technical training, micro-finance, non-formal education, and rural development. B. Menus of JICA�s peacebuilding assistance a. Support for the formulation of an overall plan

41

For effective and smooth implementation of DDR projects, an overall process covering the disarmament, demobilization and reintegration will be planned in advance during the preparation phase. In most cases, authorized military forces and UN peacekeeping forces are responsible for disarmament. The first half of the demobilization process is mainly conduced by authorized military forces, and the latter half by civilian organizations. Civilian organizations and relevant ministries and agencies generally lead the reintegration program. JICA will dispatch experts to provide technical advice on an overall plan for demobilization and reintegration as well as to assist in the planning process of reintegration programs in sectors such as technical trainings, rural development and education. b. Support for disarmament and demobilization As mentioned above, authorized military forces play a leading role in disarmament. In view of this, JICA�s cooperation in disarmament or demobilization may include provision of equipment and materials necessary for the registration of demobilized combatants, the dispatch of experts for providing health examinations and HIV/AIDS counseling in the processing areas. c. Support for reintegration The forms of assistance that JICA can provide for reintegration are as follows: (a) Support for skills development, vocational training and income generation for social reintegration Economic reintegration, especially in terms of livelihood, is important for reintegration of ex-combatants. To smoothly gain access to private-sector jobs and labor markets, ex-combatants need the skills demanded in the labor markets, not those of the battlefield. In many post-conflict countries, ex-combatants lack vocational skills or experiences and have very little basic education due to their long service in the military. Further, the high unemployment commonly seen in post-conflict reconstruction makes their reintegration and access to labor markets more difficult even when they are offered an opportunity for skills development or vocational training courses. In view of this, the demand in the labor markets should be carefully examined and analyzed in planning vocational and technical training. In addition, job placement systems must be established to improve their access to economic opportunities. Supports for peacebuilding include (1) labor market survey, (2) support for capacity building of relevant ministries and agencies (such as Ministries of Reintegration, Ministries of War Veterans and Ministries of Education) and government agencies (responsible for implementing demobilization and integration), (3) support for needs survey of ex-combatants and technical training institutes, (4) technical assistance and provision of equipment and material necessary for skills development courses, (5) establishment of employment services, (6) support for income generation through assistance to the starting up of SME (small and micro enterprises) with micro finance, and (b) Agricultural technical training in rural areas and rural development for subsistent farming Ex-combatants returning to rural areas will depend mainly on agriculture for livelihood.

42

The following support is recommended for reintegration of ex-combatants with locale experience in agriculture: (1) agricultural training in subsistent farming, (2) agricultural support for training such as vegetable farming and livestock farming, and (3) support for improving agricultural settings (including the provision of materials, equipment and basic infrastructures such as small-scale irrigation). In addition, the development and improvement of social infrastructures including medical care, water supply and educational institutes should be considered in assistance activities so that ex-combatants, their families and communities can restart smoothly their conflict-disrupted lives. (c) Assistance to ex-combatants who have special needs, including soldiers with disabilities and female soldiers Soldiers with physical disabilities, ex-combatants with trauma (PTSD, psychological wounds), female soldiers and child soldiers have special reintegration needs. As assistance to handicapped soldiers and female soldiers, the following support is recommended: (1) medical and vocational counseling and rehabilitation, (2) skills development to support basic livelihood, and (3) assistance to generate income. As assistance to child soldiers, JICA should encourage their parents and educational and local communities to send and reintegrate them into a school for those child soldiers who wish go back to school, as part of educational assistance. JICA should also, through community development, enhance public awareness of issues concerning child soldiers and their educational needs. C. Issues to be considered a. Deciding when to start DDR Early implementation of DDR in post-conflict reconstruction is desirable for improved security and financial reform. A completely ruined economy in the early stages of post-conflict reconstruction, however, will nearly cancel the effects of DDR addressing the employment of ex-combatants and their reintegration into rural communities. In view of this, the decision of when to start DDR should reflect the feasibility in terms of improved security and economic and social circumstances. b. Considerations to other groups that need assistance for reintegration Those who have greater needs for reintegration include refugees, IDPs and people affected by conflict as well as ex-combatants. Since excessive focus on ex-combatants may promote feelings of unfairness and social tension, consideration and support should be given to other groups as well. c. Psychological adaptation to post-conflict living The smooth access of ex-combatants to the private sector and the labor market requires not only the skills needed by the labor market (psychological shift from being soldiers to ordinary civilians.) It requires their adaptation to civilian life in terms of life style including mental attitude. To support ex-combatants going through the process of psychological transition, JICA can provide civic education or trauma-care support. d. Considerations to ex-combatants who lack basic education Many ex-combatants are without basic education. In view of this, technical training

43

and vocational training should heavily utilize graphics and incorporate training in practical skills so that those who are illiterate can easily understand the content. e. Cooperation with the ministry of defense and military forces The formulation of comprehensive DDR plans, especially plans concerning the disarmament and demobilization, is mainly done by the ministry of defense and authorized military forces. Though a ministry of defense or authorized military forces cannot be a JICA counterpart, partnership with these agencies is essential for JICA�s assistance in this sector. For example, JICA should liaise and discuss with these agencies when supporting DDR activities. f. Ongoing military draft system Some recipient countries still maintain the system of a military draft even after disarmament and demobilization of forces. In these cases, the decision on whether to provide assistance should be based on when a recipient country will start implementing a military draft system, who will be subject to the draft and whether a recipient country will continue to have a military draft system. III. Small arms control A. Basic concept Disarmament of ex-combatants alone cannot fully address weapons proliferation in a post-conflict society. To this end, the proliferation of small arms in civil society must be controlled30. The focus on the supply side by controlling and collecting the illicit flow and supply of small arms is not enough to reduce the number of small arms in circulation. To effectively curb the demand for small arms by the general public and to reduce incentives to possess small arms, the factors creating demand for weapons should be addressed. Such factors may include the disparity between the rich and the poor, youth unemployment, social resentment among young people and dysfunctional government that is supposed to guarantee public safety. In most cases, while development agencies find it difficult to directly help in the collection and disposal of small arms, their cooperation with other agencies could help reduce the supply and demand for illegal small arms and help establish and improve systems for controlling and storing destroyed weapons. The issues of small arms are closely related to public security, governance, delays in rural development and unemployment. In view of this, development assistance efforts should deal with issues concerning small arms as a cross-cutting issue, regarding the issues as part of reform in the security sector, governance, and rural development.

30 Weapons collection projects have succeeded in recovering thousands of small arms, while, reportedly, there have been hundreds of thousands of small arms circulating in ordinary societies. (UNDP �Development Held Hostage: Assessing the Effects of Small Arms on Human Development�)

44

BOX 3-9 Small arms Small arms are weapons that can be hand carried, e.g., pistols, automatic rifles and machine guns. The small arms that are now being illegally trafficked mainly come from stockpiles remaining from the Cold War which were used during armed conflicts then. The end of the Cold War prompted the spread of these small arms in conflict areas worldwide. Small arms feature durability and ease of trafficking. Small arms are not only the cause of severe non-military casualties but are also being widely trafficked by military and non-military alike31. This could lead to increased armament of ordinary citizens and the rise of paramilitary groups, prolonging armed conflicts. In the wake of conflict, reflecting the culture of violence that has taken roots in society, the possession of weapons as a routine of everyday living has been sometimes justified. If left unaddressed, situations of post conflict insecurity could lead to the long-term possession of weapons for self-defense. Further, parties directly concerned in conflicts often carry concealed weapons in case of failure of the peace process, as in Cambodia. An abundance of small arms in post-conflict situations could trigger the rise of another conflict, reflecting social anxiety as well as increased political, social or economic antagonism. In this way, small arms could serve as factors contributing to social instability and factors inhibiting post-conflict reconstruction. Unless public security is improved, small arms proliferated among the local population cannot be reduced. Further, with the decline of a post-conflict country�s capacity for controlling illegal weapons trafficking, more weapons are newly supplied across national borders, as in the case in Cambodia and Bosnia Herzegovina. In addition, the inflow of weapons from post-conflict countries to areas of ongoing conflicts has become a new threat that could induce another armed conflict. B.Menus of JICA�s peacebuilding assistance a. Control over the supply of small arms (a) Development and enactment of laws controlling illegal weapons trafficking To develop and enact laws that control illegal trafficking in small arms, JICA could dispatch experts and hold training specializing in relevant areas. (b) Capacity building for control over illegal weapons trafficking For capacity building of police and customs for checking and investigating illegal production and trafficking in small arms at home and from overseas, JICA could dispatch experts and hold training specializing in relevant areas. To this end, efforts should be linked with activities for reforming the security sector. (c) Collection and destruction of weapons Incentives offered in return for weapons from the local population are a key to weapons collection. To date, various aid agencies have implemented �weapons for development� programs and �buy-back� programs. The former rewards communities with local development for turning in weapons. The latter offers citizens the opportunity to turn in their weapons in exchange for cash or gifts. However, an approach which collects weapons in exchange for cash places monetary values on weapons, and has indeed unintentionally increased the demand for small arms. Instead, more recently, �weapons for development� projects have been increasingly conducted by donor agencies, such as UNDP, EU and GTZ. This approach supports community-based development in accordance with the quantity of small arms surrendered, and serves as an incentive to support weapons collection and destruction. 31 There are at least 600 million small arms in circulation worldwide.

45

This type of development assistance provides for the construction of wells, schools, health care facilities and roads and the supply of educational materials and farm equipment. In other words, �weapons for development� programs reward communities, rather than individuals. Weapons collection projects are based on the premise that the local population can be encouraged to voluntarily give up weapons. For this reason, in a community where security systems are fragile and there are good reasons for people to carry concealed weapons, these weapons collection approaches are not practical. b. Control over the demand for small arms

(a) Confidence building, promotion of reconciliation, and peace education Building confidence among people or between the non-military population and institutions responsible for public safety is a key to eliminating the feeling that owning a weapon is necessary. . To this end, reconstruction of war-torn social capitals (including mutual support based on confidence through social links) as well as reconciliation between opposing groups are necessary. In addition, to break away from a wartime regime and create a �culture of peace,� the general public should recognize the importance of peace and must be aware of the danger of small arms. Collaboration with local NGOs is effective for disseminating peace messages in projects that support rural community development. (b) Wide range of peacebuilding assistance To reduce the demand for small arms, control factors contributing to the demand, such as disparity between the rich and the poor, extreme poverty, dysfunctional organizations responsible for public security and dysfunctional systems in charge of supervising these organizations, poor governance, and unemployment, must be addressed. In addition, social reintegration of disarmed and demobilized ex-combatants should be carried out without delay to prevent their rearmament. C. Issues to be considered a. Importance of registration and control of small arms Small arms collected and recovered are likely to flow back into markets unless a system for controlling them is established. In general, the national army or the ministry of defense of a recipient country is responsible for the registration and control of small arms. When supporting the collection of weapons by a post-conflict country, JICA needs to check in advance whether the country has a proper system for registering small arms. b. Step-by-step approach to weapons collection A step-by-step approach is the most realistic way to implement small arms collection. First, a pilot weapons collection project, which covers a specific area, should be implemented. Then, more weapons collection projects should gradually follow in other areas. Considerations should be given, however, to the possible deterioration of public security due to people�s voluntary surrender of weapons. c. Limited effectiveness of �Weapons for Development� �Weapons for Development� recently attracts increasing attention from development

46

agencies. Allegedly, its effectiveness is yet to be proven due to its lack of a track record32. For this reason, we should carefully study the effectiveness of this approach. 3-5 Rehabilitation of social infrastructure 3-5-1 Basic concept This guideline defines �social infrastructure� as the �infrastructure to meet basic human needs of the local population.� Immediately after the end of conflict, a social infrastructure is virtually non-existent or dysfunctional, due to poor maintenance during the conflict, war-ravaged facilities and equipment, lack of proper policies, absence or weakening of organizations and agencies responsible for maintaining and operating the facilities, and a shortage of human resources. Rehabilitation of social infrastructure is primarily to recover and reconstruct the war-ravaged social infrastructure. Thus, rehabilitation of social infrastructure puts a higher priority on facilities indispensable to the people�s living conditions (ex. water supply) rather than on facilities considered desirable but not indispensable, such as sewage facilities. The latter are generally considered as issues to be addressed from a long-term perspective. Support for rehabilitation of social infrastructure should emphasize a seamless transition from emergency assistance which assures basic human needs immediately after a conflict to sustainable development for fulfilling other basic needs. The main objective in this area is to establish and improve social infrastructure, taking into account sustainable development strategies, government institutions� capacities to maintain and operate the infrastructure, and pre-conflict conditions. The targets to be recovered and reconstructed include (1) housing, health-care facilities, public-health systems, water supply, sewage systems, and education, (2) agricultural infrastructure such as food supply and irrigation systems, (3) transportation infrastructure for supplying goods essential to everyday living, such as roads, rails, port facilities and airports, and (4) power supply necessary for basic living conditions. Development and improvement of infrastructure beyond the minimum necessity for supplying foods and essential goods will be addressed later in �3-6 Economic recovery.� Further, removal of mines and UXO (unexploded ordinance) as well as support for victims of landmines and UXO are prerequisites to the progress of rehabilitation and improvement of social infrastructure. (Also refer to �3-7 Support for socially vulnerable people.�) JICA�s peacebuilding efforts have mainly focused on support for rehabilitation and improvement of social infrastructure. Effects of support for social infrastructure are generally highly visible, providing peace dividends to the local population and gaining public confidence and support for a new post-conflict government. In this way, support for social infrastructure can serve as a key element toward the consolidation of peace. 3-5-2 Menus of JICA�s peacebuilding assistance

32 To this date, Weapons for Development projects have been implemented in the Balkan countries and Africa under UNDP and in Cambodia under EU and GTZ schemes.

47

(1) Food supply A critical food shortage follows an armed conflict. Further, dysfunctional distribution networks make food supply all the more difficult, often resulting in famine. To recover capacity of food production, it is urgently required that materials and equipment for food production and reconstruction of relevant facilities be provided. It is also important to establish unions of facilities users, prepare rules for them and create markets and distribution channels. To this end, an emergency relief study (Also known as �emergency development study�), (emergency) grant aid, provision of relevant materials and equipment and follow-up projects could be effective. In a mid- to long-term perspective, the focus would be placed on formulation of development programs, human resources development, and community empowerment. Therefore, development studies, technical cooperation and partnership projects with NGOs would be the main schemes to be utilized. (2) Improvements of housing environments During an armed conflict, the lack of access to safe water could lead to poor sanitary conditions, houses are destroyed and securing housing could be an issue. Further, a post-conflict country commonly experiences an unstable power supply or a shortage of power. To address an unstable water supply and shortage of power, programs for reconstructing and rehabilitating war-ravaged water supply facilities and power generation/transmission capacities should be urgently formulated and immediately carried out. Meanwhile, establishment of the maintenance and operation systems of these facilities as well as human resources development also become important issues. In the former, emergency relief studies, (emergency) grant projects, and partnership projects with NGOs could be effective. In the latter, technical cooperation would play a leading role. Post-conflict official development assistance could provide limited support for individual housing, since private houses are, in essence, personal assets. In a short-term perspective, main support would be given to the formulation of reconstruction programs and to the provision of relevant materials and equipment through (emergency) grant aid. In a mid- to long-term perspective, main assistance includes city planning and human resources development in housing sectors mainly through technical cooperation. (3) Reconstruction and improvement of transportation networks necessary for basic

living conditions and delivery of food and daily necessities After the end of a conflict, war-ravaged roads, port facilities and airports leave distribution networks paralyzed, and make the supply of food and daily necessities extremely difficult. Reconstruction plans for conflict-affected roads, bridges, port facilities and airports need to be immediately formulated and put into practice. At the same time, systems for operating and maintaining these facilities should be established, and to this end, relevant human resources should also be developed. In the former, emergency relief studies and (emergency) grant aid as well as partnership projects with NGOs play leading roles. In the latter, technical cooperation plays a key role.

48

(4) Education Interventions in post-conflict education sectors consist mainly of (1) provision of opportunities for basic education by developing and improving school facilities and training teachers, (2) reconstruction and functional reinforcement of educational systems, and (3) support for advanced education that fosters human resources who will lead post-conflict society. In these assistance programs, reconstruction and renovation of educational facilities by humanitarian relief studies and emergency/general grant aid projects, and also human resources development by dispatching experts and accepting trainees would be main parts of the assistance. Further, to improve access to public education, a partnership with NGOs for supporting literacy and non-formal education could be effective. (5) Health care Interventions in post-conflict health-care sectors consist mainly of provision of basic health- care services, reconstruction and functional reinforcement of public health-care systems, and support for people disabled during the conflict. To this end, generally, JICA could (1) reconstruct and renovate health-care facilities by humanitarian relief studies and emergency/general grant aid projects, (2) support human resources development and reinforce administrative functions by dispatching experts and accepting trainees, and (3) provide public health-care services and support people with disabilities through the dispatch of experts and partnerships with NGOs . (6) Anti-personnel landmines and unexploded ordinances (UXOs) Anti-personnel landmines and UXOs that have been randomly scattered and remain uncleared in and around farmlands, country roads, school yards and residential areas will indiscriminately victimize civilians, including farmers and children. Moreover, the presence of landmines and UXOs hinders post-conflict agricultural production and impedes the return and resettlement of refugees and IDPs, significantly blocking post-conflict development. In this sector, JICA could contribute to (1) assistance for removal of landmines and UXOs, (2) victim assistance, and (3) preventive campaigns including awareness programs. Institutions responsible for demining established by a recipient country�s administration will play a key role in the country�s voluntary and sustainable demining efforts. External assistance is needed for supporting such institutions. The assistance could support (1) formulation of demining programs, (2) coordination of demining activities, (3) development of information regarding the distribution of landmines and UXOs (including database development, preparation and processing of minefield maps), and (4) provision of relevant materials and equipment for detecting and removing landmines and UXOs (to help identification and marking of minefields, removal of bushes, and detection and disposal of landmines and UXOs.) Many landmine victims die from lack of appropriate medical treatment due to delayed rescue, poor ambulance services or poor medical facilities. External assistance is greatly required, in particular, for establishing a primary health-care framework and upgrading emergency medical services and surgical procedures to reach and treat victims as quickly as possible. At the same time, fabricating artificial limbs and

49

artificial leg and knee equipment and providing vocational training are essential for the social reintegration of victims. Further, database development on landmine/UXO victims (information on how and where they were victimized) is of importance for reducing victims and developing and improving medical-care services and systems that will facilitate their social reintegration. (Refer to �3-7 Support for socially vulnerable people.�) Mine/UXO risk and awareness campaigns through media and schools and informal education facilities are also essential to help the people realize the dangers, presence and types of landmines/UXOs. In this way, the local population could adequately learn of the threat of landmines and UXOs and ensure their own safe living environments. 3-5-3 Issues to be considered (1) Coordination, collaboration and partnership with Development Banks Because rehabilitation of social infrastructure, particularly, requires considerable funding, support for post-conflict social infrastructure should emphasize coordination, collaboration and partnership with well-financed development banks such as the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank. (2) Support for maintenance and operation of social infrastructure Generally, administrative functions in post-conflict countries are fragile, lacking human resources and funds. Thus, flexible response to the maintenance costs and the staff allowance in a short period of time is required in assistance for maintenance and development of facilities and equipment, while combining soft-side support. Balancing the existent level of social infrastructure and financial capacities so as to minimize the future financial burden should also be considered. In addition, technologies used for rehabilitation should be carefully selected based on the capacity of the recipient country so that the recipient country will be able to maintain and operate reconstructed social infrastructure without external assistance. (3) Local job creation As unemployment is one of the eminent problems in post-conflict countries and could often work as a conflict factor, activities for rehabilitation of social infrastructure should contribute to job opportunities for the local population. At the same time, JICA should be mindful that a project can provide only temporary job opportunities, not long-lasting ones. Development of robust labor markets that could provide permanent job opportunities is discussed later in �3-6 Economic recovery.� (4) Systems for demining activities As demining and removal of landmines/UXOs require mid- to long-term efforts, it is important that a recipient country establish a system that can sustainably carry out demining under its own national programs. Japanese post-conflict assistance mainly focuses on capacity building of a recipient country�s implementing agencies and on logistical support, rather than on demining activities themselves. Accordingly, we should effectively utilize grant aid cooperation and technical cooperation as well as support a recipient countries� demining efforts under coordination and collaboration with demining agencies, such as government agencies, troops, NGOs, private

50

businesses and UN agencies. (5) Medical treatment and rehabilitation of landmine/UXO victims When supporting emergency and surgical treatment and rehabilitation for landmine/UXO victims, JICA should not limit its assistance to landmine/UXO victims, but consider vulnerable people as a whole, including those socially marginalized. (6) Official languages used in educational support For a country with a multi-ethnic society, a country with refugees returning home from different countries, and a country with multilingual communities, selection of a language to be used for post-conflict assistance is of significant importance and extreme delicacy. In particular, in educational support, selection of the spoken and written languages to be used will profoundly affect the power balance among the different ethnic and cultural groups. Careless selection of languages in the curriculums or syllabuses could trigger antagonism or a feeling of unfairness and could roll back the progress of reconciliation. Accordingly, language selection for educational support needs an in-depth understanding of geographical distribution and power balance of ethnic/cultural groups and should be based on a consensus among the parties concerned. In this way, the utmost attention should be paid to wipe out, or at least, reduce a feeling of unfairness. (7) JICA�s Guideline on Environmental Considerations JICA�s peacebuilding assistance will design, construct and renovate war-ravaged social infrastructure in accordance with JICA Guideline on Environmental Considerations. 3-6 Economic recovery 3-6-1 Basic concept Economic recovery in post-conflict peacebuilding is aimed at (1) to meet basic economic needs immediately after a conflict, (2) to reconstruct the economic infrastructure essential for recovering war-ravaged industry, (3) to recover and introduce financial systems, and (4) to support financial policies. It also covers vocational training and job creation for ensuring sustainable economic and industrial development up to five years following the end of a conflict. A conflict-affected country typically sees the rise of underground economies34 during and after an armed conflict. An underground economy thrives by price manipulation through cornering the market and by illegal small arms trafficking. Then, there is generally a growing community of people who gain vested interests from underground economies. In addition, the impact of a conflict on the economy varies depending on the pre-conflict economic conditions of a country. Post-conflict socio-economic circumstances, including underground economies, greatly vary depending on the scale and duration of a conflict and the conditions of a conflict-affected country and its neighbors. Accordingly, JICA should thoroughly analyze the circumstances of target

34 An underground economy comprises a large number of economic activities that are not reported to government statistics or taxation authorities, including the incomes or assets generated by these activities.

51

regions to narrow down appropriate aid beneficiaries. Moreover, due to a war-ravaged socioeconomic base and long-lasting international economic sanctions, there have been urgent and basic economic needs that require seamless assistance. The impact of post-conflict economic collapse on socially vulnerable people (poor people, women, elderly people, people with disabilities and children) is particularly severe. In view of this, aid efforts focusing on these vulnerable people must be flexible and timely. Economic activities closely interact with every aspect of society. For this reason, to suppress conflict factors, not to reinforce the existing disparity of the power balance between the rich and the poor, or among regions or ethnic groups, and to promote effective economic recovery, close collaboration with activities in other sectors, including governance, security improvement, rehabilitation of social infrastructure and support for socially vulnerable people is needed. In addition, considering the fact that there are constant changes in both post-conflict economic conditions and donor activities that reflect immediate economic needs, post-conflict industrial development and subsequent economic stabilization, timely needs assessment and formulation of assistance menus that enable effective interaction between different sectors will be of great importance. Further, projects implemented a through yen loan are expected to play a significant role. Needless to say, JICA alone cannot cover all of these economic recovery activities. Consequently, JICA needs to collaborate and coordinate with other donors, including international organizations and local, domestic and international NGOs. Cooperation among donors could reduce duplication of assistance efforts, allowing each donor to provide optimal assistance in areas in which it is most competent, and thoughtfully select and integrate aid sectors. In this way, economic recovery activities could be more effective. JICA needs to pay careful attention to local circumstances and to adapt its activities to the needs of the local population. 3-6-2 Menus of JICA�s peacebuilding assistance The needs in post-conflict economic recovery change with time, and prioritized aid sectors vary depending on the stage of progress of economic recovery. External assistance for economic recovery features interaction between efforts for job creation and those for industrial reconstruction. This interaction enhances the effectiveness of the intervention. Accordingly, different kinds of assistance should be linked and must be flexible enough to support economic recovery in response to changing needs in a timely manner. In addition, as the impact of a conflict and post-conflict socioeconomic circumstances vary with countries and regions, assistance for economic recovery intends to provide intensive support for conflict-affected economic infrastructure, recovering and revitalizing the relevant organizations and institutions, and should not be considered as a part of a simple economic growth model. (1) Response to basic economic needs immediately after a conflict As the post-conflict economic situation is impoverished, a priority in economic recovery is the vitalizing of local markets that sell daily necessities and the distribution of agricultural and fishery products for securing a food supply. To this end, the first step is to analyze and gain an in-depth understanding of the degree of conflict damage to the economic infrastructure and the current status of a war economy and an underground economy which are commonly characterized by illegal economic activities. Thereafter,

52

assistance should meet basic economic needs of the local population by (1) reconstructing local markets that sell daily necessities and allowing the local population greater access to local markets, and (2) offering small scale financing, such as micro-finance programs. In particular, special protection measures should be taken for socially vulnerable people as they are most likely to be affected by post-conflict circumstances, by providing safety net programs such as food aid, job creation schemes and social security. (2) Socioeconomic environments A damaged economic infrastructure, including power supply, roads and communication networks, often hinders post-conflict economic recovery. Development and improvement of the economic infrastructure are intended to support recovery and reconstruction of basic manufacturing operations. In particular, among infrastructure concerned with food and power supply and transportation, support for supply of daily necessities is generally regarded as part of the assistance intended to rehabilitate social infrastructure. Also important is external assistance for establishment of judicial systems, including commercial laws, civil laws and taxation laws, and support for a basic economy, including decentralization of authorities. Rehabilitation and the introduction of financial systems are equally important. These are prerequisites for creating autonomous economic development. Among these institutional bases, the rehabilitation and improvement of judicial systems and economic bases are regarded as part of governance support. They are essential prerequisites for economic recovery, and must always be taken into account during post-conflict economic recovery. (3) Rehabilitation of industries Industrial rehabilitation in a post-conflict country plays an important role in providing greater job opportunities and improving income distribution, particularly in poor neighborhoods. Industrial rehabilitation could, in this way, raise the level of economic activities, stabilize the economy and mitigate economic anxiety and feeings of dissatisfaction within the local population. In preparation for assisting industrial rehabilitation, emergency relief studies (�emergency development studies�) need to be carried out. These studies are intended to (1) understand the present needs of industries and markets, (2) identify companies, agricultural and fishery industries and labor-intensive industries that have comparative advantages, and (3) establish support systems for capacity building of the small to medium-sized businesses comprising these industries. In addition, it is necessary to revitalize industries through trade promotion and facilitation of private-sector investment and fair trade. (4) Unemployment The rise of unemployment is a common problem in post-conflict countries. To stabilize the economy and to put reconstruction on track, countermeasures addressing unemployment are crucial. Job creation could encourage the social reintegration of ex-combatants, give them a means to earn a living, and mitigate conflict factors. Countermeasures for unemployment consist of tentative job offers and permanent job creation. Mobilization of labor forces for rehabilitating social and economic infrastructure could offer tentative job opportunities and may temporally improve the level of economic activities. JICA should be careful not to encourage the local populations to become overly dependent on tentative job opportunities; on-the-job technical assistance and training should be mainly emphasized. To secure more

53

sustainable employment opportunities, in addition to the expansion of job opportunities through industrial reconstruction, JICA should support public employment agencies to help balance demand and supply in labor markets. In this way, increased mobility of labor markets as well as greater access to employment would be secured. There is great need for vocational trainings among IDPs, repatriated refugees, ex-combatants and poor people who seek social reintegration. Also effective would be establishment of vocational training schools and support for micro-finance systems to encourage the local population to start small businesses. 3-6-3 Issues to be considered (1) Basic information collection/analysis and estimation of situations Since the degree of economic development and impact of a conflict varies with countries and regions, both pre-conflict and post-conflict socioeconomic circumstances of a recipient country/region should be accurately analyzed. In preliminary studies, actual conditions of war economies and underground economies, stakeholder analysis and the degree of destruction of infrastructure should be studied. Immediately after a conflict, however, due to poor security, assessments by emergency relief agencies can be used. As the preliminary studies need to be conducted as early as possible, it is necessary to collect and analyze information on the socioeconomic and other circumstances of a would-be recipient country and its neighbors in peace time. (2) Consideration to economic sanction In states under economic sanction, it is widely recognized that underground economies are well developed, that there is collusion between government authorities and private interests and corruption prevails, and that too much power and wealth are in the hands of those with vested interests. Further, negative impacts of a conflict are felt in public access to basic education and daily necessities, such as food and medicines, and in public health and medical sectors. Apparently, socially vulnerable people, including poor people, would be most severely affected. Therefore, before starting assistance to a country that has been subject to an economic sanction, JICA need to analyze the impact of the economic sanction on the country�s economic and industrial structure, financial systems and its neighbors, then identify the target beneficiaries of aid programs and carefully select the appropriate approaches. (3) Mobility of target group Refugees, IDPs and returnees move from country to country, and from region to region. Some become residents of a recipient country or region. In implementing economic recovery program, JICA should be aware of the movement of these people, refugees, IDPs and returnees when formulating programs. (4) Infrastructure development for economic recovery When reconstructing a war-torn infrastructure, it should be considered necessary to study any room for improvement rather than simply restoring war-ravaged facilities to their previous state. For example, in some cases, constructing new roads might be more

54

advantageous than renovating war-ravaged roads. Special attention should be paid not to generate a feeling of unfairness among the local population so as not to trigger another armed conflict. In addition, technology for a building design should be transferred, by working out countermeasures against possible earthquakes, salt damages, or ground subsidence. Further and equally important is incorporation of anti-disaster measures through establishing building standards, the introduction of universal design and other value-added technologies. 3-7 Assistance for socially vulnerable people 3-7-1 Basic concept Support for socially vulnerable people in peacebuilding assistance targets those physically disabled or traumatized by armed conflict, child soldiers, war orphans, and those classified as �socially vulnerable� even in pre-conflict periods, including people with disabilities and women and other socially marginalized people. The livelihood of these people could go from bad to worse due to a conflict. Socially vulnerable people are likely to be more affected by an armed conflict, and are usually the ones who most keenly feel the impact of UN-led economic sanctions. However, they are often left behind in post-conflict recovery and reconstruction and are unlikely to capture peace dividends. Unless support for these people who need special assistance is implemented immediately after a conflict, they will not be socially integrated into a post-conflict society. In this case, these vulnerable people could become a burden on economic and social development in a mid- to long-term perspective, and in turn, this could lead to fixed disparities in socioeconomic status. In particular, in a heavily mine-affected country or a country plagued by prolonged conflict, there are a great number of people who are physically disabled or mentally traumatized. In such a country, JICA needs to pay special attention to these socially vulnerable people when carrying out projects concerning public health, medical care, education and rural development. At the same time, JICA should keep in mind that socially vulnerable people are not mere recipients of aid and that they could make a substantial contribution to establishing good governance by facilitating post-war reconciliation and encouraging social fairness. Assistance for socially vulnerable people might include relatively short-term activities such as support for landmine victims. However, in essence, support for socially vulnerable people requires some form of social reform, including social behavior change. Thus, JICA should incorporate mid- to long-term perspectives in their activities targeting at these people. 3-7-2 Menus of JICA�s peacebuilding assistance (1) Assistance for children and people with disabilities35 People disabled by armed conflict consist of those physically disabled36 and those

35 Assistance for people with disabilities is sometimes carried out as part of assistance for landmine victims, social infrastructure rehabilitation or DDR of ex-combatants with disabilities. Regarding the assistance for socially vulnerable people, refer to �DDR� and �Social Infrastructure� section.

55

mentally traumatized. Support for the physically disabled may include medical, vocational, educational and social rehabilitation activities37. These assistance activities are intended to achieve economic and social reintegration of those disabled people. Community Based Rehabilitation (CBR)38 could be effective in utilizing local resources and fostering positive perspectives of people with disabilities. In addition, support for self-help organizations39 of persons with disabilities or their families might be helpful. In a country affected by prolonged conflict or in which non-military people were involved in the conflict as victims or victimizers, many are likely to be traumatized for a long period of time. Further, reportedly, children traumatized by violent conflict and left untreated tend to end up serving as combatants40. Though JICA has a limited track record in supporting people traumatized by conflict, JICA will have to put more focus on post-conflict trauma, since some of conflict-affected countries desperately need thoughtful care for this problem. JICA�s first step in this direction would be on a modest scale that might include cooperation with well-experienced NGOs and the dispatch of experts. BOX 3-10 Community Based Rehabilitation (CBR) in Bosnia Herzegovina (the Republic of Srpska) in collaboration with Canada In the Republic of Srpska (Republika Srpska) in Bosnia Herzegovina, landmines continue to maim and kill people even five years after the end of the war. Further, many in Srpska have been disabled by traffic accidents and disease. As a result, the number of people with disabilities who need rehabilitation service is increasing country-wide. In view of these conditions, JICA has teamed up with Canada to provide technical cooperation, materials and equipment and to renovate the facilities of �Local Rehabilitation Centers� in the republic. These rehabilitation centers are designed to put sustainable and optimal rehabilitation services within easy reach of those with disabilities. To this end, in July 2002, Japanese officials signed the Exchange of Notes (E/N) for renovating community based rehabilitation (CBR) centers and providing relevant materials through grant aid cooperation. Since then, JICA has dispatched experts specializing in medical statistics, database development and physical therapies. Canadian counterparts are responsible for training local service providers in rehabilitation, fostering specialists in health care and constructing CBR systems. (2) Support for women In a post-conflict country, many women are widowed or have lost their fathers and have to financially support the family. In addition, more recently, women are often sexually abused or become victims of domestic violence by husbands who have returned from the battlefield. Hence, women suffer from a number of problems, are the main victims of domestic violence and are, thus, traumatized. What is more, they have very few vocational skills or know-how to earn a living on their own. To improve the position of these women, support for them is important in post-conflict reconstruction. To help female breadwinners, support for informal education and education opportunities for women, including nurturing of female entrepreneurs and literacy learning, would be effective. More specifically, JICA�s assistance may include

36 Those physically disabled include visually-impaired and hearing-impaired people. 37 For more details, refer to �Guidelines on assistance for people with disabilities.� 38 For more details, refer to �Guidelines on assistance for people with disabilities.� 39 Usually known as �Self-Help Organization (SHO)� or �Disabled People�s Organization (DPO).� 40 Etsuko Kida, Chiiki no Seishin Eisei to Shinteki Gaisho Sutoresu Shoukougun [Community based Mental Health and Posttraumatic Stress Syndrome], March, 2001, Funso no Saihatsu Yobo [Prevention of a Recurrence of Conflict], edited by Kazuo Takahashi and Kimihide Mushanokoji

56

(1) vocational training for women, (2) construction or renovation of vocational training facilities, (3) preparing educational programs by experts and (4) acceptance of trainees who would lead the educational sectors of a recipient country. JICA has only limited experience in supporting traumatized people, and JICA�s first step in this direction would be on a modest scale that might include the dispatch of experts and collaboration with well-experienced NGOs. (3) Support for child soldiers, street children, and war orphans Children are seriously affected by violent conflict. Reintegration of child soldiers41 and support for war orphans and street children as well as ill treatment against children are important issues. JICA has limited experience in this sector and may find it difficult to provide support tailored for it. Yet JICA could collaborate with other donors in constructing local support schemes within a framework of administrative support, including assistance for governance. For example, (1) support for developing social welfare policies, (2) dispatching social workers and (3) construction or renovation of relevant facilities could be effective. BOX3-11 Support for child soldiers １．Child soldiers According to the United Nations estimates, there are around 300 thousand child soldiers under the age of 18 in more than 30 countries, including Africa and Asia which have a serious child soldier problem. The increase in child soldiers is attributed to proliferation of small and light arms, poverty, discrimination, social marginalization and other social problems. In particular, children with few educational opportunities and from poor families that belong mainly to socially marginalized groups are most likely to be recruited as combatants. Child soldiers are generally sent to the battlefront and forced to serve as spies, messengers or porters. 2. JICA�s support in this sector To address issues concerning child soldiers, JICA could mainly address social problems that force children into military service, including poverty and discrimination, and support their social reintegration. To this end, JICA�s activities would not be directly aimed at child soldiers, but should comprehensively support child soldiers by assisting the DDR of ex-combatants and helping the educational sector, establishment of judicial systems, administrative functions and community development. Activities contributing to social reintegration of child soldiers might include (1) support through basic education and vocational training, (2) support for establishment of domestic laws to protect ex-child soldiers, and (3) assistance to traumatized or mentally unstable children. (4) Assistance to socially marginalized people Socially marginalized people include those who are likely to be excluded from economic opportunities as a result of conflicts within states or because of social or economic background and, therefore, are unable to enjoy post-conflict peace dividends. The presence of marginalized people could trigger another conflict. Fair delivery of �peace dividends� to these marginalized people, thus, would be indispensable for post-conflict sustainable reconstruction and development. However, exclusively supporting marginalized people should be avoided for political reasons. Rather, special considerations for these marginalized people should be given in various activities, including education support (including peace education), return and resettlement of refugees and IDPs, social infrastructure, good governance and economic recovery. In particular, in a case with conflicts within states, regardless of the consequences of the

41 Support for social reintegration of child soldiers may be provided as part of the DDR of ex-combatants. For this reason, also refer to �DDR of ex-combatants.�

57

conflict, fair delivery of peace dividends to every group in a country is essential from the viewpoint of reconciliation. 3-7-3 Issues to be considered For assisting socially vulnerable people, implementation of projects exclusively targeting people with disabilities, women and children is insufficient. Instead, considerations for these often marginalized people should be incorporated into general assistance for education, public health and medical care, basic infrastructure, good governance, return and resettlement of refugees and IDPs, and economic recovery. At the same time, any activities should pay attention to systems and environments that encourage their social participation. These approaches would be, indeed, more desirable to facilitate sustainable social participation of socially vulnerable people than projects exclusively aimed at these people. To this end, partnership projects with NGOs would be particularly effective. Yet selection of the partners should be careful and fair. In addition, it should be ensured that all disabled children and people are covered regardless of the cause of the disability, and that no one is excluded because of a certain type of disability. 3-8 Humanitarian emergency relief 3-8-1 Basic concept Humanitarian emergency relief aims to save lives and to meet the basic emergency needs of war-affected people, thus fulfilling its mission in accordance with International Humanitarian Law, International Human Rights Law and Refugee Law. The DAC Guidelines42 define humanitarian emergency relief as �immediate, survival assistance to the victims of crisis and violent conflict, and the main purpose is to save lives.� As the definition implies, emergency relief activities are relief operations to save the lives of victims from natural disasters and other risk factors. However, since this guideline outlines JICA�s peacebuilding assistance, this section explains emergency relief operations concerning violent conflict. The purpose of humanitarian emergency relief is to save the lives of those facing major challenges to their survival during or immediately after an armed conflict. People to be covered by humanitarian emergency relief include refugees and IDPs. In addition, rural communities in neighboring countries which temporally accept refugees should be supported by humanitarian emergency relief operations. JICA, as a provider of development assistance, needs to incorporate mid- to long-term perspectives in its emergency activities, and at the same time, should respond to urgent needs. In other words, JICA should pay attention to continuously meeting the basic needs of a local population during the emergency phase and should plan to ensure a seamless transition from emergency response to mid- to long-term development programs.

42 �The DAC Guidelines Helping Prevent Violent Conflict.� Refer to �DAC Guidelines on Conflict, Peace and Development Cooperation.�

58

Depending on local security conditions, it may not be possible to send staff to a recipient country. Under the current Peacekeeping Law (PKO Law) and the Japanese Disaster Relief Law (JDR Law), JICA cannot provide emergency aid for victims of a conflict in a conflict zone. In such circumstances, JICA will provide assistance within the framework of technical cooperation in accordance with GOJ�s political decision44. 3-8-2 Menus of JICA�s peacebuilding assistance (1) In/around conflict JICA is an ODA implementing agency whose main function is to provide technical cooperation, and its activities can be limited by security conditions. Accordingly, JICA is not able to carry out assistance during a conflict. In a country partially affected by a conflict, however, JICA can provide assistance to internally displaced people (IDPs) and the communities accepting these people. JICA�s assistance in this sector could include support for medical care, education and water supply facilities. For example, when medical facilities are dilapidated, JICA could provide medicines and medical equipment and dispatch specialists. Further, in economically distressed communities that have accepted IDPs and refugees, JICA could provide technical cooperation for encouraging economic activities and offer micro-finance services for supporting would-be entrepreneurs. JICA could provide indirect support such as capacity building of neighboring countries that have accepted refugees. Such indirect support consists of (1) efforts contributing to emergency relief and (2) assistance for neighboring countries of conflict to mitigate their prolonged burden. For example, JICA could provide support to neighboring countries from an economic aspect when the economy in the area has been destabilized by conflict. (2) Post conflict assistance Typical post-conflict emergency relief includes assistance for returnees. Immediately after a conflict, generally, a great number of refugees are suddenly on the move. In view of this, priority needs in post-conflict immediate situations include (1) water supply and sanitation, (2) nutrition, (3) food aid, (4) shelters, and (5) health services. (Refer to Table 2.) In addition, activities essential for emergency relief might include (1) ensuring safety of returnees, (2) delivering and safekeeping relief supplies, (3) securing communication channels and (4) securing energy45. When the United Nations substitutes a post-conflict political regime for a post-conflict country, JICA could support the UN agencies by providing relevant equipment. Table 3: Major emergency relief activities Core aid sectors Description Water, sanitation and hygiene promotion

Water supply, excreta disposal, vector control, drainage, solid waste management, hygiene promotion

Nutrition General nutritional support for population, correction of malnutrition

44 For restraining factors on JICA�s activities, refer to the 1st Research Report, �Peacebuilding.� 45 For details of the menu, refer to �Rehabilitation of social infrastructure.�

59

Food aid Assessment and analysis of targets and needs, resources management, logistics, distribution

Shelter and site planning

Shelters and settlements, clothing, household items, site selection and planning

Health services Control of communicable diseases Source: Sphere projects, 2000 3-8-3 Issues to be considered While providing assistance, it is necessary to accurately respond to the different needs of different gender and age groups. In a conflict-affected country, there are many female breadwinners who have remained home after their husbands were drafted into military service. Unfailingly, humanitarian relief assistance should reach these women. At the same time, JICA should keep in mind that excessive assistance in immediate post-conflict situations could actually hamper sustainable reconstruction and development.

60

Chapter 4: Future Challenges The previous chapters explained objectives and the significance of JICA�s peacebuilding activities, with approaches and issues to be considered, as well as relevant global trends and Japanese policies. JICA has relatively limited experience in peacebuilding assistance and its peacebuilding activities could be further improved. This chapter analyzes present conditions in human resources development, security management, and new schemes and budgets and, thereafter, extracts issues to be considered in future peacebuilding activities. 4-1 Human resources development 4-1-1 Present conditions Regarding human resource development in the area of peacebuilding, JICA has been utilizing junior expert programs, overseas long-term training programs and Japanese Disaster Relief (JDR) training programs. JICA has also been offering pre-dispatch learning courses for disseminating general knowledge on peacebuilding and security management to experts specializing in disciplines other than peacebuilding. In addition, JICA has been providing staff training since FY 2001. Track record of peacebuilding training courses is as follows: • Junior Expert: 8 persons • Long-term training program: 4 persons • Japanese Disaster Relief Team training program: 4,400 persons • Brush-up training programs and JDR coordinator programs for JICA staff: 644

persons • Staff training program (primary): 130 persons While the need for peacebuilding experts is growing, the number of experts in this sector is still limited. In particular, sectors such as emergency relief, DDR, reconciliation, small arms control and support for child soldiers, lack adequate human resources in spite of a growing need for such personnel. In response to these needs, JICA is strengthening its human resources development efforts, and has already upgraded training programs for staff and has conducted training courses in accordance with �human resources development plans�. Further, in FY 2003, JICA launched �Reconstruction Assistance (peacebuilding) course� for experts. JICA has also co-hosted �Panel on Human Resources Development for International Peace Cooperation,� in collaboration with the Cabinet Office, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. In addition, on October 1, 2003, JICA launched a website to exchange information on human resources, called �PARTNER (Participatory Network for Expert Recruitment)�. From November 1, the site has been providing information on job seekers to organizations involved in international cooperation. Using this system, JICA shares more information on qualified persons willing to take part in international peace cooperation. 4-1-2 Future challenges JICA has been already working on developing and securing human resources. Yet JICA still has to create appropriate systems for dispatching qualified personnel in response to needs in peacebuilding sectors. The section below lists specific issues to be

61

considered. (1) Securing human resources A. Sharing information on human resources By making the best use of the �PARTNER� system, JICA will provide information on human resources to relevant organizations, and share information with existing databases, such as JDR�s database and the database of MoFA�s Recruitment Center for International Organizations. Specific discussion has been held on the possibility that �PARTNER� will introduce information on human resources registered in the JDR�s database. JICA has already explained to the Recruitment Center for International Organizations the possibility of information sharing with �PARTNER.� B. Reaching out to potential human resources JICA tries to reach out to potential human resources in NGOs, universities, research institutes, former JOCV volunteers and private sector consultants who are yet unregistered in the existing databases as well as those willing to take part in peacekeeping but are not qualified in terms of knowledge or experience. JICA has already asked the Secretariat of JOCV to encourage former JOCV volunteers to indicate their interest in peacekeeping assistance on the �PARTNER� website. JICA also plans to make a presentation on �PARTNER� to Japan Platform, a NGO designed to provide emergency relief in natural disaster and refugee situations. C. Making better use of JDR�s databases JICA will review systems and devise ways to dispatch qualified individuals registered in the JDR database in emergency relief situations. In addition, JICA will discuss the establishment of systems for utilizing the human resources fostered by JDR for emergency logistics practices. (2) Staff training A. Improving and expanding existing training programs JICA has developed human resources for peacebuilding assistance by providing junior expert programs, overseas long-term training programs, Japanese Disaster Relief (JDR) training programs and pre-dispatch training programs. Junior expert programs and overseas long-term training programs have relatively long histories, and so far a total of 299 and 871 trainees, respectively, have taken part in these programs. However, only a dozen or so among them have specialized in peacebuilding. Better use of the above mentioned systems and programs for peacebuilding could greatly facilitate relevant human resources development. JICA also intends to launch training programs for technical cooperation specialists (�Support for reconstruction: Peacebuilding�) in FY 2003 to train specialists who will be ready to serve in peacebuilding operations. Further, JICA will continue sponsoring seminars aimed at generating greater awareness among people who are interested in peacebuilding activities, including specialists in other disciplines, ex JOCV volunteers and students. B. Educational and training opportunities in collaboration with universities, research

62

institutes, NGOs and international organizations JICA will consider providing educational and training opportunities to enhance the specialized knowledge in peacebuilding in collaboration with universities and research institutes in Japan and abroad. At the same time, JICA will also consider ways to build on-site experience by dispatching its staff and representatives to NGOs and international organizations for a relatively long period of time. C. Training on the concept of peacebuilding for experts JICA intends to develop human resources in a short period of time by providing training in peacebuilding to experts in specific regions and disciplines, such as rural development, governance, development planning, poverty, education, and gender issues. D. Creating awareness and understanding of peacebuilding among consultants At present, there are very few consultants in Japan that JICA could outsource to its peacebuilding work. To play a greater role in peacebuilding, encouraging consultants to gain in-depth understanding of peacebuilding is an urgent need. For the time being, JICA will help deepen their understanding through actual pratices on a case-by-case basis. (3) Utilization of human resources A. Human resources development and establishment of a career path Some organizations have actually developed human resources in peacebuilding and there are indeed some career opportunities for these persons. However, these organizations are scattered in different sectors and have no organic ties among themselves. For this reason, a combination of human resources development and establishment of a career path cannot work effectively and systematically. Accordingly, those interested in peacebuilding or trained for peacebuilding have sometimes no choice but to find jobs in areas completely different from peacebuilding or in foreign organizations. In view of this, relevant organizations should share information on human resources and establish a mechanism for flexibly deploying human resources in domestic and overseas organizations� headquarters or institutes and other worksites according to worksite needs and qualification requirements. In this way, JICA could achieve greater effectiveness in developing human resources and establishing their career paths. 4-2 Security measures and compensation 4-2-1 Present conditions Assurance of safety is a prerequisite for implementing any JICA project. In particular, security is a top priority in countries immediately after a conflict, neighboring countries of the conflict, and countries with rising tensions. For JICA experts, JICA is responsible for ensuring their safety in accordance with the rules of good faith in civil laws. On the other hand, as contractors and emigrants concerned with grant aid projects are deemed to have no direct contractual relationship with JICA, it is understood that the sole responsibility for their safety does not fall on

63

JICA. In other words, these parties shall, in principle, take safety measures by themselves. Yet, in a broader perspective, it can be said that they are parties involved in JICA�s projects, and JICA should provide them with information on security and safety as much as possible. JICA has indeed invited these parties concerned with grant aid projects to liaison councils on safety measures, incorporated them in emergency communication networks, and provided relevant information, as needed. To provide the necessary safety measures in peacebuilding operations, establishment of systems capable of assuring the security of every party concerned, as well as a greater capacity for collecting and analyzing information related to security, is essential. In addition, compensation should be upgraded to prepare for the worst. On August 20, 2002, JICA set a new security management criteria. This enables JICA to independently decide the deployment of its staff, while previously JICA had followed the MoFA�s safety criteria. Necessary measures, such as securing budgets for security management, introducing compensation systems, enhancing the collection and analysis of information on safety and security through the UN and consultants, deploying bulletproof vehicles, radio and satellite communication equipment, and on-site study, advice and guidance on safety measures by dispatching teams have been already taken. Yet JICA should be more flexible in its response to the specific conditions of each recipient country. Following the reinforcement of security measures, JICA is now able to extend its assistance to Afghanistan and Sri Lanka. JICA has already provided one-day security management training in its pre-departure briefing, and has made its staff thoroughly aware of specific security measures and a basic knowledge of security management. In addition, from fiscal year 2003, JICA has started a lecture on peacebuilding in the above security management training course. Furthermore, JICA provides security management training in its pre-departure training programs for experts and project formulation advisors, Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteers and Senior Volunteers. Besides, JICA employs one or more security personnel in almost all overseas offices. These security people collect information on local safety and security situations, conduct briefing on security to newly arrived personnel, provide advice and guidance on security measures, and keep in close contact with UN security officers. JICA has been implementing a �compensation plan� since April 1, 2003, in case of death or disability on duty during a war, incident, armed conflict or other high-risk circumstances, which has based on the �monetary condolence� system for government officials. The �compensation plan� insures persons who are dispatched to designated countries or regions1. This system insures only team members working under a direct contract with JICA. JICA is now considering cost sharing arrangements concerning war risk premiums for

1 As of September 2003, the designated countries include: Indonesia (Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam Province, i.e., former Ache Province), the Philippines (Mindanao and neighboring islands), East Timor, Northern and Eastern Sri Lanka, Pakistan (within 100 km of the borders with Afghanistan, excluding Quetta and Peshawar), Nepal (areas where Nepal Maoists are active), Papua New Guinea (Bougainville), Solomon Islands (Guadalcanal Island excluding Honiara, and Malaita Island), Azerbaijan (Nagorno-Karabakh and neighboring areas that Armenians have occupied, borders with Armenia), Armenia (borders with Azrbaijan), Afghanistan, Iraq, Jordan (borders with Iraq, east of Azrak), Palestine and Israel, Angora (Huambo, Bie, Malanje excluding their capital cities and highways; and Moxico, Cuando and Cubango), and Eritrea (borders with Ethiopia, Central and Western Gash Barka region).

64

members of consultant companies. 4-2-2 Challenges (1) Improving existing security management training Knowledge on security management essential for post-conflict reconstruction, assistance to the neighboring countries of a conflict, and peacebuilding assistance for a country which faces rising tensions should be included in the existing safety management training courses. The contents of these programs should be consistent with those of training offered by JDR. (2) Conducting training courses with a higher level of security expertise for security

clerks, RRs, DRRs, and other staff in high-risk countries It is necessary to have a more specialized knowledge of security management and use of the equipment necessary for working in high-risk countries. It is also necessary to dispatch a few (1-2) staff members to well-informed and experienced organizations in safety management in high-risk regions for long-term training. (3) Security management manual A compact security management manual that provides instructions on how to respond to emergency situations is necessary for peacebuilding activities in high-risk regions. JICA needs to prepare such a manual referring to the existing manuals of other agencies. The manual should discuss precedents and must be written in clear, easy to understand language and composition. (4) Sample contract terms Sample contract terms of JICA�s obligation to safety should be prepared for contracts with consultants, NGOs, local or other external resources. 4-3 Implementation structure Establishment of a relevant structure for the implementation of peacebuilding activities was mentioned in Chapter 2. For materializing the proposed structure, we must further discuss several issues, including international agreements, global response to peacebuilding needs, relevant budgets and schemes and information sharing. 4-3-1 International Agreements At present, JICA has to make an international agreement for each technical cooperation project. However, JICA usually finds it difficult to conclude ordinary government-to-government agreements2 as a UN-led interim administration often tentatively rules post-conflict countries. We, therefore, have to devise ways of 2 When providing assistance to East Timor, JICA made an international commitment with UNTAET, regarding UNTAET as an international agency. However, much time was spent then in reaching agreement concerning aid providers� privileges and exemptions. Accordingly, first, JICA sent planning researchers to East Timor, since JICA was able to dispatch them without making an international commitment. When providing assistance to Afghanistan, JICA made an international commitment with the interim administration before launching cooperation activities.

65

facilitating international agreements with a variety of interim administrations. JICA and the MoFA are currently discussing this issue. For peacebuilding operations which need timely responses, JICA needs to introduce a framework totally independent from international agreements or to simplify the procedures. 4-3-2 Global response to peacebuilding needs JICA has so far implemented peacebuilding assistance mainly in Asia which constitutes a main political incentive for Japan, such as Cambodia, East Timor and Afghanistan. JICA should, however, immediately examine how to best respond to peacebuilding needs in Africa, Latin America and the Middle East, if ever possible. 4-3-3 Budgets and schemes Ordinary peacebuilding assistance requires no particular budget or scheme. However, fast-track budgets could more speedily respond to emergency situations and enhance the effectiveness of utilizing external resources. For this reason, introduction of �fast-track budgets� should be examined. 4-3-4 Information sharing At present, our Knowledge Site offers insufficient information on peacebuilding assistance. Therefore, we should compile precedents and data on safety management, human resources development and needs, and improve knowledge management systems for sharing information among JICA networks as a whole. Further, utilizing mailing lists and J-Net systems, JICA should simplify access to staff training and seminars in Tokyo and relevant conference reports from domestic and overseas offices.