)joebxj1vcmjtijoh$psqpsbujpo &wjefodf …downloads.hindawi.com/journals/ecam/2016/5828021.pdfan...

Research ArticleArtisanal Extraction and Traditional KnowledgeAssociated with Medicinal Use of Crabwood Oil (Carapaguianensis Aublet) in a Peri-Urban Vaacuterzea Environment inthe Amazon Estuary

Mariane Nardi1 Ana Claacuteudia Lira-Guedes2 Helenilza Ferreira Albuquerque Cunha1

Marcelino Carneiro Guedes12 Karen Mustin2 and Suellen Cristina Pantoja Gomes3

1Programa de Pos Graduacao em Biodiversidade Tropical Universidade Federal do Amapa Rodovia Juscelino KubitschekKm 2 Jardim Marco Zero 68903-419 Macapa AP Brazil2Embrapa Amapa Rodovia Juscelino Kubitschek 2600 Universidade 68903-419 Macapa AP Brazil3Universidade do Estado do Amapa Avenida Procopio Rola 1346 Centro 68900-081 Macapa AP Brazil

Correspondence should be addressed to Mariane Nardi marnardihotmailcom

Received 18 March 2016 Revised 3 May 2016 Accepted 5 May 2016

Academic Editor Jesus R R Amado

Copyright copy 2016 Mariane Nardi et al This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution Licensewhich permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properly cited

Varzea forests of the Amazon estuary contain species of importance to riverine communities For example the oil extracted fromthe seeds of crabwood trees is traditionally used to combat various illnesses and as such artisanal extraction processes have beenmaintained The objectives of this study were to (1) describe the process involved in artisanal extraction of crabwood oil in theFazendinhaProtectedArea in the state ofAmapa (2) characterise the processes of knowledge transfer associatedwith the extractionand use of crabwood oil within a peri-urban riverine community and (3) discern medicinal uses of the oil The data were obtainedusing semistructured interviews with 13 community members involved in crabwood oil extraction and via direct observation Theprocess of oil extraction is divided into four stages seed collection cooking and resting of the seeds shelling of the seeds and doughpreparation and oil collection Oil extraction is carried out within the home for personal use with surplus marketed within thecommunity More than 90 of the members of the community involved in extraction of crabwood oil highlighted the use of theoil to combat inflammation of the throat Knowledge transfer occurs via oral transmission and through direct observation

1 Introduction

Lowland floodplain forests (hereafter referred to as varzea)of the Amazon estuary have their own particular dynamiccharacterised by twice daily tidal inundations seen up toObidos 870 km inland [1] These inundations carry sedi-ments into the forest enriching the soil [2] and as the tidefalls the water takes seeds and other biological material fromthe forest and disperses them throughout the estuary Manyof these fruits and seeds are then collected by local peopleand used for various purposes including medicinal usesBeyond such local exploitation many species of Amazonianbiodiversity have drawn international interest Increasingnumbers of companies and industries based all over the

world are turning their eyes to the Amazon in search of newresources particularly essential oils which have cosmetic andphysiotherapeutic potential

One varzea species important to local riverine com-munities is the crabwood tree Carapa guianensis AubletCrabwood is a mid- to large-sized tree reaching 25 to 35metres [3] The species occurs at higher densities in varzeabut is also found in upland forests (hereafter referred to asterra firme) of the Amazon [3] The fruits are spherical andcontain between 4 and 16 seeds which are released whenthe fruit falls and hits the ground [3 4] The wood is oftenused in the construction of houses and boats within riverinecommunities [5] and the seeds are used to extract oil whichhas been used variously as a medicine an ingredient in

Hindawi Publishing CorporationEvidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineVolume 2016 Article ID 5828021 12 pageshttpdxdoiorg10115520165828021

2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

soap-making and to illuminate houses [6 7] In some Ama-zonian communities it has been reported that the processof artisanal oil extraction involves all family members fromchildren to the elderly and both men and women but that thebulk of the process is carried out by women [6 8] Knowledgeof the extraction processes is reported to be passed orallyand through direct observation [6 8] though it has beennoted that the involvement of young peoplemay be decliningpotentially endangering the survival of the practice [8]Whilethe details of the extraction process inevitably vary betweencommunities the overall process has generally been observedto consist of seed collection and storage cooking and shellingof the seeds to prepare a dough and oil extraction fromthe shaped dough [6ndash8] Problems identified for the com-mercialisation of this artisanal crabwood oil have includedcommunity members lack of specific qualifications a lackof organisation among the community members involved inextraction anddifficulties getting the product into themarket[6] as well as the relatively time-consuming and labour-intensive methods involved in the extraction process [7]

Additionally UNESCO have highlighted the need toconsider culture within the process of product developmentrecognising traditional knowledge when it is being used [9]The scientific literature has also increasingly recognised andvalidated traditional knowledge principally through partici-pative research aiming to build effective conservation actions[10ndash14] Bringing to the forefront traditional groups and theknowledge they hold helps to both legitimise and protectsuch knowledge However the publication of traditionalknowledge should be done in a responsible way with consentof the community and giving credit where it is due Foundedin this the objectives of this study were to (1) describethe process involved in artisanal extraction of crabwoodoil carried out by community members in the FazendinhaProtected Area (hereafter referred to as Fazendinha PA)in the state of Amapa (2) characterise the processes ofknowledge transfer associated with the extraction and use ofcrabwood oil within a peri-urban riverine community and(3) discern medicinal uses of the oil

2 Methods

21 Study Area The study was carried out in the FazendinhaPA (Figure 1) located at 00∘031015840103910158401015840S and 051∘071015840417810158401015840Wapproximately 15 km from the urban centre of Macapa thestate capital with a reported population in 2010 of 398 204[16] and approximately 8 km from the centre of Santanathe 2nd largest conurbation in the state with a reportedpopulation in 2010 of 101 262 [16] The Fazendinha PA wascreated on 31st December 2004 [17] and has an area of13652 ha

22 Methodological Procedures As part of a related studysocioeconomic questionnaires were applied in 84 residencesrepresenting approximately 30 of the total number ofhouseholds in the study area [15] Through these question-naires and subsequently through snowball sampling basedon suggestions made by some of the respondents twenty-four community members were identified as being involved

in crabwood oil extraction though this is a subsample of thetotal number of people involved in such activities within thecommunity Of the 24 community members identified thir-teen were eventually interviewed andor observed during thecrabwood oil extraction process as the other 11 communitymembers could not be contacted or declined to participate inthe study

Data collection took place in 2012 using (1) semistruc-tured interviews [18] based on questionnaires adapted from[8] and (2) through direct observation of the crabwood oilextraction process including a photographic register All 13interviewees signed the Terms of Consent and all relevantpermissions to collect traditional knowledge were obtained(see Acknowledgements)

The data collected on the process of crabwood oil pro-duction knowledge transfer and traditional uses of theoil are largely qualitative and as such no formal analyseswere carried out However to support some statementsregarding the prevalence of certain practices and beliefs orthe demographics of participants percentages of respondentsand sample means were calculated

3 Results and Discussion

31 Socioeconomic Characteristics of Community MembersInvolved in Crabwood Oil Extraction The community mem-bers involved in crabwood oil extraction in the FazendinhaPA ranged in age from 25 to 73 years old with an average ageof 54 and nine of the 13 aged 50 or more They had lived inthe community between 10 and 40 years In line with previousstudies in the Amazon estuary [6 8] we found that crabwoodoil extraction is predominantly conducted by women (12 ofthe 13 interviewees (92) were female) The main incomesource for 34 of the 13 interviewees was a pension andwelfare benefitswere also an important contribution to familyincome for 15 of interviewees Beyond this all inhabitantspractice at least one subsistence activity with shrimp fishingand acai collection being the most common Communitymembers involved in crabwood oil extraction differ fromthe other inhabitants of the protected area in terms of theirlifestyle in relation to the environment and in general showmany more traditional characteristics The on-going habit ofcrabwood oil extraction is in itself indicative of preservationof an identity which is intimately linked to the environment

In the Fazendinha PA oil extraction is an activity inwhich family members work together but in contrast tosome other Amazonian communities such as in the TapajosNational Forest in the state of Para [19] there is no kindof community association for this type of work Indeed inthe state of Amapa one of the difficulties facing traditionalgroups such as those involved in extractive activities riverinecommunities artisanal fisherman and others is a lack oforganisation into units which they themselves are recognisedto be ldquotraditional groupsrdquo This is problematic as one of theprerequisites to be recognised as a traditional group by publicpolicy mechanisms in accordance with decree 60402007that instituted the National Policy for the Sustainable Devel-opment of Traditional Peoples and Communities [20] is self-recognition as such

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 3

Amazon riv

er

400 8004000(m)

Amazon river

Rodovia JK

Ig Fortaleza

Ig Paxicu

Fazenda

Fazendinha PAPaved road

Favacho

N

51∘899840030

99840099840051

∘899840000

99840099840051

∘799840030

998400998400

51∘899840000

99840099840051

∘799840030

998400998400

0∘299840030998400998400S

0∘399840000998400998400S

0∘399840030998400998400S

51∘899840030

998400998400W

0∘399840030998400998400S

0∘399840000998400998400S

0∘299840030998400998400S

Figure 1 Map of the study area (Fazendinha PA) with insets showing its location within the state of Amapa and the location of the statewithin Brazil [15]

32 The Process of Artisanal Crabwood Oil Extraction In thestudy community the full process of artisanal crabwood oilproduction can take between 30 and 90 days depending onthe method of each individual and can be divided into thefollowing four stages (1) collection of the seeds (2) cookingand resting of seeds (3) shelling and dough preparation andfinally (4) oil collection Resting of the seeds and oil collectionare the most time-consuming stages In the following foursections we describe each of these stages in turn and discussour findings in relation to other studies of artisanal crabwoodoil production in Amazonian communities

321 Seed Collection The interviewees identified the seedcollection period as between March and July and somereported that the seeds which fall in June are of higher qualityand produce more oilThis coincides with the main period ofseed production in the region betweenMarch and June withpeak production in May [21 22] Two interviewees reportedthat there are different types of crabwood present in theFazendinha PA One stated that the difference is in the colourof the seeds whereas the other stated that the differenceis in seed size However the records in the area are all ofCarapa guianensis Aublet [23] It was reported that seedsare collected from the ground during low tide either fromunder the trees or where seeds have accumulated after beingcarried by the falling tide (Figure 2(a)) and directly from the

water during high tide where seeds have accumulated withpieces of wood tree trunks leaves or other seeds which arecarried by the currentThis stage of the oil production processrequires a sound knowledge of the local environment Thesame two collection practices have also been observed on theisland of Juba in the state of Para [6]

While it has been reported that in plantation areas a singleperson can collect between 200 and 300 kg of crabwood seedsper day [7] in reality the activity is not intensive as the seedsare collected only for community members own use Whenencountered outside of organized collections seeds are alsocollected particularly when the rising and falling tide waterscarry them out of the forest and deposit them close to thehomes of community members In this case the other stagesof the extraction process only begin when sufficient seedshave been accumulated with the interviewees citing half acontainer full as being sufficient to proceed with oil extrac-tion In these cases only women and children are responsiblefor seed collection in common with communities on theisland of Juba [6] Other interviewees reported that seedcollection is an intensive activity which happens just once ayear and in these cases it is usually the men who participatein seed collection owing to the heavy physical nature of thework with age and health also cited as playing a role in whichfamily members participate This is similar to the reportedcollection activities in the Tapajos National Forest also in


(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)

Figure 2 Stages of artisanal crabwood oil extraction in the Fazendinha PA Macapa Amapa Brazil (a) seed collection from the groundunderneath a crabwood tree (b) washing seeds with clean water (c) cooking seeds in an aluminium pan on a wood-burning stove (d)shelling the seeds after 30-day resting (e) kneading the dough (f) oil collection from dough formed into balls (g) dough in the form of aldquoloafrdquo with one of the community members creating a hole in the dough using a splint from an acai palm (h) dough covered with a leaf froman aninga plant Photos taken by Mariane Nardi Santos in 2012


the state of Para where approximately 30 women collect andtransport between 1000 and 1500 kg of seeds in a single daywithmenhelping during transport [19]This type of en-massecollection usually occurs once a year sometimes only everyother year depending on seed availability and the quantityof oil already stored in the household Interestingly four ofthe 13 interviewees reported that they do not collect seeds inthe Fazendinha PA but rather bring the seeds in from otherplaces and two of them actually buy the seeds to produce thecrabwood oilThis result shows the importance of continuingthe practice of oil extraction for these community memberseven when the rawmaterial cannot be obtained directly fromtheir environment That being said the crabwood seeds arein fact an abundant resource in the study area [24] and thepractice of accessing seeds from other areas results from alack of knowledge in relation to their resource use rightsand a fear of being fined by the authorities which enforcethe rules of use of the protected area Better communicationbetween managing authorities and local people could helpto combat this type of misunderstanding and improve rela-tionships between the two groups ultimately leading to moresustainable conservation of the protected area

Raffia sacks (Figure 2(a)) and baskets are usually used forseed collection and the seeds are also stored for variableamounts of time in open containers to avoid the seeds ger-minating due to humidity When the seeds are germinatingthey can sometimes no longer be used with the decisionmade based on the size of the sprout (the smaller the sproutthe more likely the seed will still be used) Seed qualitycan also be compromised by larvae of Hypsipyla sp withHypsipyla ferrealis being the most abundant species in thestate of Amapa [25] Seeds considered to be rotten or verysoft or which have been gnawed by animals are discardedthroughout the process including the time during seedcollection Depending on the report around 40ndash50 of seedsmay need to be discarded mainly as a result of infestationby Hypsipyla larvae [19 25 26] In Tome-Acu in the stateof Para after collection the seeds are placed in water tanksand spoiled seeds are removed [7] In the state of Amazonasthe oil extractors conduct a preselection during the collectionprocess discarding seeds gnawed by animals infested withHypsipyla desiccated or with a very dark shell and germi-nated seeds are only considered suitable for processing for oilextraction if the sprout is 2 cm or less [8] To avoid losses ofyield and reductions in oil quality after collection ideally theseeds would be left in water for 24 hours to eliminate larvaeofHypsipyla sp and would then be cooked shortly afterwards[3 26 27] However such precautions were not seen to betaken by the community members of the Fazendinha PA

322 Cooking and Resting of Seeds Interviewees reportedthat before being cooked the seeds are washed in clean water(Figure 2(b)) usually river water of which inhabitants treatthemselves with hypochlorite as water supply to the areais poor The seeds are then cooked in available containers(butter cans paint tins or aluminium pans) on a wood-burning stove (Figure 2(c)) as wood is readily availablefrom the forest and therefore costs and time associated withcooking are minimised These findings are in common with

those reported from parts of the states of Amazonas [8] andPara [6]This is another stage of the process in whichmen areinvolved [6] as this is also a task that requires strengthmainlydue to the use of inadequate cooking vessels Reported seedcooking times varied between interviewees from 15 minutesto 7 hours and were most commonly reported to be between30 minutes and 2 hours These findings are consistent with astudy carried out in the state of Amazonas by Mendonca andFerraz [8] where the cooking timewas reported to be betweenone and three hours However in direct observationsmade inthe Fazendinha PA the cooking time was approximately 40minutes after reaching boiling point Both in the study areaand in Amazonas [8] it is common to remove a seed duringcooking and try to break the shell to check the texture of theseed and therefore the stage of cooking

Interviewees stressed the importance of resting of thecooked seeds which fits with findings that the cell wall ismodified during this resting period allowing the oil to beextracted more easily from the seed [8] The seeds are left inventilated containers most commonly baskets or raffia sacksin a place with protection from rain and direct sunlight forexample in a dark place within the house The containers inwhich the seeds are stored are covered with leaves of aningaor acai according to 538 of the informants Resting usuallylasts for a period of 30 days often marked in a calendarthough it can be as little as 15 days according to intervieweesThese reported resting times are similar to those in otherregions between 10 to 15 [7] and 15 to 40 days [28] Someinterviewees test the seeds by opening one and pressing theflesh if it yields oil the seeds are ready to pass to the next stageof the extraction process

Seeds can begin to ferment during the resting stageand the appearance of fungus on the shells as a result ofhumid storage conditions has been reported [8] Nine ofthe interviewees reported the presence of fungus during thisstage of the process though they reported that these seedsare only discarded when they are in an advanced state ofdegradation These signs of fermentation can give their owndifferent characteristics to oil extracted artisanally and someinterviewees believe that artisanally extracted oil has moremedicinal properties than industrially produced (pressed)oil Indeed researchers have found active substances in oilwhich was subjected to this fermentation stage that do notappear in oil extracted by other methods [29]

323 Shelling of Seeds and Dough Preparation Followinginformation provided by the interviewees after being restedthe seeds are broken (Figure 2(d)) usually with a piece ofwood though small hammers and knives are also used Theflesh is then removed using a small aluminium or home-made wooden spoon Much care is taken to avoid wasteduring removal of the shell As with seed collection this stageof the process involves a larger number of family memberscollaborating to carry out a relatively laborious part of theprocess of oil extraction Interviewees reported that duringthis stage more seeds are excluded as a result of being hardor rotten or infested with fungus However during directobservations of the process few seeds were removed duringthis stage and even larvae of Hypsipyla sp remained in the


dough Indeed while one interviewee reported that a lack ofselectivity of the seeds can compromise oil production fiveadmitted that they do not perform any such selection at thisstage of the extraction process

After shelling the flesh is softened by hand and kneadedinto a homogenous dough (Figure 2(e)) This differs fromthe practices of extractors on the island of Juba in the stateof Para who press the seeds using their feet [6] There issome evidence that these practices can change over timewith one community in the state of Amazonas pressing theseeds using their feet in 1996 while in 2004 in the samecommunity the dough was seen to be kneaded by hand[8] This kneading stage and subsequent oil collection (seeSection 324) are strictly restricted to one or two people ofa certain skill level and substitutions are only allowed whenthere is some restriction on participation due to social rulesassociated with crabwood oil extraction While these rulesmay be generalised within the community or restricted toa few or even just one family there were two general ruleswhich were agreed upon by all interviewees (1) menstruatingwomen should not touch or even look at the dough as this canstop the flow of oil (2) people with ldquoolho ruimrdquo (bad look)or ldquobadrdquo people should not see these stages of the processThese rules are widespread in the Amazon and form part ofthe social rules established over time to control and explainpossible problems that can occur in the oil extraction processHowever the exact form of these rules varies between com-munities and regions On the island of Juba it is believed thatmenstruating and postpartum women should not handle thedough nor should a person inmourning [6]One intervieweein the Fazendinha PA similarly stated that following the deathof a relative one should not touch the dough In Amazonasit is believed that pregnant and menstruating women shouldbe prevented from looking at or touching the dough [8] andfive interviewees in the Fazendinha PA also stated a belief thatpregnant women should not participate in this part of theprocess In bothAmazonas and on Juba communitymembersstate the need to screen the dough from the sight of ldquojealouspeoplerdquo [6 8] There is a risk that policies for crabwood oilextraction will not be accepted by local communities if thesesocial rules are not incorporated

324 Oil Collection The interviewees reported two differentmethods of shaping the dough into a ball or into a ldquoloafrdquoWhen the dough is formed into a ball (Figure 2(f)) it is placedin the higher part of an inclined container and the oil runsdown into the lower part The oil is then collected every dayusing a spoon and is stored in a sealed bottle to prevent anyresidues entering the oil When the dough is formed intoa loaf (Figure 2(g)) it is placed in a ldquobiqueirardquo which is animprovised tool with two straight sides forming a 90∘ anglepositioned in an inclinedmanner so that the oil can run downthe groove and fall into a container positioned below Tomakethe process more efficient a splint (usually made from a palmleaf) is used to make a hole in the dough in line with thejunction of the two parts of the ldquobiqueirardquo to facilitate therelease of the oil Some extractors also cover the dough withaninga leaves (Figure 2(h)) andor use a cotton wick to directthe flow of oil from the loaf of dough Previously wooden

ldquobiqueirasrdquo were frequently used in more isolated commu-nities though today ldquobiqueirasrdquo made from accessible andless porous materials are more common thereby increasingoil yield In both cases interviewees reported that the doughis kneaded for 10 to 30 minutes two to three times per dayand then reformed This daily working is conducted untilthe dough which starts out pinkish in colour and very oilybecomes dark-coloured dry and crumbly This can last forup to a month depending on the frequency of kneading andthe ambient temperature where the dough is stored Menezes[7] highlights that if the dough is not kneaded it becomeshard making oil extraction difficult Interviewees reportedthat the leftover dry dough and also the discarded shells(see Section 323) are usually discarded in plastic bags andcollected by the urban rubbish collection This is in contrastto more remote communities which do not have access tosuch rubbish collections and therefore dispose of all organicwaste in the environment [6] However three intervieweesin the Fazendinha PA explained that they burn the shells torepel mosquitoes two interviewees reported burning the drydough for the same reason and one uses the dry dough tomake soap Other studies have also reported reusing wastematerials from the crabwood oil extraction process burningshells to repel mosquitoes and using the dough to producesoap or as an insect repellent [6 8]

The processes of forming of the dough observed andreported in the Fazendinha PA have various aspects incommon with those reported from other Amazonian com-munities For example in the state of Amazonas the doughis formed into a ball though some extractors also then makea groove in the dough to drain the oil [8] whereas on theisland of Juba the dough is commonly put into large woodenldquobiqueirasrdquo andmiriti stalks are placed under the dough suchthat the dough does not come into contact with the woodof the ldquobiqueirardquo and rather than forming shapes the doughremains like a cake [6] The use of ldquotipitirdquo a type of pressmade of fibres typical of the Amazon to collect the oil fromthe dough has also been reported in Amazonas and on Juba[6 8] There is a third possible extraction method in whichthe dough is boiled in water with the less dense oil floatingto the top and being removed with a gourd [6] However thismethod is only used when it is not possible to use either ofthe other two methods

All interviewees reported that they extract crabwood oilin the shade Although the heat from the sun promotesfaster release of oil from the dough [7 8] some of theinterviewees reported that the oil obtained in this way tendsto solidify leading to a lower quality oil an opinion whichhas also been reported elsewhere [6 8] In the FazendinhaPA the high human population density may also contributeto the lack of production of crabwood oil in the sunowing to the aforementioned social rules around exposingthe dough to certain community members (Section 323)Another common practice is to use cotton wicks in thegroove of the dough or a fine netting to reduce input ofwaste materials into the oil through filtration [8 19] andfour of the interviewees reported this practice The extractedoil is stored in closed containers of various types and sizesFour interviewees used only plastic water or soda bottles six


used only glass bottles and three used both materials for oilstorage To maintain the quality of the oil it is recommendedthat small quantities of crabwood oil be stored in closeddark (amber) glass recipients and large quantities in darkplastic jerry cans which are new and have not previouslybeen used to store other materials [30] Nine intervieweesreported that there are different types of crabwoodoil eight ofwhom recognise the types based on colour (green or yellow)with one interviewee relating this colour difference to theextraction method stating that oil extracted in the sun isyellow and in the shade is green The ninth interviewee saidthat the difference between the oil types is in the scent Thesedifferences in fact usually occur as a result of some change inthe extraction process often when inadequate vessels releasepigment into the oil which is why the best practice is to useinert materials such as nonrecycled preferably transparentplastics or nonrusting metals [30 31]

There is much variation in yield of crabwood oil fromartisanal and commercial production processes (Table 4)and in the Fazendinha PA interviewees reported a yield ofbetween 1 and 4 litres of oil per 18 litre container of seeds(sim11 kg of seeds as weighed during direct observations)However measuring yield was generally not consideredimportant by the interviewees as the oil is for their ownrather than commercial use It is therefore possible that thestated estimates of 1ndash4 litres are not particularly accurateIndeed a study using seeds obtained in varzea forest in thestate of Amapa close to the site of the present study and a(more efficient) chemical extraction process (using hexane asa solvent) found that on average 03484 g of oil was obtainedper gramme of dry material [32] Considering this averagevalue for the oil content the average weight of fresh seedsof 188 g the weight of dry dough of 121 g and the fact thatthe shell represents on average 235 of the dehydrated seed[33] it can be calculated that for a whole fresh seed thepercentage of oil is around 188 This means that for 11 kgof seeds in a very efficient process an average of 2 litres of oilwould be obtained It seems likely therefore that the higheryields declared by interviewees in the present study and in astudy in the state of Amazonas [8] can at first be disregardeduntil further investigations can be made Indeed there ismuch variation in the artisanal oil extraction process betweenindividuals communities and regions and therefore manyfactors whichmay influence yield For example some authorsreport that when seeds are stored for less time they yieldmoreoil [8 28] Studies on oil content of cooked and fermentedcrabwood seeds and on the differences in composition ofoils extracted by press by solvents and by artisanal methodsare necessary Beyond this experimental studies on the arti-sanal process to measure yield oil properties acidity levelsand drying techniques could also contribute to improvedunderstanding and the design of sustainable exploitation ofcrabwood for oil production

33 Process of Knowledge Transfer The process of artisanalcrabwood oil extraction is a knowledge held solely bymembers of communities within the Amazonian varzeaand terra firme forests in which crabwood trees are foundOwing to differences in culture environment and history

Table 1 Absolute and relative frequency of uses of crabwoodoil among community members in the Fazendinha PA MacapaAmapa Brazil

Crabwood oil use Absolute frequency Relative frequencySore throat treatment 12 92To treat bruises 7 54Massage to relieve bodypain 6 46

To treat wounds 3 23Insect repellent 2 15Hair conditioner 2 15Cough treatment 2 15Abdominal massage inpregnant women 1 8

Flu treatment 1 8Soap-making 1 8Asthma treatment 1 8To treat swelling 1 8ldquoNaval treatmentrdquo 1 8To make a syrup 1 8To treat rheumatism 1 8

the specifics of the extraction process vary between indi-vidual communities and regions as discussed in Section 32Also worth noting is that the process is dynamic andinterviewees reported that many innovations are tested Ifsuch innovations work they become incorporated in theprocess However despite all of this variation the processesof knowledge transfer are seemingly always informal and relyheavily on observation though that is not to say that helpis not offered and there is always a knowledgeable personon hand to demonstrate the process The informality of theknowledge transfer is fuelled by the fact that the extractionprocess is carried out in a family setting involving at variousstages all members of the family and therefore representinga moment of exchange between family members Indeedchildren usually familiarise themselves with the extractionprocess very early and through their participation gain skillswhich allow them to contribute effectively to family activities[6]The seed shelling stage is probably whenmost interactionand knowledge transfer between family members occurs asthey are gathered together around the cooked seeds

In the Fazendinha PA eight interviewees stated thatthey learned the crabwood oil extraction process mainlywith their mother andor grandmother another learnedwith their mother and mother-in-law another with theirfather and three interviewees reported that they learned bythemselves For example one interviewee considered thatthey had learned independently that no one had taught themas such but rather that they had learned by observing otherswithout active teaching or an obligation to learnThey furtherelaborated that their siblings had no interest in learning theprocess they would help to collect seeds when asked toby their mother but did not show an interest beyond thisand therefore did not dominate the techniques The results


Table 2 Studies reporting actions of crabwood oil and its components in various biological processes

Studies Origin of the oil ResultsPenido et al(2005) [34] Brasmazon Para Brazil Anti-inflammatory action in the fraction of oil rich

in tetranortriterpenoidsAmbrozin etal (2006) [35] Commercial oil bought in the city of Belem Moderate insecticidal action on Atta sexdens

rubropilosa

Ferraris et al(2012) [36]

Gedunin (limonoid present in crabwood oil) with95 purity from the ldquoLaboratorio de produtonatural Farmanguinhosrdquo

Antiallergic action of the substance gedunin presentin crabwood oil

de SouzaChagas et al(2012) [37]

WNF Industry and Comerce LtdNot effective in combating the tick Rhipicephalus(Boophilus)microplus at the dilutions used in thestudy

Farias et al(2012) [38]

Beraca Sabara Quımicos e Ingredientes SaoPauloBrazil Lot 05083140ST

Potential in control of ticks R (B)microplus Anitens and R sanguineus by interfering withreproduction

Vendramini etal (2012) [39]

Farmacia de Manipulacao Drogaria e HomeopatiaArt-Farmacos Rio Claro Sao Paulo Brazil Potential acaricide for Rhipicephalus sanguineus

Prophiro et al(2012) [40] Seed extract Showed insecticide action for Aedes aegypti

de Barros et al(2012) [41] Beraca Sabara Sao Paulo Brazil Potential in control of cat louse (Felicola subrostratus)

MirandaJunior et al(2012) [42]

Artisanal oil obtained in the lab using doughs fromthe community of Alto Tocantins

Antiplasmodial activity of both the oil and thefraction rich in limonoids

presented here represent a different case in comparisonwith more isolated communities in that a young personwho was born in this peri-urban protected area would haveopportunities to learn many different skills whereas in moreisolated communities the impulse to learn such processesmaymore commonly come from the individual themselves asopposed to familial pressure as a result of closer contact withthe environment restricted access to more diverse learningopportunities and necessity for example resulting from alack of access to other medicines Among the intervieweesin the Fazendinha PA only one stated that no one else intheir family knew how to extract crabwood oil Only fourinterviewees however stated that they had been able to passthis knowledge on to the next generation through theirchildrenThe others listed their mothers and siblings as otherfamily members who also dominate the techniques involvedin the process Beyond this two of the interviewees are young(aged between 25 and 30) and have small children who stillhave the potential to learn the techniques

34 Uses of Crabwood Oil Following the information pro-vided by the 13 interviewees in the Fazendinha PA crabwoodoil ismainly used as amedication principally to treat illnessesof the respiratory system and inflammation though it is alsoused as an insect repellent and for aesthetic purposes as ahair conditioner (Table 1) Other studies have also shown thatmedicinal uses are the main uses of crabwood oil followedby cosmetic uses [6 8 48] Owing to its traditional use asanti-inflammatory to aid in wound healing and as an insectrepellent the oil has drawn scientific interest in studying itsmedicinal properties Furthermore some researchers havehypothesised that the artisanal oil contains some different

active substances as a result of the fermentation process [728 29] or that the artisanal process leads to greater availabilityof oil as a result of changes in the structure of the cell wallsfollowing the resting period [8] It is probably the importanceof this oil for medicinal use which has perpetuated theartisanal extraction of crabwood oil in this peri-urban setting

In the majority of published studies on the actions ofcomponents of crabwood oil the oil used is industrialisedusually extracted in a press and refined (Table 2) Just onestudy reported on the use of artisanal oil and in another itwas not possible to identify the extraction method There isalso scientific interest in the chemical components of the oilespecially in the limonoid-rich fraction substances presentin the Meliaceae which have a bitter taste which are highlybiologically active and to which the main medicinal proper-ties of crabwood oil are attributed [49] (Tables 2 and 3)Thereare many substances in the limonoid fraction of crabwood oilwith possible biological actions Some have been tested andthere are probably others which have yet to be tested or evenidentifiedThere aremanypossible uses and evermore studiesdeveloping techniques to make the use of the oil more effi-cient For example Senhorini et al [50] produced polymericmicro particles containing crabwood oil and Ferreira et al[51] used nonionic surfactants to emulsify the oil

4 Conclusion

In the Fazendinha PA the process of artisanal crabwood oilextraction consists basically of four stages seed collectionseed cooking and resting shelling and dough preparationand finally collection of the oil Each stage follows a generalpattern and is influenced by social rules surrounding which


Table3Stud

iesp

resentinglim

onoids

thatarec

ompo

nentso

fcrabw

oodoilldquoX

rdquoind

icates

thep

resenceo

fthatchemicalcompo

nent

intheresultsof

thes

tudy

andldquomdash

rdquoind

icates

thea

bsence

Publications

Orig

inof

the

oil

Methyl

angolensate

7-Deacetoxy-

7-oxogedun

in7-

Deacetylgedun

in6a-

Acetoxygedun

inGedun

inAnd

irobin

12-D

ihydro-3b-

hydroxy-7-

deacetoxy-7-

oxogedun

in

6-Hydroxy-m

ethyl

angolensate

17-

Hydroxyazadira

dion

eXy

loccensin

k6120572

-Acetoxy-7-

deacetilgedun

in(pericarp)

Methyl

angolensate

(pericarp)

Ambrozin

etal

(200

6)[35]

Com

mercial

oilbou

ghtin

Belem

city

stateof

Para

Brazil

XX

mdashX

Xmdash

Xmdash

XX

mdashmdash

daSilvae

tal

(200

9)[43]

Extractedby

solvent

XX

XX

XX

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

Mira

ndaJun

ior

etal(2012)[42]

Artisa

naloil

obtained

inthelab

from

doug

hsprod

uced

inAlto

Tocantins

mdashX

XX

XX

Xmdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

Silvae

tal(2012)

[44]

Extractedby

solventand

isolated

from

thep

ericarp

mdashX

XX

mdashmdash

mdashX

mdashmdash

XX


Table 4 Crabwood oil yield calculated according to our results and data found in the literature The yield was transformed into kg using anoil density of 0925 [33]

Studies Locationforest typeMode of oil

extractionmethod ofobtaining information

Seeds (kg) Oil (kg) Yield(kg of oilkg of seeds)

Present study Fazendinha PAvarzea Artisanalinterview 11ndash28 0925 85ndash34Homma (2003) [45]Menezes (2005) [7]

Tome-Acu-PAterrafirme (plantation)

Artisanalobservation(large-scale production) 20ndash30 0925 5ndash3

Mendonca and Ferraz(2007) [8]

Amazonasvarzea andterra firme Artisanalinterviews 11ndash2 0925 85ndash465

Silva et al (2010) [19] Flona do Tapajos PA Artisanalinterviews 10 0925 9

Shanley and Medina(2005) [28]

Santarem PA Artisanal 40 0925 2Santarem PA Artisanal 40 2775 7Cameta PA Artisanal 40 555 14

Plowden (2004) [46] Rio Gurupiterrafirme and varzea Artisanalinterview 1443 0925 65

Oliveira (2011) [47] Tucuruı PAterrafirme Artisanalinterview 3270 4398 135

Gomes (2010) [33] South ofAmapavarzea Press (9 tonne)experiment 1000 2032 20

Gomes (2010) [33] Terra firme Press (9 tonne)experiment 1000 1586 16Guedes et al (2008)[26] Mazagao AP varzea Press (9 tonne)experiment mdash mdash 23

community members can be involved in each stage of theprocess however there are variations in the process betweenindividual extractors and communities Crabwood oil pro-duction is a family process and commercialisation isminimaloccurring only between neighbours

Theprocess of artisanal oil extraction in this area has beenmaintained mainly as a result of the medicinal propertiesof the oil Indeed artisanal crabwood oil extraction is soimportant for riverine communities in the Amazon that itpersists even in peri-urban areas However the difficultyof accessing crabwood seeds as a result of a lack of clearunderstanding of the rules around use of natural resources inthe protected area puts the continuation of this activity at riskAppreciation of traditional knowledge as well as scientifictechnological and market research in the area and relevantpublic policy and or state and federal government programscan help to promote the extraction of crabwood oil and otheroilseeds from varzea forest and support the continuationof artisanal processes The information gaps to improve theprocess should be filled with new studies and an appreciationof sustainable and artisanal products encouraged throughdiverse mechanisms such as seals to help foster commercialproduction of the oil

Competing Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the extractors and the community forsharing their knowledge in this research The study was

authorised by the Secretary of State for the Environment(SEMA-AP) the party responsible for the protected area inwhich the research took place was approved by the ethicscommittee of the Federal University of Amapa (UNIFAP)and received authorisation from theNational Institute of His-toric and Artistic Heritage (IPHAN) in exercise of its powersconferred by resolutionCGENMMA(Board ofManagementof Genetic HeritageMinistry of the Environment) no 279 of20 September 2011 with the process no 014500078702012and authorization no 102012 for the ldquoaccess of traditionalknowledge associated with genetic resourcesrdquo for purposes ofscientific research The project was presented to the Board ofManagement of the protected area and after approval to thestudy population who signed informed consent documentsKaren Mustin was supported by a research scholarship fromthe ldquoCoordenacao de Aperfeicoamento de Pessoal de NıvelSuperiorrdquo (CAPES) Brazil Mariane Nardi was supportedby a research scholarship from the ldquoConselho Nacionalde Desenvolvimento Cientıfico e Tecnologicordquo (CNPq)Brazil

References

[1] N Hida J G Maia O Shimmi M Hiraoka and N MizutanildquoAnnual and daily changes of river water level at Breves andCaxiuana Amazon estuaryrdquo Geographical Review of JapanSeries B vol 71 no 2 pp 100ndash105 1998

[2] H Sioli The Amazon Fundemantals of the Ecology of theLargest Tropical Forest Region Vozes Petropolis Brazil 1985(Portuguese)

[3] I D K Ferraz J L C Camargo and P D T B Sampaio ldquoSeedsand seedlings of the Crabwood tree (Carapa guianensis Auble Carapa procera D C) botanical ecological and technical


aspectsrdquo Acta Amazonica vol 32 no 4 pp 647ndash661 2002(Portuguese)

[4] J C D Abreu ldquoDiametric and spatial distribution and naturalregeneration of crabwood treesrdquo in (Carapa spp) in VarzeaForest of the Fazendinha Protected Area Macapa-AP p 56Universidade Estadual do Amapa Macapa Brazil 2010

[5] E S D Nascimento A survey of ethno-botanic knowledgeamong riverine communities in the estuary of Amapa [thesis]Universidade Estadual do Amapa Macapa Brazil 2011

[6] A M F D Silva Common knowledge and crabwood oil thepresence of female extractors in the historical context of the socio-cultural practices on the island of Juba CametamdashPA [PhDthesis] Universidade Federal do Para Belem Brazil 2009(Portuguese)

[7] A J E Menezes ldquoThe history of the estraction process andcrabwood oil extraction from crabwood cultivated in themunicipality of Tome-Acu state of Parardquo in Proceedings of theSobermdashThe Brazilian Society of Rural Economy and SociologyInstitutions Efficiency Management and Contracts in the Agro-industrial System vol 43 p 43 Ribeirao Preto Brazil 2005

[8] A P Mendonca and I D K Ferraz ldquoCrapwood oil traditionalextraction use and social aspects in the state of AmazonasBrasilrdquo Acta Amazonica vol 37 no 3 pp 353ndash364 2007(Portuguese)

[9] UNESCO ldquoGreen economies and green societies UNESCOsustainable development pledgerdquo 2012 (Portuguese) httpunesdocunescoorgimages0021002133213311porpdf

[10] N Hanazaki ldquoCommunities conservation and managementthe role of local ecological knowledgerdquo Biotemas vol 16 no 1p 25 2003 (Portuguese)

[11] A C P Leite Neo-Extrativism and Develeopment in the State ofAcre Case-Study of Community Management of Copaıba Oil inthe Chico Mendes Extractive Reserve Universidade Federal deSanta Catarina Florianopolis Brazil 2004 (Portuguese)

[12] B E Pereira and A C Diegues Knowledge of traditionalpopulations as a possibility for nature conservation a reflectionon the perspective of ethno-conservation 2010 (Portuguese)

[13] P Shanley andN A Rosa ldquoEroding knowledge an ethnobotan-ical inventory in eastern Amazoniarsquos logging frontierrdquo EconomicBotany vol 58 no 2 pp 135ndash160 2004

[14] A L Silva J Tamashiro and A Begossi ldquoEthnobotany ofriverine populations from the Rio Negro Amazonia (Brazil)rdquoJournal of Ethnobiology vol 27 no 1 pp 46ndash72 2007

[15] M Nardi Santos H F Albuquerque Cunha A C Lira-GuedesS C P Gomes and M C Guedes ldquoTraditional knowledge in aconservation unit in a peri-urban varzea environment ethno-biology of crabwood (Carapa guianensis Aublet)rdquo Boletim deMuseu Paraense Emilio Goeldi Ciencias Humanas vol 9 no 1pp 93ndash108 2014 (Portuguese)

[16] IBGE Brazilian Foundation for Geography and Statistics 2010population census (Portuguese) httpwwwibgegovbr

[17] State of Amapa Legislative Assembly ldquoLaw n∘ 0873 of 31stof Dezembro 2004 Order concerning the creation of theFazendinha ProtectedArea in themunicipality ofMacapa stateof Amapardquo 2004 (Portuguese) httpwwwalapgovbrvertexto leiphpiddocumento=19917

[18] R J Richardson J A de Souza Peres J C V Wanderley LM Correia and M H de Melo Peres Social Research Meth-ods and Techniques Atlas Sao Paulo Brazil 3rd edition 2011(Portuguese)

[19] E N da Silva A C de Santana I M da Silva and C MOliveira ldquoSocio-economic aspects of the artisinal productionof crabwood and copaıba oils in the Tapajos National Forestin the state of Parardquo Revista de Ciencias Agrarias vol 1 no 53pp 12ndash23 2010 (Portuguese)

[20] Brazil ldquoDecree n∘ 6040 of 7th of February 2007 Institutedthe National Policy of Sustainable Development of TraditionalPeoples and Communitiesrdquo 2007 (Portuguese)

[21] A R Dantas Phenology of crabwood (Carapa spp) in varzea for-est of the amazon estuary [PhD thesis] Universidade Estadualdo Amapa Macapa Brazil 2012 (Portuguese)

[22] A D S Lima Production biometry and germination of crab-wood trees (Carapa spp) of the Fazendinha protected area [MSthesis] Universidade Estadual do Amapa Macapa Brazil 2010(Portuguese)

[23] A L Hiura and R Sarquis ldquoMorphological characteristicsof tree species in varzea forest of the Fazendinha ProtectedArea MacapaAPrdquo in V Seminar of Scientific Initiation 2008Macapa1 vol 1 pp 35ndash39 Revista Pesquisa amp IniciacaoCientıficamdashAmapa Macapa Brazil IEPAPIBIC 2008

[24] J C de Abreu M C Guedes A C Lira Guedes and E DM Batista ldquoStructure and spatial distribution of lsquoandirobeirasrsquo(Carapa spp) in floodplain forest of the amazon estuaryrdquoCiencia Florestal vol 24 no 4 pp 1007ndash1016 2014

[25] C R de Jesus-Barros A C Lira-Guedes M C Guedes G GRibeiro and E de Jesus Barbosa ldquoRecord of the occurrenceof Hypsipyla spp (LEPIDOPTERA PYRALIDAE) in fruitscollected from the canopy of crabwood trees in MacapardquoCiencia Florestal vol 25 no 3 pp 765ndash769 2015 (Portuguese)

[26] M C Guedes E B Souto C Correa and H S Ribeiro GomesldquoCrabwood seed and oil production (Carapa guianensis Aubl)in areas of varzea in Amapardquo in Proceedings of the Seminarof Project Kamukaia Sustainable Management of Non-TimberForest Products in the Amazon pp 111ndash119 Embrapa Acre RioBranco Brazil 2008 (Portuguese)

[27] I D K Ferraz and P D T B Sampaio ldquoSimple storage methodsfor crabwood seeds (Carapa guianensis Aubl e Carapa proceraD CmdashMeliaceae)rdquo Acta Amazonica vol 26 no 3 pp 134ndash1441996 (Portuguese)

[28] P Shanley and G Medina Fruit Trees and Useful Plants in theAmazon CIFOR Imazon Belem Brazil 2005 (Portuguese)

[29] P Shanley Richness of the Forest Fruits Medicinal Plants andArtisans in Latin America Edited by C E A Lopez CIFORBogor Barat Indonesia 1st edition 2008

[30] M S Melo E C Almeida and J B Dantas Best ManagementPractices and Crabwood Oil Extraction IBAMA SantaremBrazil 2011 2011 (Portuguese)

[31] A C Lira-Guedes and M Nardi Santos Practical Guide tothe Sustainable Management of Crabwood Trees in Varzea forthe Extraction of Oil from their Seeds Embrapa Amapa 2015(Portuguese)

[32] T de Figueiredo Pantoja R C de Paula M L C da Silva FCesarino and V G Lucien ldquoBiometric characterisation andoil content of Carapa guianensis Aubletrdquo Revista Brasileira deBiociencia vol 5 no 2 pp 321ndash323 2007 (Portuguese)

[33] H S R Gomes Population structure and production of crab-wood in terra firme and varzea in the south of Amapa [PhDthesis] Universidade Federal do Amapa Macapa Brazil 2010(Portuguese)

[34] C Penido F P Conte M S S Chagas C A B RodriguesJ F G Pereira and M G M O Henriques ldquoAnti-allergic


effects of natural tetranortriterpenoids isolated from Carapaguianensis Aublet on allergen-induced vascular permeabilityandhyperalgesiardquo InflammationResearch vol 54 no 7 pp 295ndash303 2005

[35] A R P Ambrozin A C Leite F C Bueno et al ldquoLimonoidsfrom andiroba oil and Cedrela fissilis and their insecticidalactivityrdquo Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society vol 17 no3 pp 542ndash547 2006

[36] F K Ferraris K H Moret A B C Figueiredo C Penidoand M O das Gracas Henriques ldquoGedunin a natural tetranor-triterpenoid modulates T lymphocyte responses and amelio-rates allergic inflammationrdquo International Immunopharmacol-ogy vol 14 no 1 pp 82ndash93 2012

[37] A C de Souza Chagas L D de Barros F Cotinguiba et alldquoIn vitro efficacy of plant extracts and synthesized substanceson Rhipicephalus (Boophilus)Microplus (Acari Ixodidae)rdquo Par-asitology Research vol 110 no 1 pp 295ndash303 2012

[38] M P O Farias A G Wanderley L C Alves and M A GFaustino ldquoCalculo da CI

50

(concentracao inibitoria media) eCL50

(concentracao letal media) do oleo da semente de andi-roba (Carapa guianensis Aubl) sobreRhipicephalus (Boophilus)microplus (Canestrini 1887)Anocentor nitens (Neumann 1897)e Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Latreille 1806) (Acari Ixodidae)rdquoArquivos do Instituto Biologico vol 79 no 2 pp 255ndash261 2012(Portuguese)

[39] M C R Vendramini M I Camargo-Mathias A U de Faria GH Bechara P R de Oliveira andG C Roma ldquoCytotoxic effectsof andiroba oil (Carapa guianensis) in reproductive systemof Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Latreille 1806) (Acari Ixodidae)semi-engorged femalesrdquoParasitology Research vol 111 no 5 pp1885ndash1894 2012

[40] J S Prophiro M A N da Silva L A Kanis B M daSilva J E Duque-Luna and O S da Silva ldquoEvaluation oftime toxicity residual effect and growth-inhibiting property ofCarapa guianensis and Copaifera sp inAedes aegyptirdquo Parasito-logy Research vol 110 no 2 pp 713ndash719 2012

[41] F N de Barros M P O Farias J P C Tavares L C Alvesand M A D G Faustino ldquoIn vitro efficacy of oil from theseed of Carapa guianensis (andiroba) in the control of Felicolasubrostratusrdquo Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia vol 22 no 5pp 1130ndash1133 2012

[42] R N C Miranda Junior M F Dolabela M N da Silva M MPovoa and J G S Maia ldquoAntiplasmodial activity of the andir-oba (Carapa guianensis Aubl Meliaceae) oil and its limonoid-rich fractionrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 142 no 3 pp679ndash683 2012

[43] V P da Silva R R Oliveira and M R Figueiredo ldquoIsolation oflimonoids from seeds of Carapa guianensis Aublet (Meliaceae)by high-speed countercurrent chromatographyrdquo PhytochemicalAnalysis vol 20 no 1 pp 77ndash81 2009

[44] S G Silva R de Cassia Saraiva Nunomura and S M Nuno-mura ldquoLimnoids isolated from fruits of Carapa guianensisAublet (Meliaiceae)rdquo Quimica Nova vol 35 no 10 pp 1936ndash1939 2012 (Portuguese)

[45] A K O Homma ldquoThe history of the extractive systema andof extraction of crabwood oil in the municiplaity of Tome-Acu state of Parardquo Tech Rep 185 Embrapa Amazonia OrientalBelem Brazil 2003 (Portuguese)

[46] C Plowden ldquoThe ecology and harvest of Andiroba seeds for oilproduction in the Brazilian Amazonrdquo Conservation amp Societyvol 2 no 2 pp 251ndash272 2004

[47] MGOliveira Impacts of collection of seeds of Carapa guianensisAubl (Meliaceae) (Andiroba) for natural regeneration of thespecies and for socio-economics Experience from the agroextrac-tivist sttlement Praialta Piranheira Nova Ipixunamdash state of ParaBrazil [MS thesis] Universidade Federal Rural da AmazoniaBelem Portugal 2011 (Portuguese)

[48] N T Boufleuer Ecological Aspects of Crabwood (Carapa Guia-nensis Aublet Meliaceae) as an Aid to Management andConservation Universidade Federal doAcre Rio Branco Brazil2004 (Portuguese)

[49] RN CMiranda Junior In vitro evaluation of the anti-plasmodicactivity of the oils of crabwood (Carapa guianensis Aubl) andspiked pepper (Piper aduncum L) [PhD thesis] UniversidadeFederal do Para Belem Brazil 2010 (Portuguese)

[50] G A Senhorini S F Zawadzki P V Farago S M W Zaninand F A Marques ldquoMicroparticles of poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate) loaded with andiroba oil preparation andcharacterizationrdquo Materials Science and Engineering C vol 32no 5 pp 1121ndash1126 2012

[51] M R A Ferreira R R Santiago T P De Souza E S T Egito EE Oliveira and L A L Soares ldquoDevelopment and evaluationof emulsions from Carapa guianensis (Andiroba) oilrdquo AAPSPharmSciTech vol 11 no 3 pp 1383ndash1390 2010

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014


MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of


Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of



Disease Markers


BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of



Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity


PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of



Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of


Diabetes ResearchJournal of



Research and TreatmentAIDS


Gastroenterology Research and Practice


Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom


soap-making and to illuminate houses [6 7] In some Ama-zonian communities it has been reported that the processof artisanal oil extraction involves all family members fromchildren to the elderly and both men and women but that thebulk of the process is carried out by women [6 8] Knowledgeof the extraction processes is reported to be passed orallyand through direct observation [6 8] though it has beennoted that the involvement of young peoplemay be decliningpotentially endangering the survival of the practice [8]Whilethe details of the extraction process inevitably vary betweencommunities the overall process has generally been observedto consist of seed collection and storage cooking and shellingof the seeds to prepare a dough and oil extraction fromthe shaped dough [6ndash8] Problems identified for the com-mercialisation of this artisanal crabwood oil have includedcommunity members lack of specific qualifications a lackof organisation among the community members involved inextraction anddifficulties getting the product into themarket[6] as well as the relatively time-consuming and labour-intensive methods involved in the extraction process [7]

Additionally UNESCO have highlighted the need toconsider culture within the process of product developmentrecognising traditional knowledge when it is being used [9]The scientific literature has also increasingly recognised andvalidated traditional knowledge principally through partici-pative research aiming to build effective conservation actions[10ndash14] Bringing to the forefront traditional groups and theknowledge they hold helps to both legitimise and protectsuch knowledge However the publication of traditionalknowledge should be done in a responsible way with consentof the community and giving credit where it is due Foundedin this the objectives of this study were to (1) describethe process involved in artisanal extraction of crabwoodoil carried out by community members in the FazendinhaProtected Area (hereafter referred to as Fazendinha PA)in the state of Amapa (2) characterise the processes ofknowledge transfer associated with the extraction and use ofcrabwood oil within a peri-urban riverine community and(3) discern medicinal uses of the oil

2 Methods

21 Study Area The study was carried out in the FazendinhaPA (Figure 1) located at 00∘031015840103910158401015840S and 051∘071015840417810158401015840Wapproximately 15 km from the urban centre of Macapa thestate capital with a reported population in 2010 of 398 204[16] and approximately 8 km from the centre of Santanathe 2nd largest conurbation in the state with a reportedpopulation in 2010 of 101 262 [16] The Fazendinha PA wascreated on 31st December 2004 [17] and has an area of13652 ha

22 Methodological Procedures As part of a related studysocioeconomic questionnaires were applied in 84 residencesrepresenting approximately 30 of the total number ofhouseholds in the study area [15] Through these question-naires and subsequently through snowball sampling basedon suggestions made by some of the respondents twenty-four community members were identified as being involved

in crabwood oil extraction though this is a subsample of thetotal number of people involved in such activities within thecommunity Of the 24 community members identified thir-teen were eventually interviewed andor observed during thecrabwood oil extraction process as the other 11 communitymembers could not be contacted or declined to participate inthe study

Data collection took place in 2012 using (1) semistruc-tured interviews [18] based on questionnaires adapted from[8] and (2) through direct observation of the crabwood oilextraction process including a photographic register All 13interviewees signed the Terms of Consent and all relevantpermissions to collect traditional knowledge were obtained(see Acknowledgements)

The data collected on the process of crabwood oil pro-duction knowledge transfer and traditional uses of theoil are largely qualitative and as such no formal analyseswere carried out However to support some statementsregarding the prevalence of certain practices and beliefs orthe demographics of participants percentages of respondentsand sample means were calculated

3 Results and Discussion

31 Socioeconomic Characteristics of Community MembersInvolved in Crabwood Oil Extraction The community mem-bers involved in crabwood oil extraction in the FazendinhaPA ranged in age from 25 to 73 years old with an average ageof 54 and nine of the 13 aged 50 or more They had lived inthe community between 10 and 40 years In line with previousstudies in the Amazon estuary [6 8] we found that crabwoodoil extraction is predominantly conducted by women (12 ofthe 13 interviewees (92) were female) The main incomesource for 34 of the 13 interviewees was a pension andwelfare benefitswere also an important contribution to familyincome for 15 of interviewees Beyond this all inhabitantspractice at least one subsistence activity with shrimp fishingand acai collection being the most common Communitymembers involved in crabwood oil extraction differ fromthe other inhabitants of the protected area in terms of theirlifestyle in relation to the environment and in general showmany more traditional characteristics The on-going habit ofcrabwood oil extraction is in itself indicative of preservationof an identity which is intimately linked to the environment

In the Fazendinha PA oil extraction is an activity inwhich family members work together but in contrast tosome other Amazonian communities such as in the TapajosNational Forest in the state of Para [19] there is no kindof community association for this type of work Indeed inthe state of Amapa one of the difficulties facing traditionalgroups such as those involved in extractive activities riverinecommunities artisanal fisherman and others is a lack oforganisation into units which they themselves are recognisedto be ldquotraditional groupsrdquo This is problematic as one of theprerequisites to be recognised as a traditional group by publicpolicy mechanisms in accordance with decree 60402007that instituted the National Policy for the Sustainable Devel-opment of Traditional Peoples and Communities [20] is self-recognition as such


Amazon riv

er

400 8004000(m)

Amazon river

Rodovia JK

Ig Fortaleza

Ig Paxicu

Fazenda


Favacho

N

51∘899840030

99840099840051

∘899840000

99840099840051

∘799840030

998400998400

51∘899840000

99840099840051

∘799840030

998400998400

0∘299840030998400998400S

0∘399840000998400998400S

0∘399840030998400998400S

51∘899840030

998400998400W

0∘399840030998400998400S

0∘399840000998400998400S

0∘299840030998400998400S







(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)































rubropilosa




















4 Conclusion



Table3Stud

iesp

resentinglim

onoids

thatarec

ompo

nentso

fcrabw

oodoilldquoX

rdquoind

icates

thep

resenceo

fthatchemicalcompo

nent

intheresultsof

thes

tudy

andldquomdash

rdquoind

icates

thea

bsence

Publications

Orig

inof

the

oil

Methyl

angolensate

7-Deacetoxy-

7-oxogedun

in7-

Deacetylgedun

in6a-

Acetoxygedun

inGedun

inAnd

irobin

12-D

ihydro-3b-

hydroxy-7-

deacetoxy-7-

oxogedun

in

6-Hydroxy-m

ethyl

angolensate

17-

Hydroxyazadira

dion

eXy

loccensin

k6120572

-Acetoxy-7-

deacetilgedun

in(pericarp)

Methyl

angolensate

(pericarp)

Ambrozin

etal

(200

6)[35]

Com

mercial

oilbou

ghtin

Belem

city

stateof

Para

Brazil

XX

mdashX

Xmdash

Xmdash

XX

mdashmdash

daSilvae

tal

(200

9)[43]

Extractedby

solvent

XX

XX

XX

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

Mira

ndaJun

ior

etal(2012)[42]

Artisa

naloil

obtained

inthelab

from

doug

hsprod

uced

inAlto

Tocantins

mdashX

XX

XX

Xmdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

Silvae

tal(2012)

[44]

Extractedby

solventand

isolated

from

thep

ericarp

mdashX

XX

mdashmdash

mdashX

mdashmdash

XX




















Competing Interests


Acknowledgments



References











































50





















of






Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Journal of

ObesityJournal of

















Amazon riv

er

400 8004000(m)

Amazon river

Rodovia JK

Ig Fortaleza

Ig Paxicu

Fazenda


Favacho

N

51∘899840030

99840099840051

∘899840000

99840099840051

∘799840030

998400998400

51∘899840000

99840099840051

∘799840030

998400998400

0∘299840030998400998400S

0∘399840000998400998400S

0∘399840030998400998400S

51∘899840030

998400998400W

0∘399840030998400998400S

0∘399840000998400998400S

0∘299840030998400998400S







(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)































rubropilosa




















4 Conclusion



Table3Stud

iesp

resentinglim

onoids

thatarec

ompo

nentso

fcrabw

oodoilldquoX

rdquoind

icates

thep

resenceo

fthatchemicalcompo

nent

intheresultsof

thes

tudy

andldquomdash

rdquoind

icates

thea

bsence

Publications

Orig

inof

the

oil

Methyl

angolensate

7-Deacetoxy-

7-oxogedun

in7-

Deacetylgedun

in6a-

Acetoxygedun

inGedun

inAnd

irobin

12-D

ihydro-3b-

hydroxy-7-

deacetoxy-7-

oxogedun

in

6-Hydroxy-m

ethyl

angolensate

17-

Hydroxyazadira

dion

eXy

loccensin

k6120572

-Acetoxy-7-

deacetilgedun

in(pericarp)

Methyl

angolensate

(pericarp)

Ambrozin

etal

(200

6)[35]

Com

mercial

oilbou

ghtin

Belem

city

stateof

Para

Brazil

XX

mdashX

Xmdash

Xmdash

XX

mdashmdash

daSilvae

tal

(200

9)[43]

Extractedby

solvent

XX

XX

XX

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

Mira

ndaJun

ior

etal(2012)[42]

Artisa

naloil

obtained

inthelab

from

doug

hsprod

uced

inAlto

Tocantins

mdashX

XX

XX

Xmdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

Silvae

tal(2012)

[44]

Extractedby

solventand

isolated

from

thep

ericarp

mdashX

XX

mdashmdash

mdashX

mdashmdash

XX




















Competing Interests


Acknowledgments



References











































50





















of






Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Journal of

ObesityJournal of

















(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)































rubropilosa




















4 Conclusion



Table3Stud

iesp

resentinglim

onoids

thatarec

ompo

nentso

fcrabw

oodoilldquoX

rdquoind

icates

thep

resenceo

fthatchemicalcompo

nent

intheresultsof

thes

tudy

andldquomdash

rdquoind

icates

thea

bsence

Publications

Orig

inof

the

oil

Methyl

angolensate

7-Deacetoxy-

7-oxogedun

in7-

Deacetylgedun

in6a-

Acetoxygedun

inGedun

inAnd

irobin

12-D

ihydro-3b-

hydroxy-7-

deacetoxy-7-

oxogedun

in

6-Hydroxy-m

ethyl

angolensate

17-

Hydroxyazadira

dion

eXy

loccensin

k6120572

-Acetoxy-7-

deacetilgedun

in(pericarp)

Methyl

angolensate

(pericarp)

Ambrozin

etal

(200

6)[35]

Com

mercial

oilbou

ghtin

Belem

city

stateof

Para

Brazil

XX

mdashX

Xmdash

Xmdash

XX

mdashmdash

daSilvae

tal

(200

9)[43]

Extractedby

solvent

XX

XX

XX

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

Mira

ndaJun

ior

etal(2012)[42]

Artisa

naloil

obtained

inthelab

from

doug

hsprod

uced

inAlto

Tocantins

mdashX

XX

XX

Xmdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

Silvae

tal(2012)

[44]

Extractedby

solventand

isolated

from

thep

ericarp

mdashX

XX

mdashmdash

mdashX

mdashmdash

XX




















Competing Interests


Acknowledgments



References











































50





















of






Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Journal of

ObesityJournal of













































rubropilosa




















4 Conclusion



Table3Stud

iesp

resentinglim

onoids

thatarec

ompo

nentso

fcrabw

oodoilldquoX

rdquoind

icates

thep

resenceo

fthatchemicalcompo

nent

intheresultsof

thes

tudy

andldquomdash

rdquoind

icates

thea

bsence

Publications

Orig

inof

the

oil

Methyl

angolensate

7-Deacetoxy-

7-oxogedun

in7-

Deacetylgedun

in6a-

Acetoxygedun

inGedun

inAnd

irobin

12-D

ihydro-3b-

hydroxy-7-

deacetoxy-7-

oxogedun

in

6-Hydroxy-m

ethyl

angolensate

17-

Hydroxyazadira

dion

eXy

loccensin

k6120572

-Acetoxy-7-

deacetilgedun

in(pericarp)

Methyl

angolensate

(pericarp)

Ambrozin

etal

(200

6)[35]

Com

mercial

oilbou

ghtin

Belem

city

stateof

Para

Brazil

XX

mdashX

Xmdash

Xmdash

XX

mdashmdash

daSilvae

tal

(200

9)[43]

Extractedby

solvent

XX

XX

XX

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

Mira

ndaJun

ior

etal(2012)[42]

Artisa

naloil

obtained

inthelab

from

doug

hsprod

uced

inAlto

Tocantins

mdashX

XX

XX

Xmdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

Silvae

tal(2012)

[44]

Extractedby

solventand

isolated

from

thep

ericarp

mdashX

XX

mdashmdash

mdashX

mdashmdash

XX




















Competing Interests


Acknowledgments



References











































50





















of






Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Journal of

ObesityJournal of

















Table3Stud

iesp

resentinglim

onoids

thatarec

ompo

nentso

fcrabw

oodoilldquoX

rdquoind

icates

thep

resenceo

fthatchemicalcompo

nent

intheresultsof

thes

tudy

andldquomdash

rdquoind

icates

thea

bsence

Publications

Orig

inof

the

oil

Methyl

angolensate

7-Deacetoxy-

7-oxogedun

in7-

Deacetylgedun

in6a-

Acetoxygedun

inGedun

inAnd

irobin

12-D

ihydro-3b-

hydroxy-7-

deacetoxy-7-

oxogedun

in

6-Hydroxy-m

ethyl

angolensate

17-

Hydroxyazadira

dion

eXy

loccensin

k6120572

-Acetoxy-7-

deacetilgedun

in(pericarp)

Methyl

angolensate

(pericarp)

Ambrozin

etal

(200

6)[35]

Com

mercial

oilbou

ghtin

Belem

city

stateof

Para

Brazil

XX

mdashX

Xmdash

Xmdash

XX

mdashmdash

daSilvae

tal

(200

9)[43]

Extractedby

solvent

XX

XX

XX

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

Mira

ndaJun

ior

etal(2012)[42]

Artisa

naloil

obtained

inthelab

from

doug

hsprod

uced

inAlto

Tocantins

mdashX

XX

XX

Xmdash

mdashmdash

mdashmdash

Silvae

tal(2012)

[44]

Extractedby

solventand

isolated

from

thep

ericarp

mdashX

XX

mdashmdash

mdashX

mdashmdash

XX




















Competing Interests


Acknowledgments



References











































50





















of






Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Journal of

ObesityJournal of



































Competing Interests


Acknowledgments



References











































50





















of






Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Journal of

ObesityJournal of























































50





















of






Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Journal of

ObesityJournal of





















of






Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Journal of

ObesityJournal of
















)joebxj1vcmjtijoh$psqpsbujpo &wjefodf …downloads.hindawi.com/journals/ecam/2016/5828021.pdfan...

Documents