Prof. dr. Rita Temmerman Centrum voor Vaktaal en Communicatie

Erasmus University College Vrije Universiteit Brussel

Luxemburg, 8 November 2012

Jorge Luis Borges

� flexicurity � “circular” movement of staff � same-sex couples not in civil partnership

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Monitoring of the EU decision making process between institutions http://ec.europa.eu/prelex • follows stages of decision-making • monitors work of institutions • follow-up of EC proposals

e.g. ‘flexicurity’: This means a welfare state model with a pro-active labour market policy. The model is a combination of easy hiring and firing (flexibility for employers) and high benefits for the unemployed (security for the employees). It was first implemented in Denmark in the 1990's. (http://europa.eu/abc/eurojargon/inde

x_en.htm)

[pic] | COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES |

[pic] | COMMISSION DES COMMUNAUTÉS EUROPÉENNES |

Brussels, 27.6.2007 Bruxelles, le 27.6.2007

COM(2007) 359 final COM(2007) 359 final

COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS

COMMUNICATION DE LA COMMISSION AU PARLEMENT EUROPÉEN, AU CONSEIL, AU COMITÉ ÉCONOMIQUE ET SOCIAL EUROPÉEN ET AU COMITÉ DES RÉGIONS

Towards Common Principles of Flexicurity: More and better jobs through flexibility and security

Vers des principes communs de flexicurité: Des emplois plus nombreux et de meilleure qualité en combinant flexibilité et sécurité

� Promote “flexicurity” principles and ensure the

employability of job seekers. � Förderung eines Gleichgewichts zwischen Flexibilität und

Beschäftigungssicherheit („Flexicurity“) und Gewährleistung der Beschäftigungsfähigkeit von Arbeitssuchenden.

� promouvoir les principes de flexicurité et assurer l’employabilité des demandeurs d’emploi;

� Bevordering van de beginselen van flexizekerheid en de inzetbaarheid van werkzoekenden.

� Promover os princípios da «flexissegurança» e assegurar a possibilidade de emprego aos candidatos.(pt)

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� COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES Brussels, 10.12.2008 COM(2008) 725 final

Managing mobility of health workers within the EU

Gestion de la mobilité du personnel de santé au sein de l’Union européenne

Influencing factors and possible areas for action:

Facteurs d’influence et domaines d’action possibles

Fostering bilateral agreements between Member States to take advantage of any surpluses of doctors and nurses.

Favoriser les accords bilatéraux entre les États membres afin de tirer parti d’un éventuel excédent de médecins et d’infirmiers.

Investing to train and recruit sufficient health personnel to achieve self-sufficiency at EU level.

Investir dans la formation et l’embauche d'un personnel sanitaire suffisamment nombreux afin d’atteindre l’autosuffisance à l’échelle de l’Union.

Encouraging cross-border agreements on training and staff exchanges, which may help to manage the outward flow of health workers while respecting Community law.

Encourager les accords transfrontaliers sur la formation et les échanges de personnel, ce qui pourrait faciliter la gestion des flux sortants d’effectifs dans le secteur de la santé tout en respectant le droit communautaire.

Promoting "circular" movement of staff (i.e. staff moving to another country for training and/or to gain experience, and then returning to their home countries with additional knowledge and skills).

Promouvoir les mouvements «circulaires» de personnel (à savoir les périodes de formation/d’acquisition d’expérience dans un autre pays de travailleurs qui retournent ensuite dans leur pays d’origine avec un savoir et des compétences supplémentaires).

Creating an EU-wide forum or platform where managers could exchange experiences.

Créer un forum ou une instance au niveau de l’Union au sein duquel les administrateurs pourraient échanger leur expérience.

Factoren die van invloed zijn en mogelijke actieterreinen: • Bilaterale overeenkomsten tussen lidstaten bevorderen met het doel gebruik te kunnen maken van een eventueel surplus van artsen en verpleegkundigen. • Investeren in opleiding en aanwerving van voldoende aantallen gezondheidswerkers om op EU-niveau "zelfvoorzienend" te kunnen zijn. • Grensoverschrijdende overeenkomsten aanmoedigen betreffende opleidingen en uitwisselingen van personeel, die de uitstroom van gezondheidswerkers kunnen helpen beheersen, emt inachtneming van het Gemeenschapsrecht. • "Circulaire" mobiliteit van personeel bevorderen (d.w.z. dat gezondheidswerkers zich naar een ander land begeven om daar een opleiding te volgen en/of ervaring op te doen, en dan naar hun eigen land terugkeren met nieuwe kennis en vaardigheden). • Een forum of platform op EU-niveau creëren waar managers ervaringen kunnen uitwisselen.

Ietekmējoši faktori un iespējamās rīcības jomas • veicināt divpusēju nolīgumu slēgšanu starp dalībvalstīm, lai izmantotu ārstu un medmāsu iespējamo pārprodukciju; • investēt veselības jomas personāla apmācībā un personāla atlasē, lai ES līmenī panāktu pašpietiekamību; • veicināt pārrobežu nolīgumu slēgšanu apmācību un personāla apmaiņas jomā, jo tādā veidā var palīdzēt kontrolēt veselības jomas darbinieku aizplūšanu, vienlaikus ievērojot Kopienas tiesību aktus; • veicināt darbinieku “rotācijas” kustību (t.i., darbinieki pārceļas uz citu valsti, lai mācītos un/vai iegūtu pieredzi, un pēc tam atgriežas savā mītnes valstī ar plašākām zināšanām un prasmēm); • izveidot ES līmeņa forumu vai platformu, kurā vadītāji varētu apmainīties ar pieredzi.

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Whitepapers as a source of information on how legal concepts are formed (Roald & Whittaker 2011 & forthcoming)

Jan Roald & Sunniva Whittaker “The formation of legal terms: a case study” SYNAPS – A Journal of Professional Communication 26/2011

Our objective is to describe how legal terms come into being and to discuss methods for monitoring legal neologisms

� The genesis of legal terms is closely linked to the

legislative process. � A white paper describing the situation that

requires regulation is commissioned from a group of specialists in the relevant field.

� The white paper, contains a recommendation forming the basis for a draft law.

� The white papers therefore contain a mine of “reflective text fragments” (Temmerman, 2000).

� These white papers can be exploited to identify new legal terms.

� the Norwegian white paper Farskap og annen morskap, which deals with parenthood, and the need for the definition of new types of legal parents

� the need for regulation must be seen against the backdrop of new social developments as a result of biotechnological advances and new family patterns.

� Today, the concepts of mother and father have

become fuzzy and have to be redefined as legal concepts in order to ensure the rights of children born into “non prototypical” families.

The white paper discusses social and biotechnological challenges, and recommends amendments to the existing Children’s Act (barnelova). In this discussion, a number of new concepts and terms are proposed.

A comparative study of white papers, green papers, draft bills will provide valuable insights into the type of terminological discussion and negotiation that characterizes different legal cultures. In this respect, they are an interesting text type and genre where discursive norms may vary from one legal culture to another.

46. A decision to exclude the father might relate to his behaviour (for example, drug taking), circumstances (for example, being in prison) or because the mother feels the level of reliability displayed by the father does not fit with her expectations of what a good father should be. Alternatively, sole registration may, in the mother’s judgement, be the best way to include the father without the threat of enforced financial responsibility. Those who make a conscious decision to exclude fathers may also include parents in same-sex relationships who are co-parenting the child. Here there is also a concern about the status and recognition of the non-birth co-parent within the birth registration process.http://www.official-documents.gov.uk/document/cm71/7160/7160.pdf Joint birth registration: promoting parental responsibility June 2007 Green Paper Presented to Parliament by the Secretary of State for Work and Pensions

Clause 60: Parental orders in favour of gamete donors 170. In clause 60 there are new provisions extending the categories of couples who can apply for a parental order (fast track adoption) where a child has been conceived using the genetic material of one of the couple, and has been carried by a surrogate mother, and where specified conditions apply. Currently, only married couples can apply for a parental order. Under the new provisions, civil partners would also be able to apply, as would unmarried opposite-sex couples or same-sex couples not in civil partnership. The other provisions relating to parental orders remain the same as the existing provisions of the 1990 Act. A single person remains unable to apply, but would be able to apply to adopt the child from the surrogate mother.

The well-known referential role, consisting of the creation of a new designation for naming a new concept is overshadowed in scientific texts by a more rhetorical role. Here the scientist resorts consciously to variation, hence creating a “neology effect”, specifically for the reason of emphasizing various novel aspects of his thought. (Mojca Pecman, 2012)

This function of neology as a rhetorical device is generally glossed over in terminology studies, in much the same way as the analysis of variation used to be, due to the expected stability that neologism should eventually gain in line with well-established terms. (Mojca Pecman, 2012)

1. Floating signifiers 2. Understanding in context 3. Function of ambiguity 4. Function of vagueness 5. Primary and secondary term formation 6. Equal authenticity 7. Fallibility and genius of the translator

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� For a Saussurean semiotician no signifier can exist without

a corresponding signified-to qualify as a sign something must be signified.

� An 'empty‘ or 'floating‘ signifier is a signifier with a vague,

highly variable, unspecifiable or non-existent signified. � Such signifiers mean different things to different people:

they may stand for many or even any signifieds; they may mean whatever their interpreters want them to mean.

� Saussure: � signifié/signifiant � signified/signifier

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inburgering

� In September 2011, the Flemish government published its concept note on integration and civic integration (the so called ‘inburgering’) aiming on [sic] a more efficient and effective policy.

� The note reaffirms the central role of the local authorities in implementing the Flemish integration policy and intends a fundamental reform of the existing integration sector.

� The note formulate [sic] as final aims of the reform process that the results of the Flemish integration sector will be more in accordance with the defined aims of the governmental policy, that the sector improves its efficiency and will ameliorate its accessibility, visibility, professionalism and customer-friendliness.

� Source: government website May 2012

With respect to the issue at hand, we should conclude that both integration and the bankruptcy of integration function as empty signifiers over which political and discursive struggles are being waged.

� Even though the notion of integration constitutes one of the most important concepts structuring the discourse about minorities in Flanders, it never functions in isolation of other abstract categories such as diversity, community, identity, pluralism, emancipation, allochthons, or autochthons.

� We are dealing with an entire field of empty

signifiers whose meaning can only be understood if one takes their concrete usage into account.

Only those analytic procedures who take the indexical process of entextualisation into account, are able to clarify the variety of contextualised meanings generated while using this term. In fact, this is the only way to arrive at an empirical analysis of the way individuals interpretively use such abstract categories.

38

�

Information technology and data processing [COM] Full entry EN

� transposition method � DE � Versetzungsverfahren � Umstellungsmethode � Permutationsmethode � FR � méthode de transposition � NL � permutatiemethode �

� Information technology and data processing [COM] Full entry EN

� transposition cipher � transposition cypher � DE � Umstellungschiffre � Versetzungschiffre � Permutationschiffre � FR � chiffre de transposition

� Harmonization? � Standardization?

� The case of « transposition » in European

ADMINISTRATIVE LAW

Def: process by which the European Union's member

states give force to a directive by passing appropriate implementation measures

Note: Transposition is typically done by either primary or

secondary legislation. The European Commission closely monitors that transposition is timely, correctly done and implemented, so as to attain the results intended. The Commission may bring a case in the European Court of Justice against states which have not transposed directives adequately.

Context: Much of European law takes the form of directives setting out broad principles and objectives but leaving Member States the choice of methods. For instance, Member States may invite the private sector to set up voluntary schemes to reach the objectives. Yet often this involves the transposition of the directive into national or regional legislation. Member States have to reach the objectives within a given time period. The Commission monitors that the transposition is timely and correctly done, so as to attain the results intended by the EU policy.

Contextref. EUROPA > European Commission > Better

regulation. transposition. http://ec.europa.eu/governan...#_T [11.2.2011]

Kaeding, M. 2007 Better regulation in the European Union: Lost in Translation or Full Steam Ahead? The transposition of EU transport directives across member states

� Leiden/Leiden University Press, 2007 � ISBN 978 90 8728 026 0

The first step, transposition, is defined as the process whereby European directives are incorporated into national law in order to make their objectives, requirements, and deadlines applicable in the member states.

Application is defined as the process whereby full compliance with EU law is monitored and secured, and the effect posterior evaluated; in this step, non-compliance is systematically evaluated by national and supranational courts..

� Until now, this paper applied the terms compliance, implementation and transposition interchangeably. However, in line with Giuliani (2005), I argue that the concept of compliance ‘goes well beyond the process of transposition of legal provisions’(ibid: 1). In the remaining chapters, this current study will only refer to transposition as the term action that denotes the ‘process of transforming directives into provisions of national law by the competent national legislative body or bodies’ (Prechal, 1995: 5).

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WE DISTINGUISH BETWEEN FIVE TYPES OF DYNAMIC CONTEXT THAT HELP UNDERSTAND TERMINOLOGY (Durieux 1995; Temmerman 2011) � LINGUISTIC CONTEXT � SITUATIONAL CONTEXT � COGNITIVE CONTEXT � CULTURAL CONTEXT � METAPHORICAL CONTEXT

Words/terms in sentences/texts, written in a natural language (e.g. French, Latvian, Chinese, Italian, Danish) can be understood and disambiguated in context

Je suis partie en Italie pour me reposer

Thus, policymakers did not immediately recognize the increasingly important role played by financial institutions such as investment banks and hedge funds.

Je pense donc je suis.

Funds can be allocated for either short-term or long-term purposes.

Je te suis partout.

The government funds basic research in many areas.

terms in a particular environment (e.g. a political context, an institutional context, a professional context).

� The socio-cultural background of the sender and receiver of information will have a impact on the choice of terminology and on the understanding

example legal terminology: e.g. comother, surrogate mother, biological mother, legal mother, adoptive mother, stephmother, etc.

a cumulative construction (in our working memory) of understanding a message as a process. This process comprises writing down discourse or pronouncing discourse. Understanding and formulating (and translating) happen simultaneuously.

Cf. Durieux (1995) “memory stock building up in the course of the assimilation of the meaning of spoken or written discourse.” cf. Collet (2004:104): “When used in a special text, it [i.e. the term] plays a dynamic and important part in the bringing about of text coherence and cohesion.”

� All information in a paragraph is mutually dependant (Durieux 1999 “interdependance”)

� All information given in a particular paragraph of a text could help to disambiguate ambiguities in a following paragraph.

In cultural terminology (Diki-Kidiri 2008) the object of study is to facilitate the acquisition of new knowledge and technologies, with people mastering and changing their environment while preserving their cultural heritage and how terminology in the native languages is developed

� Dynamics of understanding in invasion ecology

� Temmerman, R. (2011). ‘Ways of Managing the Dynamics of Terminology in Multilingual Communication’, SCOLIA Revue de linguistique de l’Université de Strasbourg 25/2011: 105–122.

THESE FIVE TYPES OF DYNAMIC CONTEXT CAN HELP EXPLAIN WHY TERMINOLOGICAL VARIATION BUT ALSO VAGUENESS AND AMBIGUITY ARE NECESSARY FOR THE PROCESS OF UNDERSTANDING

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A term is ambiguous if it offers latitude for more than one standing meaning; but general (relative to some other terms) if there are various more specific ways of possessing the property the term expresses; and context sensitive if its contribution to what a speaker asserts can vary across occasions of use without any change in the term’s standing meaning in the language. (Ciprut p.33)

Within language as a cognitive system designed for communication, ambiguity is functional and can be rationally explained (Piantadosi & Gibson Cognition 122 (2012) 280–291): ambiguity has a communicative function.

� Natural language strikes a balance between the two opposing forces of unification and diversification, arriving at a middle ground with some but not total, ambiguity.

� The balancing of these two forces can be observed in the relationship between word frequency and rank frequency: the vocabulary was ‘‘balanced’’ because a word’s frequency multiplied by its frequency rank was roughly a constant, a celebrated statistical law of language

� Piantadosi et al. argue that ambiguity can be understood by the trade-off between two communicative pressures which are inherent to any communicative system: clarity and ease.

�AND WHAT IS MORE:

THERE IS NO AMBIGUITY BECAUSE THERE IS CONTEXT

� Ambiguity is a desirable feature of any communicative system when context is informative about meaning (Piantadosi & Gibson 2012).

� This explains the pervasiveness of ambiguity in language, and shows how ambiguity likely results from ubiquitous pressure for efficient communication.

� Piantadosi et al. argue that efficient communication systems will be ambiguous when context is informative about what is being communicated.

� These benefits of ambiguity suggest that any system which strives for communicative or cognitive efficiency will naturally be ambiguous: ambiguity is not a puzzle for communicative theories of language.

� The essential asymmetry is: inference is cheap, articulation expensive, and thus the design requirements are for a system that maximizes inference.

� Linguistic coding is to be thought of less like definitive content and more like interpretive clue. (Levinson, 2000: 29)

Two arguments: The first argument looks at ambiguity from the perspective of coding theory, arguing that when context is informative, any good communication system will leave out information already in the context. The second assumes that codewords differ in their difficulty, and argues that as long as there are some ambiguities that context can resolve, efficient communication systems will use ambiguity to make communication easier.

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� So pervasive is vagueness that it is nigh impossible to provide clear cases of non-vague predicates beyond the realm of mathematics. (Ciprut 2008: 32)

� Ciprut, J. (ed.) 2008 INDETERMINACY: The Mapped, the Navigable, and the Uncharted MIT Press

The key feature of vagueness is that it leaves room for interpretation and communicative negotiation of the exact meaning of a word or expression. An example of a vague expression (Engberg in Bhatia et al. 2008) :

If without showing sufficient cause a party fails to comply with any order or directions of the tribunal, the tribunal may make a peremptory order to the same effect, prescribing such time for compliance with it as the tribunal considers appropriate. (Arbitration Act of England 1996, section 41, 5)

As argued by Channell (1994: 196–197), “vague expressions […] are part of the linguistic repertoire of the competent language user, who uses them to accomplish particular communicative goals.” This is particularly true for discretion markers in legislative writing and especially in contexts like arbitration, where the flexible nature of proceedings depends on room for interpretation.

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Ambiguous expressions call for precision. The receiver requires this knowledge for an adequate understanding of the sentence. Vague expressions, on the other hand, do not necessarily require precision to be adequately understood by the receiver.

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Legal language needs to be vague and inclusive enough to cover a wide variety of different circumstances (Caliendo 2007:378) BUT TRANSLATORS BEWARE!

Multilingualism in the law can be effective only if those affected by the instrument are guaranteed equality before the law, regardless of the language of the text. For this purpose, the authentic texts of a legal instrument are presumed to be equal in meaning, effect and intent.

There is always a risk of linguistic diversity and error when translation is involved. Some divergences and errors are harmless. Others introduce ambiguity or are misleading, thus posing a threat to uniform interpretation and application

Example: Proceedings, procedure, process are understood as synonyms in general English and sometimes treated as such by non-native lawyers, cannot be considered as full, i.e. interchangeable, synonyms in English law, and therefore cannot be employed as synonyms in legal translation. .(Chroma, 2008; Šarčević, 2001 )

Translators must refrain from making any corrections and clarifying any ambiguities, even if they think they know the intended meaning (Chroma (2008) refers to Harvey 2002: 181; in instruments of international law, see Šarčević 2000: 204).

Terms should be chosen which make it clear that their meaning is derived from the source legal system. Translators should use neutral terms instead of technical terms denoting concepts peculiar to the target language. If reference is made to a foreign concept, it is often better to borrow the foreign term than to translate it

the provision of the Swiss Private International Law Act on the right to a fair hearing (Art. 182(3) PIL Act) contains the terms procédure du contradictoire (FR) and kontradiktorisches Verfahren (DE). This is obviously a reference to foreign law since the concept is unknown in Swiss law. he use of the English term adversarial proceedings in the English translation of the Swiss Arbitration Association is misleading because the Swiss legislator did not have English adversarial proceedings in mind but rather the principe du contradictoire of French law The neutral term contradictory proceedings has been suggested instead; however, it would be ambiguous as it could be interpreted as a reference not only to French law but also to English law. retaining the French term in the English translation would be the best solution in this case as it would be a clear reference to French law. Otherwise, a footnote could be used to clarify the reference of the ambiguous term. Source: Šarčević 2008

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Sager states that “secondary term formation occurs when a new term is created for a known concept […] as a result of knowledge transfer to another linguistic community” (Sager 1990: 80)

multilingual primary term-creation is not about translation, but a simultaneous, multilingual activity aiming at the designation of one concept in several languages. e.g. ‘flexicurity’:

This means a welfare state model with a pro-active labour market policy. The model is a combination of easy hiring and firing (flexibility for employers) and high benefits for the unemployed (security for the employees). It was first implemented in Denmark in the 1990's.

� (http://europa.eu/abc/eurojargon/index_en.htm)

the creation of EU terminology can be described as a two-step process: (1) multilingual primary term-creation for the dominant languages followed by (2) a secondary activity, an intra-conceptual term-transfer for most other languages.

The importance of translation in term-creation at EU-level is also underlined by the participants taking part in the process. Whilst, for primary terms, the process of conceptual thinking and designation is carried out by politicians, experts and civil servants (depending on the stage of decision-making), secondary terms are created by the translators/terminologists in the EU institutions.

� Eva Radai-Kovacs (2010): ▪ “The whole language and translation policy is in close

connection with a multilingual, multicultural and multinational setting.”

▪ “primary term formation takes place in one language which is English at a greater extent and French at a lesser extent. The secondary term formation happens in the other languages during the translation process involving numerous actors and institutions.”

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� Kocbek explains the principle of cultural embeddedness of terminology in every language and intercultural transfer in translating from a source language into a target language.

� The creation process of the EU is the setting up of a

supranational legal system that serves as an encompassing communication framework.

� Translatability of legal texts depends on the relatedness of legal systems

� Kocbek, A 2008. “The Cultural Embeddedness of Legal Texts” Journal of

Language & Translation 9-2 September 2008, 49-70

� It is quite common that equally authentic language versions of a Community law have different meanings if taken on their own.

� The citizen’s legitimate expectations in the equal authenticity of that version requires protection as it is akin to the non-discrimination principle.

Schilling, T., 2010, “Beyond Multilingualism: On Different Approaches to the Handling of Diverging Language Versions of a Community Law”. European Law Journal, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 47–66.

� Divergence is instrumental in multilingual settings because it helps to clarify the EU legal order.

� National concepts serve as “transmitters” of EU Law � Conceptual divergence does not jeopardize the quest

for unity but it is a precondition to a form of unity that is bound to remain virtual

Prechal, S & B van Roermund (eds.) 2008 The Coherence of EU Law The Search for Unity in Divergent Concepts Oxford Studies in European Law

� “EU’s multilingual drafting system is not based on co-drafting” (Somssich et al. 2010: 88)

� Impact of the drafting languages on the terminology in the other official languages

Somssich et al. (2010) Study on Lawmaking in the EU Multilingual Environment. Directorat General of European Commission

� Situation in 2008: � 72% (English) � 12% (French) � 3% (German)

(Source:

http://www.euractiv.com/en/culture/eu-translation-policy-

stay/article-70516)

1. Do official European texts actually mean the same in different cultures and different languages?

2. anisomorphism and secondary term

formation in a European Union setting.

3. The development of “Euro-language” having 23 variants: Euro-English, Euro-Italian, Euro-Dutch, Euro-Maltese, Euro-Estonian, Euro-French,etc..

� “Multilingual concordance, i.e. ensuring that all language versions of a document say exactly the same thing, has always been a problem in a multilingual translation service like DGT. The ways of tackling this issue are costly and burdensome, and the situation has worsened in recent years with the exponential increase in the number of language versions.”

� http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/translation/publications/studies/quality_management_translation_en.pdf

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� This is debatable, because of different world views in each country with its own legal system and cultural traditions.

� Even though the rule of law forms part of our shared European cultural experience, how the term is interpreted may depend on several contextual factors.

� If in the European Union, Euro-English has become the lingua franca

� if Europeans continue to have the right to information in all official European languages the issue of approximate meaning will have to be tackled all the time.

� Basically, translation shifts like e.g. modulation and transposition, are often the result of the inherent lexical and structural limitations of each language.

� Moreover each language carries historical and cultural elements that allow its users to express messages in particular ways (e.g. figurative language based on metaphorical understanding, allusions to culture-specific elements).

Fle is not DaF is not SLA (translator’s note) Some French terms, untranslatable into English, have been left in their

literal translations. In particular, the term didactique des langues, translated by Gisele Holtzer (2000 :174) as « language didactics » (LD) and defined as « foreign language teaching » overlaps but is not quite equivalent to terms like foreign language (FL) education, methodology, pedagogy, second language acquisition (SLA) or applied linguistics.

The research field of language didactics is epistemologically and culturally linked to the teaching of French as a Foreign Language (Fle), in the same manner as SLA and applied linguistics are closely linked to the teaching of English as a Second Language, and Fremdsprachendidaktik is associated with the teaching of German as a Second Language (DaF).

LD focuses on the teaching of foreign languages in instructional settings and in that respect it overlaps with FL education, FL methodology and FL pedagogy. But it is also concerned with the acquisition of foreign languages in non-instructional settings, e.g., work, travel, leisure, study and any venue in which issues of language, power and identity come into play. In that respect its concerns are close to those of Anglo-Saxon applied linguistics.

2) We have decided to keep the French terms here. In English multilingualism and multiculturalism are both individual and societal phenomena, whereas plurilingualism in French applies to individuals, multilingualism applies to societies.

Résolution du Conseil du 16 décembre 1997 concernant l'enseignement précoce des langues de l'Union européenne Journal officiel n° C 001 du 03/01/1998 p. 0002 - 0003

Council Resolution of 16

December 1997 on the early teaching of European Union languages Official Journal C 001 , 03/01/1998 P. 0002 - 0003

Tout en réaffirmant un statut égal pour chacune des langues de l'Union, il importe de réfléchir aux instruments susceptibles d'atteindre le double objectif qu'est le maintien de la diversité culturelle et linguistique et la promotion du plurilinguisme européen. L'apprentissage précoce peut être un facteur de qualité dans l'apprentissage des langues et ainsi contribuer à atteindre ces objectifs. Il peut, à moyen terme, permettre à chaque citoyen d'accéder à la richesse culturelle enracinée dans le pluralisme linguistique en Europe.

While reaffirming the principle of equal status for each of the languages of the Union, thought should therefore be given to the tools required to fulfil the dual aim of maintaining cultural and linguistic diversity and promoting European multilingualism. Learning at an early age may be a significant factor in language learning and may thus contribute towards achieving these objectives. It may, in the medium term, enable each citizen to have access to the cultural wealth rooted in the linguistic diversity of the Union.

5.2.4. Jargon, certain vogue words and Latin expressions used in a sense other than their generally accepted legal meaning are also to be avoided.

For example: in French: ‘une approche proactive’, ‘en synergie

avec’; in English: ‘proactive’, ‘integrated resource

management system’, ‘quasi-abolition of central ex-ante visa controls’; ‘in fine’ in the sense of ‘in conclusion’, ‘a contrario’ in the sense of ‘on the contrary’.

Euro-language

5.3.1. Certain expressions in one language — and in particular

quite common ones such as the French ‘sans préjudice’ — have no equivalent in other Community languages. In those languages, they can therefore only be translated using circumlocutions and approximations, which inevitably result in semantic divergences between the various language versions. Expressions which are too specific to one language should therefore be avoided as far as possible

Expressions which are too specific to one language should therefore be avoided as far as possible Euro-language

5.3.2. As regards actual legal terminology, terms which are too closely linked to national legal systems should be avoided.

Example: The concept of ‘faute’, which is well known in French

law, has no direct equivalent in other legal systems (in particular, English and German law); depending on the context, terms such as ‘illégalité’, ‘manquement’ (in relation to an obligation), etc., which can easily be translated into other languages (‘illegality’, ‘breach’, etc.) should be used instead.

Euro-language

5.4. The aim is that, as far as possible, and taking account of the specific nature of Community law and its terminology, those called on to apply or interpret the act in each Member State (officials, judges, lawyers, etc.) must perceive it not as a ‘translation’ in a negative sense — but as a text which corresponds to a certain legislative style. Texts peppered with loan words, literal translations or jargon which are hard to understand are the source of much of the criticism of Community legislation which is, as a result, regarded as alien.

Texts peppered with loan words, literal translations or jargon which are hard to understand are the source of much of the criticism of Community legislation which is, as a result, regarded as alien.

Euro-language

Formal consistency 6.2. Consistency of terminology means that the same terms are to be used to

express the same concepts and that identical terms must not be used to express different concepts. The aim is to leave no ambiguities, contradictions or doubts as to the meaning of a term. Any given term is therefore to be used in a uniform manner to refer to the same thing and another term must be chosen to express a different concept.

7. Fallibility and genius of the translator

Prevention: There are six principal pathways for IS:

Prévention: On dénombre six grandes voies d'introduction des EE:

Preventie: De introductie van IS kan in hoofdzaak via zes mechanismenplaatsvinden:

release, lâcher, door opzettelijk uitzetten,

escape, fuite, door ontsnapping,

contaminant, contamination, als contaminant,

hitchhiker, passage clandestin, als verstekeling,

corridor couloir via een corridor

and ou en

unaided introduction spontanée door toeval ("op eigen kracht")

Prevention in relation to hitchhikerorganisms brought in on the hulls or in the ballast water of ships would hugely benefit from the ratification and implementation of the Ballast Water Convention.

La ratification et la mise en œuvre de la convention sur les eaux de ballastseraient essentielles à la prévention en ce qui concerne les organismes qui voyagent clandestinement sur les coques des navires ou dans les eaux de ballast de ceux-ci.

Preventie van de introductie van door zeeschepen meegebrachte "verstekelingen" zal een stuk makkelijker worden zodra het internationaal ballastwaterverdrag wordt geratificeerd en in de praktijk gebracht.

1. Floating signifiers 2. Understanding in context 3. Function of ambiguity 4. Function of vagueness 5. Primary and secondary term formation 6. Equal authenticity 7. Fallibility and genius of the translator