Journalof

Adult Education

Volume 37 2008 Number 1

Mountain PlainsAdult Education

Association

i

Journal of Adult Education

Volume 37 2008 Number 1

Table of Contents

Articles

First Things First in Becoming a Teacher of AdultsMichael W. Galbraith and Melanie S. Jones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Identifying the Multiple Intelligences of Your StudentsJoyce A. McClellan and Gary J. Conti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

One Dozen Ways to Expand Your Adult Learning Skills!Virginia B. Ricard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Book Review

Miller: Armstrong, K. B., Nabb, L. W., & Czech, A. P. (Eds.).North American adult educators: Phyllis M Cunningham archive of quintessential autobiographies for the Twenty-First Century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Membership Survey

Conti: Results of Membership Questionnaire on Method of Delivery for the Journal of Adult Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Theory to Practice

Multiple Intelligences SurveyPreference Indicator for Multiple Intelligences . . . . . . . . . . . . Insert

Editors

Gary J. Conti Rita C. KolodyOklahoma State University Idaho State University

Editorial Board

Arizona NevadaMichele Zerr Clifford McClain

Carol Steedman

Colorado New MexicoRay Peterson Breda BovaPatricia Thorpe Michael O'Brien

Idaho UtahKaren Wilson-Scott Michael FreemanMichael Tomlin Lou Workman

Montana WyomingRita Collins Donna AmstutzCurtis Smeby Michael Day

Michael Woolcott

Consulting Reviewers

Anne Ghost Bear Lester Shaw

Southern Nazarene University A Pocket Full of Hope

James Gregson Brenda SolomonUniversity of Idaho Oklahoma State University

Sally Nichols-SharpeBacone College

©Copyright 2008 by the Mountain Plains Adult Education Association.The MPAEA Journal of Adult Education is an official publication of theMountain Plains Adult Education Association and is published twiceannually. Editorial office: Rita C. Kolody, Human Resource Training &Development, Campus Box 8081, Idaho State University, Pocatello, ID83209; kolorita@isu.edu or (208) 282-3640.

MPAEA Officers and Directors

Officers

President President ElectMyna Frestedt Kelsee Miller

Past President SecretaryTeri Zutter Lou Workman

TreasurerDetlef Johl

Board of Directors

Arizona NevadaLily Beth Brazones Brad DeedsShannon Newman Sharyn Yanoshak

Colorado New MexicoScott Baker Dianne MarquezNancy Lambott Gilbert Zamora

Idaho UtahRobert Croker Scott GreenwellMarion Lansford Nate Southerland

Montana WyomingSuzette Fox Rom BushnellJake Gustin Mike Williams

Journal of Adult Education

Volume 37, Number 1, 2008

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First Things First in Becoming a Teacher of Adults

Michael W. GalbraithMelanie S. Jones

Abstract

The exploration of self-awareness as an essential component forunderstanding ourselves as a teacher of adults is rather absent inthe literature. This article focuses on the elements that arefoundational within the self-awareness journey–beliefs, values, andattitudes. Understanding these elements establishes the basis forpractice implications, such as formulating a personal philosophy orvision for teaching, establishing authenticity and credibility, anddetermining a teaching perspective.

Introduction

A common myth exists that suggests that if you are a content/disciplineexpert, then you should know how to teach effectively. That may or maynot be true. We all have had those moments in which we have witnessedskillful teaching and learning episodes, as well as moments in the teachingand learning process that we would rather forget. Weimer (2008) skillfullychallenges the assumption that teaching in every discipline is unique tothose specific disciplines. She states that “there is no guarantee thatcolleagues in the discipline are pedagogically savvy–that their views ofteaching are anything but eclectic, idiosyncratic, and uninformed” (p. 3).Not everyone would agree as to the qualities and characteristics thatconstitute a good teacher, including those in the adult education discipline.

Becoming a skillful teacher of adults is a daunting task (Galbraith,2008) . No one teaching model fits all occasions in which teaching andlearning takes place. “Simple categorization of the teaching and learning

______

Michael W. Galbraith is Professor of Leadership Studies, Marshall University

Graduate College, South Charleston, WV. Melanie S. Jones is an educational

consultant in Charleston, WV.

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transaction is difficult because of the complex and multifaceted orientationof adult learners and the variety of settings in which the transaction occurs”(Galbraith, 2004a, p. 3). Moreover, “Good teaching should be a balance ofunderstanding one’s self as a teacher and knowing how to develop learningencounters that are meaningful and useful in the promotion of personal andprofessional growth” (p. 4). Therefore, understanding yourself is the coreof being a good teacher of adults. “If we don’t know who we are as humanbeings, it is very difficult to know who we are as teachers” (Cranton, 2001,p. 6). It is the self-awareness aspect of becoming a teacher of adults that isan essential component in the journey toward understanding who you areand how it relates to the other dimensions of teaching and learning, such asthe design, organization, and facilitation processes. Self-awareness lays theground work for developing a vision for teaching, becoming authentic andcredible, and understanding your teaching perspective. Self-awareness isbasically the foundation on which you build your teaching practice(Galbraith, 2008; Galbraith & Jones, 2007). This article will examine self-awareness concepts and provide somedirection on how to determine what you believe, what you value, and whatattitudes you hold toward certain things or people. In addition, we willdiscuss how your self-awareness journey influences your personal andprofessional practice. Understanding your beliefs, values, and attitudesshould be the first thing that you do in your educative process towardbecoming a skillful teacher of adults. “It is therefore the combination ofunderstanding ourselves as human beings and the combination of ourbeliefs, values, and attitudes that form the basis for a philosophical andpersonal vision for teaching”( Galbraith, 2004a, p.11). A knowledge of selfis imperative in the development of a teacher of adults.

Discovering Your Beliefs, Values, and Attitudes

To begin your self-awareness journey toward understanding yourself,write down nouns and phrases that you think describe your identity as aperson. For example, on your list you might have written down such thingsas father/mother, writer, teacher, sister/brother, coach, or communityorganizer. The purpose of this initial activity is to help you recognize howyou define yourself. The second dimension of this activity is to sit back andreflect on how it came to be that you see yourself in these terms. Aquestioning mind set opens you up to other ways of viewing and thinkingabout things.

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Part of this reflective process requires you to engage in an examinationand understanding of your beliefs, values, and attitudes. These are shapedby your experiences in your personal and professional lives.

Beliefs

What are beliefs? Beliefs are what you accept as truth. Not everyonewill accept what you accept as truth, but it is still your truth. Culture, inwhich you grew up, experienced learning, and may still continue to viewlife, can be an influential factor in what you believe (Heimlich & Norland,1994) For example, if the majority of your educational experiencesinvolved small group participatory method in the classroom, then you mightbelieve that is the most appropriate method for effective teaching andlearning. Yet, we know that there are numerous methods and techniquesthat assist in meaningful learning experiences (Galbraith, 2004b). You maystill believe and stand strong on what you have experienced only becauseyou have not experienced any other methods and techniques in theclassroom. Beliefs may not always be based on factual information, whichmay render them incorrect, inappropriate, and inaccurate (Pratt, 1998).

Several very useful approaches can help you to determine and exploreyour beliefs, which may in turn influence your perspective on teaching. Oneapproach, which was developed by Apps (1991), is to create a beliefanalysis. It is a framework within which to organize your beliefs. The beliefanalysis works like this. First, you develop a list of your beliefs concerningteaching. Next, you examine the listed beliefs for contradictions, reflectingupon the sources of each belief and finally placing a judgment upon thesource of the belief. What you have as a result of this analysis is a list oforganized, consistent, and accepted beliefs that may be the foundation foryour personal vision or philosophy for teaching.

The second approach is to use the Van Tilburg/Heimlich TeachingBelief Scale, which can be found in Heimlich and Norland’s 1994 book.The scale measures the two dimensions of sensitivity and inclusion.Sensitivity refers to beliefs about the importance of knowing about thelearners for the purpose of interaction with the learning community.Inclusion refers to the beliefs about the importance of including thelearning community in all phases of the learning experience. The results ofthe scale will indicate what type of teacher (facilitator, enabler, expert, orprovider) you are in relationship to sensitivity and inclusion. More detailson each type can be found in the Heimlich and Norland’s book. Completing

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the scale results in an opportunity to investigate other beliefs about yourselfas a teacher.

Values

An integral factor in understanding self is understanding your values.Values “are principles that guide us and give us a sense of direction, thathelp us decide what is important and provide us with an ethical and moralfoundation” (Apps, 1996, p. 63). You may, for example, hold personal andprofessional values such honesty, trust, love, openness, empowerment,security, autonomy, power, recognition, learning, and expertise.

The question you want to ask yourself is, “How do I determine what myvalues are as a teacher of adults?” First, take a piece of paper and list up to10 cherished values you hold. Cranton (2001) provides two importantcategories for questioning each value. The first question is, “How did Icome to have each value?” Under this question you can address suchquestions as:

• Do I value this based on experience?• Do I value this as a part of a vision of how things should be?• Did I deliberately and autonomously choose this value?• Do I value what others value? (p. 24)

The next major question is, “Why is each value important to me?”Questions Cranton raises under this are:

• Do I value this because I have always valued it?• Is this value a part of my vision of the world or the future?• Is this value important because I have thought it through logically?• Is this value important because it is a part of my social world? (p.

24)This exercise assists you in exploring and examining your deeper and morepersonal values that underline your personal and professional lives.

Another value clarification exercise can be found in the Heimlich andNorland (1994). They provide a Teaching Values Scale that enables you tosee if you value content/curriculum, physical environment/resources,teacher/methods, learner community, and individual learners in yourpractice. If you complete this scale, it is important to recognize that thevalues you hold are clearly linked to your behavior as a teacher of adults.

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Attitudes

“Attitudes are those affective elements that are connected to our likeand dislike, positive or negative, and for or against feelings toward a personor thing. Our attitudes are guided by values which are based on a set ofbeliefs” (Galbraith, 2004a, p. 12). For example, you, as a teacher, believethat adult students bring to the educational encounter a diversity ofthoughts and experiences that should be used for the purpose of fosteringfurther learning. Because you value this diversity of thoughts andexperiences, you hold a positive attitude toward learners who share thesethoughts and experiences within the teaching and learning encounter.

As you did above, you can take a piece of paper and write down 10things you find within your attitudes toward the process of teaching.Remember, your attitudes can be likes and dislikes, positive or negative, orfor or against feelings toward someone or something. What did youdiscover about your list? The attitudes held influence the direction andaction of you as a teacher. They play themselves out in the teaching andlearning process.

Implications for Teaching Practice

Beliefs, values, and attitudes form the foundation for importantimplications toward your teaching practice, such as your personalphilosophy or vision for teaching, authenticity and credibility as a teacher,and your teaching perspective. Once these implications are realized, youwill recognize that they impact the way you design, implement, andfacilitate learning episodes.

Personal Philosophy and Vision for Teaching

A personal philosophy or vision for teaching is important. Thenumerous ways of teaching suggest that there are varying philosophical orpersonal visions put forth in the process. There is no one correctphilosophical orientation when it comes to teaching. When you discoverwhat beliefs, values, and attitudes you hold, you will have the basis for afocused and action-oriented vision or philosophy for your teaching. That is,you take your espoused beliefs, values, and attitudes and turn them into aphilosophy-in-action.

An educational philosophy is essential for adult educators in their

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efforts toward “understanding what we do in the classroom and why we doit” (Conti, 2007, p. 19). A good personal philosophy “is the primary focalpoint of understanding good teaching, and everything that occurs in theteaching and learning process stems from that philosophical orientation”(Galbraith, 2004a, p. 13). Your philosophy will become your point of lightthat will give you direction as a teacher. Developing a personal philosophyor vision provides an organizing vision for your efforts, gives a sense ofstability and direction, reduces those feelings of uncertainty, combatspolitical pressure and undesired wishes of institutions that are in conflictwith your vision or philosophy, and provides a sense of collectiveprofessional identity (Brookfield, 2006). This leads to professional strengthamong teachers and is pedagogically important as it assists you in knowinghow to judge the influence you may have within the educational encounter.

Several approaches can help you determine your personal philosophyor vision for teaching. One approach is to complete the Philosophy of AdultEducation Inventory developed by Zinn (2004). This self-administering,self-scoring, and self-interpreting inventory will place you in one of fivephilosophical orientations: liberal, behaviorist, progressive, humanistic, orradical. You can interpret your scores through such factors as purpose ofeducation, learner, teacher, key words used, methods, and people andpractices.

In the same vein as Zinn’s inventory, Conti (2007) has developed thePhilosophies Held by Instructors of Lifelong-Learners (PHIL) instrument.It “was designed to identify a respondent’s preference” toward one of fivemajor schools of philosophical thought (p. 22). The PHIL schools ofthought are idealism (liberal), realism (behaviorist), pragmatism(progressive), existentialism (humanistic), and reconstructionism (radical).Conti states that,

PHIL consists of four items that are organized in a flow-chartdesign. Each item begins with a sentence stem that leads to twooptions. Each option leads the respondent to proceed to anotherpage with an additional item on it or which provides informationabout the respondent’s correct group placement. Once the groupplacement is identified, the respondent is directed to the page withthe descriptions of the various educational philosophies.(p. 32)

The wonderful thing about this instrument is that it can be completed inapproximately 1 to 3 minutes.

Another approach is to identify a philosophy and adopt it as your own(which you probably already have done) and then build on your framework

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within the selected philosophical general tenets that you find desirable anduseful. A nice overview of various philosophies can be found in Elias andMerriam’s (2005) book, Philosophical Foundations of Adult Education,which you may find very helpful in accomplishing this approach.

A third approach is to reflect on your beliefs, values, and attitudes asthey relate to teaching and learning. Then, according to Dean (2002), youcan take this inductive approach to philosophy building and compareexisting philosophies as you engage in a quest of congruence. Basically,you are taking what you discovered in your self-awareness journey andattempting to see if a certain philosophy contains those particular elements.

Once you discover those self-awareness components (beliefs, values,and attitudes) as well as identify a philosophical orientation that works foryou, you will become a more reflective and insightful teacher. As a result,you will grow both personally and professionally and be able to separatewhat others think you should be as a teacher from what you really are as ateacher. Once you engage in self-awareness activities, it allows you tounderstand yourself better and moves you toward being more authentic andcredible as a teacher.

Authenticity and Credibility

Being a teacher is a “highly individual endeavor, and each instructorshould work according to what personally feels most comfortable”(Sperber, 2005, p. B20). Adult learners recognize early if you areattempting to engage in a style of teaching that is not truly yours. Youcannot act like a stand-up comedian, for example, and feel comfortable inthat process if it is not in your demeanor. However, you may use humor inthe classroom if it comes at a time when the situation or comments madeby students spark a story or reflective feedback moment. Nothing isplanned ahead of time. In other words, you have to find the comfort zoneand teaching style that fits your personality. Students have an awareness.They are wise enough to recognize if you are not authentic and credible inyour teaching approach.

Having students view you as authentic and credible is grounded in theprocess of building trust between you and them. Being “the teacher” doesnot come with an automatic precept of trust. You have to earn trust!Becoming an authentic teacher happens when students feel they can trustthat your espoused perspectives are aligned with your actions; adultlearners see authentic teachers as real flesh-and-blood human beings with

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passions, frailties, and emotions (Brookfield, 2006). In support of thatperspective, authentic teachers are those who hold an awareness of whothey are as individual human beings and can express that in theirprofessional work (Carusetta & Cranton, 2005; Cranton, 2001; Cranton &Carusetta, 2004; Galbraith & Jones, 2006).

Credibility is paved in believability and trustworthiness. Credibleteachers have the ability to present themselves as people with something tooffer students (Brookfield, 2006). Once you have credibility with yourstudents, they will view you as having the knowledge, skill, experience,expertise, and insight that exceeds theirs. You will be accepted as someonewho can help them understand some of the ebbs and flows in theirintellectual journey.

It is essential to seek some sort of balance and comfort zone forcredibility and authenticity so you can lay a foundation for a trustingteaching and learning encounter. The courage to wrestle with your beliefs,values, attitudes, philosophical orientation, and the elements of what makesyou more authentic and credible may suggest that you have the beginningsof becoming a good teacher of adults.

A Teaching Perspective

Each of us has a particular way of viewing teaching and learning. Theway you carry out your role and activities as a teacher is your teachingstyle. To get you into the mind-set of thinking in terms of teaching style,take a few minutes and answer these five prompts as suggested by Filene(2005):

• I bring to teaching a belief that________.• In the classroom I see myself as________.• I believe students are________.• I seek to foster in students________.• I think learning is________.

What this activity provides is a preliminary means of explaining what youthink your style is, what your mode of inquiry is, and what you value.However, that is not the same as a teaching perspective. Your beliefs,values, and attitudes are important because they lay the foundation for yourteaching perspective.

Pratt (2002) contends that a perspective on teaching is an interrelatedset of beliefs and intentions which give meaning and justification for youractions. Perspectives are neither good nor bad according to Pratt. Instead,

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they are “simply philosophical orientations to knowledge, learning, and therole and responsibility of being a teacher” (p. 14) and provide a lensthrough which you view teaching and learning. How your beliefs,intentions, and actions play out will assist in determining your perspectiveon teaching. It is not uncommon to find yourself thinking that you associatewith more than one perspective.

Pratt and Associates (1998) provide thoughtful insights intounderstanding perspectives on teaching. An excellent tool that will help youidentify your dominant perspective is The Teaching Perspectives Inventory(available at www.teachingperspectives.com) which was developed byPratt. The inventory generates five teaching perspectives. You will discoverthat one of the five teaching perspectives is in agreement with your ownpractice.

The first perspective is grounded in a behaviorist approach to teaching.Pratt calls this the Transmission Perspective, which is grounded in arelationship between content and process. The purpose of teaching fromthis perspective is to move knowledge or skills from a content expert, theteacher or textbook, to the learner. Ideal learners in this setting would bethose who know exactly why they are there and what they want to do withthe skills learned. If you subscribe to this perspective as a teacher, youwould spend a great deal of time preparing and mastering the content.Because of the emphasis is on the instructional design process, you willspecify what your students will learn by writing the objectives and havingthe assignments structured to meet those objectives.

The Developmental Perspective is another one of the five perspectives.This perspective is very much grounded in the constructionist orientation.Pratt (2002) suggests that the “goal is to change the way learners thinkrather than increase their store of knowledge” (p. 8). The DevelopmentPerspective goal is to challenge learners to think critically, to solveproblems, and to understand for themselves what the material means. Aprimary focus is to confront learners with new information that does not fittheir prior knowledge base. So when learners are confronted with newinformation that does not fit , it causes a moment of disequilibrium untilthey can either dismiss the new information or revise their cognitiveprocess. If you hold this perspective, you would as a teacher of adultsexplore learners’ current conceptions of content and then challenge thoseconceptions to help learners move to more sophisticated levels of thinkingand reasoning. Asking meaningful questions, proposing problems, utilizingcase studies, engaging in discussions, and providing insightful examples are

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the major techniques that help propel learners from their previous ways ofthinking and reasoning to new and more sophisticated forms of thinking.

A third perspective is the Nurturing Perspective and is grounded in thebelief that learning is most affected by a learner’s self-concept and self-efficacy. It suggests that a learner’s high confidence level contributes to theability to learn new material and makes it useful and relevant to life. Thisperspective is held by teachers of adults who view themselves as facilitatorsof learning and not just as transmitters of information. Such teachers helpstudents feel good about themselves as self-sufficient learners, celebratetheir achievements, as well as support and challenge them in theireducational journey. However, nurturing teachers also understand thatmastery of content is considered secondary to the way in which mastery isachieved.

The next perspective on teaching is the Apprenticeship Perspective.Johnson and Pratt (1998) suggest that learning is facilitated when thelearner works on authentic tasks in real settings of practice. As a teacher,you work with the learners’ zone of development, that is, you know whatlearners can do on their own and what they can do with guided assistance.In addition, as you help learners work on meaningful and relevant tasks ofpractice, you will go through some traditional stages associated with thisperspective such as observation, modelling, scaffolding, fading, andcoaching. The primary goal should be to have learners reach a point ofautonomy and independence.

The Social Reform Perspective is the final perspective on teaching.This perspective is based upon an explicitly stated ideal or set of principlesthat are, in turn, linked to a vision of a better social order (Nesbit, 1998).As a teacher who conforms to this perspective, you would make threeassumptions: that the ideals held are necessary for a better society; that theideals are appropriate for all; and that the ultimate goal of teaching is tobring about social change, not simply individual learning. The teacher ofadults would utilize powerful metaphors that “help learners bridge betweenprior knowledge and new concepts, and work hard to respect and promotethe dignity and self-efficacy” of the learners (pp. 12-13). As Pratt (2002)suggests, those who hold a Social Reform Perspective are few and farbetween but “those who do are very likely to have a lasting impression ontheir learners” (p. 13).

It is imperative to remember that perspectives on teaching represent aset of beliefs as opposed to a set of teaching behaviors. Take some time andexplore what your dominant perspective is and how that fits into your

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beliefs, intentions, and actions as a teacher. It will help in improving yourphilosophical and practical aspects of your teaching.

Conclusion

Self-awareness is an essential component in becoming a skillful teacherof adults. To begin this journey toward self-awareness, it is suggested thatit is imperative to investigate your beliefs, values, and attitudes. In doingso, you discover what you accept as truth, as well as principles that guideyou and give you a sense of direction. In addition you will discover thoseaffective elements that make a connection to your likes and dislikes (bothpositive and negative) and to your feelings toward a person or thing (bothfor and against). These three elements form the basis for importantimplications for your teaching practice. Self-awareness is the foundationfor your philosophical orientation or vision for teaching, a mechanism forenhancing authenticity and credibility of yourself as a teacher with youradult learners, and a guide for your teaching perspective.

An insightful self-awareness journey can be rewarding. However, ittakes a dedicated focus, as well as an investment in time, energy, andcommitment to realize its full potential and value to you as a teacher ofadults. Self-awareness understandings can enhance your practice in waysthat will improve the teaching and learning encounter.

References

Apps, J. W. (1991). Mastering the teaching of adults. Malabar, FL: Krieger.

Apps, J. W. (1996). Teaching from the heart. Malabar, FL: Krieger.

Brookfield, S. (2006). The skillful teacher. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Carusetta, E., & Cranton, P. (2005). Nurturing authenticity: A conversation with

teachers. Teaching in Higher Education, 10(3), 285-297.

Conti, G. J.(2007). Identifying your educational philosophy: Development of the

Philosophies Held by Instructors of Lifelong-learners (PHIL). Journal of Adult

Education, 34(1), 19-35.

Cranton, P. (2001). Becoming an authentic teacher in higher education. Malabar,

FL: Krieger.

Cranton, P., & Carusetta, E. (2004). Perspectives on authenticity in teaching. Adult

Education Quarterly, 55(1), 5-22.

Dean, G. (2002). Designing instruction for adult learners (2 ed.). Malabar, FL:nd

Krieger.

Elias, J., & Merriam, S. (2005). Philosophical foundations of adult education (3rd

ed.). Malabar, FL: Krieger.

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Filene, P. (2005). The joy of teaching. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina.

Galbraith, M. W. (2004a). The teacher of adults. In M. W. Galbraith (Ed.), Adult

learning methods: A guide to effective instruction (3 ed.) (pp. 3-21). Malabar,rd

FL: Krieger.

Galbraith, M. W. (Ed.). (2004b). Adult learning methods: A guide to effective

instruction (3 ed.). Malabar, FL: Krieger. rd

Galbraith, M. W. (2008). College teaching: Developing perspective through

dialogue. Malabar, FL: Krieger.

Galbraith, M. W., & Jones, M. S. (2006).The art and science of teaching

developmental mathematics: Building perspective through dialogue. Journal

of Developmental Education, 30(2), 20-27.

Galbraith, M. W., & Jones, M. S. (2007, October). The importance of self-

awareness for the college teacher. Paper presented at the national conference

of the American Association for Adult and Continuing Education, Norfolk,

VA.

Heimlich, J., & Norland, E. (1994). Developing teaching style in adult education.

San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Johnson, J., & Pratt, D. (1998). The apprenticeship perspective: Modelling ways of

being. In D. Pratt & Associates, Five perspectives on teaching in adult and

higher education (pp. 83-103). Malabar, FL: Krieger.

Nesbit, T. (1998). The social reform perspective: Seeking a better society. In D.

Pratt & Associates, Five perspectives on teaching in adult and higher

education (pp. 173-199). Malabar, FL: Krieger.

Pratt, D. (1998). Analytical tools: Epistemic, normative, and procedural beliefs. In

D. Pratt & Associates, Five perspectives on teaching in adult and higher

education (pp. 203-216). Malabar, FL: Krieger.

Pratt, D. (2002). Good teaching: One size fits all? In J. Ross-Gordon (Ed.),

Contemporary viewpoints on teaching adults effectively (pp. 5-15). New

Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, No. 93. San Francisco: Jossey-

Bass.

Pratt, D. & Associates (1998). Five perspectives on teaching in adult and higher

education. Malabar, FL: Krieger.

Sperber, M. (2005, September 9). Notes from a career in teaching. The Chronicle

of Higher Education, p. B20-21.

Weimer, M. (2008). Positioning scholarly work on teaching and learning.

International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 2(1), 1-6.

Zinn, L. (2004). Exploring your philosophical orientation. In M. W. Galbraith

(Ed.), Adult learning methods: A guide to effective instruction (3 ed.) (pp. 39-rd

74). Malabar, FL: Krieger.

Journal of Adult Education

Volume 37, Number 1, 2008

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Identifying the Multiple Intelligences of Your Students

Joyce A. McClellanGary J. Conti

Abstract

One way of addressing individual differences among adult learnersis to identify the Multiple Intelligences of the learner. MultipleIntelligences refers to the concept developed by Howard Gardnerthat challenges the traditional view of intelligence and explains thepresence of nine different Multiple Intelligences. The purpose ofthis study was to develop a valid and reliable instrument foridentifying these Multiple Intelligences. Items were developed byfield testing with 168 college students, and responses from 874community college students were factor analyzed to develop a 27-item indicator to identify Multiple Intelligences preferences ofadult learners.

Introduction

The distinguishing characteristic of adult education is its focus on theindividual learner. This emphasis is reflected in the two foundationaltheories of adult learning that form the cornerstone of our currentunderstanding of adult learning (Merriam, 2001, p. 3). These twin pillarsof adult learning theory are andragogy and self-directed learning.

Malcolm Knowles (1970) conceptualized andragogy as “the art andscience of helping adults learn” (p. 38). This approach for “helping humanbeings learn” (p. 38) was based on a set of “at least four crucialassumptions about the characteristics of adult learners” (p. 39). These basicassumptions hold that as adults mature, (a) they move toward becomingmore independent and capable of directing their own learning, (b) they have

______

Joyce A. McClellan is Evening Director for Adult Education at Tulsa Technology

Center, Tulsa, OK. Gary J. Conti is Professor of Adult Education at Oklahoma State

University, Stillwater, OK.

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an accumulated reservoir of experience that can be a valuable resource forlearning, (c) their readiness to learn is related to their developing socialroles, and (d) their orientation to learning is problem centered with a desirefor immediate application. Later Knowles added that adults are internallymotivated and that adults need to know why they need to learn somethingbefore committing to the learning (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson,1998).The importance of andragogy is that it created a rationale for alearner-centered approach to adult learning.

Knowles (1975) also played a role in conceptualizing self-directedlearning. He defined self-directed learning as “a process in whichindividuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, indiagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifyinghuman and material resources for learning, choosing and implementingappropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes” (p. 18).When this is combined with the work of others such as Houle and Tough,it is clear that self-directed learning is widespread, is an integral part of anadult’s everyday life, and is systematic but does not depend on an instructoror classroom (Merriam, 2001, p. 8).

These foundational theories of andragogy and self-directed learningdescribe adult learning as a learner-centered activity. This focus mandatesthat individual differences be identified in the classroom in order forteachers to be effective. One way of addressing individual differences is toidentify the skills of problem solving that learners use to resolve thegenuine problems or difficulties that they encounter in life and that therebylay the ground work for acquisition of new knowledge (Gardner, 1983, pp.60-61). Such an approach involves identifying the Multiple Intelligences oflearners.

Multiple Intelligences

The traditional mode of teaching, which is termed frontal teaching orchalk and talk, has not been successful for all students as is evidenced bythe dropout rate of 50% in high schools in the United States (Snyder, 1999,p. 11). Statistics such as these portray a serious educational problem. Theachievement of the American dream of completing an education should notjust be for those that can score high on a traditional intelligence test. In1983, Howard Gardner developed the theory of Multiple Intelligenceswhich explains the presence of nine different Intelligences: these includeBodily/ Kinesthetic, Existential, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Logical/

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Mathematical, Musical, Naturalist, Verbal/Linguistic, and Visual/Spatial(Gardner, 1997, p. 8). The following are the personal learning styles basedupon the nine Multiple Intelligences.

1. Bodily/Kinesthetic Intelligence is the proficiency of usingthe entire body to express ideas and feelings and thecompetence of using the body to produce or transformthings (Gardner, 1983, pp. 205-236).

2. Existential Intelligence is the appreciation of spiritualityand understanding questions about life. This intelligencerelates to exploring human existence in the universe(Gardner, 1999, p. 115).

3. Interpersonal Intelligence is the proficiency of anindividual in perceiving the moods, aims, motivations, andemotions of others (Gardner, 1983, pp. 237-276).

4. Intrapersonal Intelligence is having a positive self-conceptand life direction which is intrinsically grounded. Thecompetency in knowing oneself and acting to modifyoneself based on that knowledge (pp. 237-276).

5. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence involves the elevatedskill of manipulating and understanding numbers and theability to reason effectively (pp. 128-169).

6. Musical Intelligence is the ability to appreciate,distinguish, compose, and perform in various musicalforms (pp. 99-127).

7. Naturalistic Intelligence is the ability to appreciate,categorize, classify, explain, and connect to thingsencountered in nature (Gardner, 1999, p. 115).

8. Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence is the ability to understand,use, and manipulate written or spoken words productively(Gardner, 1983, pp. 73-98).

9. Visual/Spatial Intelligence is characterized by being ableto see an image or situation and quickly assess areas thatcould be changed to transform or improve the appearance(pp. 170-204).

In his 1983 landmark book Frames of Mind, Dr. Howard Gardner ofHarvard University introduced his theory of Multiple Intelligences. Gardneris the author of many books and articles. His theory of MultipleIntelligences has challenged long-held assumptions about intelligence.

Gardner’s (1983) theory conceptualized intelligence as consisting of

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several distinct intelligences rather than a singular cognitive capacity.Multiple Intelligences celebrates the uniqueness and diversity of allstudents. Gardner suggests the need for a broader view of the human mindand of human learning than what currently exists. Multiple Intelligencesholds that every student is smart not just in one or two ways but in many.Gardner believes instructors must attempt to reach all students and developtheir diverse intelligences. Moreover, instructors need to teach in a varietyof ways which provide varied learning experiences for students.

Intelligence traditionally has been defined in terms of IntelligenceQuotient (IQ), which measures a narrow range of Verbal/Linguistic andLogical/Mathematical abilities (Gardner & Hatch, 1989). Gardner arguesthat humans possess a number of distinct intelligences beyond verbal andlogical abilities that appear in different skills and abilities. All humanbeings apply these intelligences to solve problems, invent processes, anddemonstrate their creativity (Gardner & Hatch, 1989).

Throughout most of this century, the popular definition of intelligenceis what is measured in an IQ Test. That has basically been how intelligenceis viewed (Fellenz & Conti, 1989). To be considered intelligent, a personhas to do well on an intelligence test. In fact, one cannot gain access tohigher education without doing well on such test (Fellenz & Conti, 1989).

In the 1970's, a group of cognitive psychologists began to feel that thedefinition of intelligence was also wrong. They felt as though the definitionwas missing the understanding of what intelligence really is (Sternberg,1990). The conclusion of Earl Hunt, Jack Carrol, Jim Pelegrino, BobGlaser, and Robert Sternberg was that what is missing is an understandingof the mental processes that underlie intelligence (Sternberg, 1990). Inother words, the tests can give you a score, but what they do not give youis an understanding of the mental processes that underlie the score(Sternberg, 1990).

Howard Gardner (1993) argues that humans possess a number ofdistinct intelligences beyond verbal and logical skills that are measured ontraditional instruments. These intelligences appear in different skills andabilities. All human beings apply these intelligences to solve problems. Hisconcept that celebrates individual differences is the theory of MultipleIntelligences.

Traditionally, intelligence is defined operationally as the ability toanswer items on tests of intelligence. The inference from the test scores tosome underlying ability is supported by statistical techniques that compareresponses of subjects at different ages. The correlation of the test scores

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across ages and across different tests corroborates the notion that thegeneral faculty of intelligence does not change much with age or withtraining or experience (Gardner, 1993, p. 15).

However, Gardner believes intelligence is an inborn attribute or facultyof an individual. Human cognitive competence is better described in termof a set of abilities, talents, or mental skills which is referred to asintelligence (Gardner, 1993, p. 15). All normal individuals possess each ofthe skills to some extent; however, individuals differ in the degree of skilland their combinations (p. 15). This theory of intelligence may be morehumane and more controversial than alternative views of intelligence.Moreover, it more adequately reflects the data of human intelligentbehavior (p. 15). Such a theory has important educational implications,including opportunities for curriculum development (p. 15).

Multiple intelligence theory pluralizes the traditional concept ofintelligence. Multiple Intelligences is the ability to solve problems or deviseproducts that are of significance in a particular cultural setting (Gardner,1993, p. 15). The problem solving skill allows one to approach a situationthat requires a goal to be met and locate the appropriate route to that goal(p. 16). Multiple Intelligences theory is framed in light of the biologicalorigins of each problem solving skill. Only those skills that are universal tothe human species are treated. Therefore, the biological tendency toparticipate in a particular form of problem solving must also be coupledwith the cultural nurturing of that domain (p. 16). For example, the use oflanguage, which is a universal skill, may expose itself particularly aswriting in one culture, as oratory in another culture, and as the secretlanguage of anagrams in a third (p. 16).

Gardner (1993) identified intelligences that are rooted in biology andthat are valued in one or more cultural settings. Evidence was obtainedfrom several different sources: knowledge about normal development anddevelopment in gifted individuals; information about the breakdown ofcognitive skills under conditions of brain damage; studies of exceptionalpopulations, including prodigies and autistic children; data about theevolution of cognition over the millennia; cross-cultural accounts ofcognition; psychometric studies, including examinations of correlationsamong tests; and psychological training studies, particularly measures oftransfer and generalization across tasks (p. 16). Only those intelligencesthat satisfied all or a majority of the criteria were selected as bona-fideintelligences.

Gardner based the Multiple Intelligences theory on three foundational

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principles: (a) individuals are not the same--individuals differences exists;(b) people do not all have the same kinds of minds; and (c) educationbecomes most effective if these individual differences are considered(Gardner, 1999). It is the existence of the individual differences that startedGardner on his path of developing the theoretical bases of MultipleIntelligences. In addition, he believed his task was to envision forms ofeducation and modes of assessment that would have a firm root in currentscientific understanding and that contributes to enlightened educationalgoals (Gardner, 1993, p. 163). In adult leaning, individuals should be ableto understand and articulate their learning preferences, which are specifiedby their intelligences.

Many educators have begun to recognize that students have uniquedifferences and would like to modify teaching methods to include MultipleIntelligences. However, for educators to apply various teaching methods forthe various Multiple Intelligences, they must have a valid and reliable wayto identify their Multiple Intelligences. While the concept of MultipleIntelligences has been around for almost 30 years, there is currently novalid or reliable tool that is easily accessible.

Purpose

There is no question that the traditional method of measuring andassessing students’ intelligence works well for some students (Gardner,1993). However, understanding and meeting the needs of all studentsshould be the goal. An improved approach is needed for assessingintelligence. In Gardner’s view, the purpose of school should be to developintelligences and to help people reach vocational and avocational goals thatare appropriate to their particular spectrum of intelligences (p. 9). It is ofthe utmost importance for society to recognize and nurture all of thepossible human intelligences. If recognized early, the chance of dealingwith educational problems could be addressed appropriately and effectively(p. 9).

In order for teachers to understand how to implement various teachingmethods which incorporate Multiple Intelligences, they must be able toeasily and accurately identify a students’ intelligence ranking. In addition,for individuals to understand and articulate their own learning preferencesspecified by their intelligences, they too must be able to easily identifyindividual strengths.

Although practitioners have embraced the concept of Multiple

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Intelligences, they do not have an easily accessible, affordable, valid, andreliable tool for identifying Multiple Intelligences. Many surveys,checklists, and inventories have been devised for classroom use. However,most lack validity and reliability information, and several are cumbersometo score. Most of these instruments have been developed as curricular toolsrather than as valid and reliable instruments. In addition, it is not knownhow accurate they are. In order for teachers to competently use the conceptof Multiple Intelligences in their classes, they need a valid and reliable toolwhich is suitable for classroom use and which can be easily used withstudents.

In 2001 Gardner spoke to an overflow crowd of educators about histheory of Multiple Intelligences at an educational conference in Tulsa,Oklahoma. During personal conversations after the presentation, Gardnershared that his interest was in developing the theory related to MultipleIntelligences and that he felt that the development of measurementinstruments related to the theory was the task of others. When we expressedour interest in developing such an instrument, Gardner offered his supportthrough Project Zero where he serves as Co-Director. With thisencouragement, this study was initiated with the purpose of developing avalid and reliable preference indicator that practitioners could use toidentify the Multiple Intelligences of adult learners.

Methodology

The Multiple Intelligence Survey (MIS) was developed to identifyMultiple Intelligences as conceptualized by Gardner. This tool wasdesigned for use in instrumented-learning situations rather than forpsychological testing in clinical settings; that is, it was designed to provideself-report information (Blake & Mouton, 1972) to help students in themetacognitive process of reflecting upon how they learn.

This study utilized the traditional steps in instrument development tocreate a valid and reliable process for identifying a person’s MultipleIntelligences. Construct validity for items was based on Howard Gardner’sconceptualization of Multiple Intelligences. Using this concept, items wereidentified and tested for accuracy in measuring each of the separateintellingences in the concept. Once a pool of useable items was created,content validity was established by field testing these items with adultlearners in classes in a community college. Finally, reliability wasestablished by using the test-retest method.

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Construct Validity

The most important type of validity is construct validity (Gay &Airasian, 2000, p. 167). It is the degree to which the test reflects theconstructs it is intended to measure (p. 167). Construct validity deals withwhat an instrument actually measures (p. 167). It is broad and is concernedwith characteristics or behaviors that impart performance on an assessmentor instrument (p. 167). Construct validity evaluates the fundamental theoryof the instrument. “A construct is a non-observable characteristic likeintelligence” (Gay, 1996, p. 14).

For this study, it was important to establish construct validity to matchthe theoretical factors proposed by Gardner. In the initial process ofestablishing construct validity for the new instrument, Howard Gardner’sNon-Profit organization Project Zero was contacted. In addition, electronicsearches were conducted, and materials related to Multiple Intelligenceswere also identified using personal sources. Several Multiple Intelligencesinstruments were identified in these sources. These Multiple Intelligencesmaterials were compiled and reviewed to determine which instrumentswere congruent with Howard Gardner’s theoretical foundation. There werea total of 17 different Multiple Intelligences instruments identified. EachMultiple Intelligences instrument referred to itself as either an instrument,survey, inventory, assessment, or checklist.

After reviewing each of the Multiple Intelligences instruments, it wasdecided to incorporate material from several instruments. Ten questionswere selected to represent each of the nine Multiple Intelligences. The firstdraft for the new Multiple Intelligences instrument contained a pool of 90items. These 90 items were derived from instruments currently being usedin the field that encompasses Howard Gardner’s theoretical foundation. Theitems were screened for compatibility with Gardner’s writings. Someminor editing was conducted on the items for grammar, so that each itemmeasured only a single construct, and for parallel wordings.

Thus, construct validity deals with what the instrument actuallymeasures. The construct validity for the new instrument was established bycreating a pool of items that were directly related to the writings of HowardGardner. Instead of arbitrarily developing some items, various existingMultiple Intelligences instruments were used. These instruments are beingused in the field to informally identify Multiple Intelligences areas but havenot had their validity and reliability systematically established. These itemswere then edited in order to be combined into a single Multiple

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Intelligences preference indicator.

Content Validity

Content validity represents the degree to which a measure embodies therange of meanings within the concept (Babbie, 1989, p.125). Contentvalidity is the degree to which an instrument measures the precise contentareas (Gay, 1996, p. 139). It is the extent to which an instrument representsthe total body of theory from which the items could have been taken (Gall,Gall, & Borg, 1999, pp. 133-134). The content of an instrument is valid tothe degree the participant’s responses on that instrument are arepresentative sample of the items (p. 134).

To establish content validity for an instrument, the instrument mustinclude items that represent the range of content that the test is designed tomeasure (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 1999, p. 526). To accomplish this, the 90items in the pool of items were used in field tests with college students atOklahoma State University and Northeastern State University–BrokenArrow. These students assisted in the process of determining which itemscorrectly discriminated respondents on the concepts. In the first field tests,eight graduate students in Adult Education at Oklahoma State Universityprovided feedback on the language, readability, and format of thepreference indicator. They pointed out words and phrases that they foundconfusing. Their responses indicated that the instrument could not use arating scale because students rated almost every item high. Finally,although the preference indicator could be completed in approximately 10minutes, the students expressed a desire for a shorter preference indicator.

Based upon the feedback from the students, revisions were made in thewording of several items. Also, the 5-point Likert scale that was used in thefirst version was replaced with a ranking system. For this format, the 90items in the pool of items were arranged in 10 blocks of 9 items with 1 itemin the block representing each Multiple Intelligences category. For eachblock, the respondents were asked to rank the items according to how theitem applied to them. The item most like them was ranked 1, and the itemleast like them was ranked 9. The rankings for each Multiple Intelligencesarea were summed, and the Multiple Intelligences area with the lowestscore was judged to be the preference Multiple Intelligences area for therespondent.

The modified preference indicator with the ranking system was onceagain field tested with 11 Adult Education graduate students at Oklahoma

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State University. In order to determine if each item was making a positivecontribution to the total score, each of the items in the MultipleIntelligences category was correlated with the total score for each MultipleIntelligences category. The correlations for this process indicated thatseveral of the items positively correlated with the total score and each hadpotential for being included in the final preference indicator. Since theprevious testing had indicated a need to shorten the preference indicator,the number of items was reduced to 45. The five items with the highestcorrelations were selected for each of the nine Multiple Intellingencesareas. For the new 45-item preference indicator, the item from each groupthat had the highest correlation was placed in the first grouping of MultipleIntelligence items, and this process was repeated for each of the five areas.Thus, for each ranking group, the items for each Multiple Intelligence areacompeted with items of similar standing from the other MultipleIntelligence areas. Field testing with 19 students in graduate classes inAdult Education confirmed the retention of these 45 items.

This 45-item version of the preference indicator was field tested witha larger group of students from Northeastern State University in BrokenArrow, Oklahoma. These 149 students were enrolled in the SpecialEducation Program. After the preference indicators were scored,correlations were computed for the relationship of each item in a MultipleIntelligences area to the total scores for the area. The correlation scores forall of the items except two were at .3 or above; 57.7% of the items were at.5 or above, and 26.7% of the items were at .6 or above.

This entire process was designed to get the preference indicator readyfor field testing with a large group. Since the correlations for the 45-itemversion of the instrument indicated that each of these items had potentialfor correctly identifying its Multiple Intelligence area, the preferenceindicator was prepared for a larger field testing with adult students at TulsaCommunity College.

Data were collected from community college students to establish thecontent validity of items for the new preference indicator. A communitycollege was chosen because it is a good representation of the generalpopulation of an area. Students were selected from the General Educationclasses at Tulsa Community College (TCC)in Tulsa, Oklahoma. TheGeneral Education classes were used because they represent the basicclasses most students take their first year at a community college. With theassistance of the Registrar’s Office, 11 General Education courses taughtat all 4 TCC campuses were selected. From this list of General Education

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courses, there was a need to further reduce the list of classes because of themultiple sections. Therefore, every third class on the list was selected fordata collection. This brought the total to 24 classes for data collection. Theday of the week for collecting data on each of the four campuses wasrandomly selected. The instructors for the classes were contacted, and theirpermission was secured for data gathering in their classes. In all of theclasses, the Multiple Intelligences preference indicator was completed inabout 5 to 7 minutes. The number of participants surveyed in these classeswas 403. Of these, 355 were complete and useable. When the data wereexamined, it was discovered that the representation in some of the MultipleIntelligences area was very low. Therefore, 2 weeks later, this entireprocess was repeated in order to secure a larger sample. Data werecollected from 432 participants in 27 classes during this second round.With 355 from the first round and 432 from the second round, a total of 787students from Tulsa Community College participated in the study. Theseparticipants were similar in age and gender to the general population ofTulsa.

Factor Analysis

Once the data were collected, the first statistical analysis sought tocheck to see if the items in the Multiple Intelligences Survey (MIS) werecongruent with Howard Gardner’s underlying theory of MultipleIntelligences. Therefore, a factor analysis was conducted with a data setthat consisted of the 787 TCC students and an additional 87 students forwhom data were collected to check criterion-related validity. Factoranalysis is a statistical method for researching the intercorrelations amonga set of test scores to determine the number of factors or constructs neededto explain the intercorrelations (Ary, Jacobs, & Razavieh, 1996, p. 271). “Itis a family of procedures for removing the redundancy from a set ofcorrelated variables and representing the variables with a small set of‘derived’ variables, or factors” (Kachigan, 1991, p. 237). Thus, factoranalysis provides a method to reduce the data to form a set of relatedvariables (Ary, Jacobs, & Razavieh, 1996, p. 271), and “in each case thesubset of variables can be thought of as manifestations of an abstractunderlying dimension--a factor” (Kachigan, 1991, p. 237). Factor analysisfinds the groups of variables that are highly correlated with each other andthat are not directly observable (Ary, Jacobs, & Razavieh, 1996, p. 271).

MIS is based on the nine Multiple Intelligences categories

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conceptualized by Howard Gardner. These Multiple Intelligencescategories represented the abstract underlying dimensions of the preferenceindicator. Therefore, a factor analysis was conducted with the 874 MISresponses to confirm these factors. Since the sample size should preferablybe 10 or more times as large as the number of variables in multivariateresearch (Roscoe, 1975, p. 184), this sample was large enough to eliminatethe concern of sampling error.

This analysis used a principal components factor analysis. A“principal-components analysis is a relatively straightforward method oftransforming a given set of variables into a new set of composite variablesor principal components that are orthogonal (uncorrelated) to each other”(Nie, Hull, Jenkins, Steinbrenner, & Bent, 1975, p. 470). This is perhapsthe most common variation of factor analysis with the first factoraccounting for the most variance in the analysis and with each succeedingfactor accounting for less and less of the total variance (Kachigan, 1991, p.245). Because of this feature, “principal components analysis is often usedas a preliminary step to help decide the difficult question of how manyfactors...represent abstractions of the input variables” (p. 246).

45-Item Form of MIS

It was anticipated that the principal components analysis would revealnine factors with eigenvalues of greater than 1.0. Eigenvalues refer to thevariance existing in the variables (Nie, Hull, Jenkins, Steinbrenner, & Bent,1975, p. 442), and an eigenvalue “corresponds to the equivalent number ofvariables which a factor represent....One frequently used rule of thumb isto retain factors to the point where an additional factor would account forless variance than a typical variable; that is, less than one eigenvalue”(Kachigan, 1991, p. 246). Nine factors were expected to have eigenvaluesgreater than 1 because there are nine Multiple Intelligences categories.However, 16 possible factors had eigenvalues greater than 1. The first andstrongest factor accounted for only 7.61% of the variance in the analysis,and the sixteenth factor only accounted for 2.22% of the variance. To testother possibilities for the relationship of the Multiple Intelligencescategories, eight additional factor analyses were run. Each one held thenumber of factors fixed at between two and nine.

The 8-factor solution was determined to be the best explanation of thecommunity college data. The factors accounted for 40.74% of the variance.However, these factors did not independently represent Gardner’s Multiple

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Intelligences categories. All of the factors were made up of a combinationof items from different Multiple Intelligences categories. The failure of theoriginal principal components analysis and the eight follow-up analyses toidentify Gardner’s nine categories suggested either that there is aninteraction among the Multiple Intelligences categories conceptualized byHoward Gardner or that the items in the Multiple Intelligences Survey werenot correctly identifying a single Multiple Intelligences category asconceptualized by Howard Gardner.

Since the possible interaction of Multiple Intelligences categories couldnot be investigated if the items in the MIS were not accurately measuringthe concepts for which they were written, the question of the validity of theitems was addressed. Since each of the five items for each of the MultipleIntelligences categories was designed to measure a single concept, aseparate principal components factor analysis was conducted for eachMultiple Intelligences category using the responses of the 874 communitycollege students to the five items in the category. Eight of the nine analysesrevealed that the items were measuring more than one concept. Seven ofthese eight were measuring two concepts while one was measuring threeconcepts. For example, the Logical-Mathematical Intelligences area haditems related both to the construct of logic as indicated by organization andstructure and to the construct of mathematics as indicated by calculations.

Although it is possible for each conceptual Multiple Intelligences areato be made up of several constructs, it was the goal of this preferenceindicator development process to confine the items in each area of MIS toa single factor so that additional analyses could be conducted. Therefore,the factor analyses of the nine separate Multiple Intelligences areas wereused to reduce the MIS to three items for each Multiple Intelligencescategory. This was possible because all of the areas except for Naturalistichad at least three items in Factor 1, and the three items with the highestloadings were selected for inclusion in the final form of MIS because thefirst factor explains the greatest amount of variance in the analysis(Kachigan, 1991, p. 245). For Naturalistic, the items in Factor 2 wereselected for inclusion in the final form of MIS because it contained threeitems.

The process of selecting the three items with the highest loadings froma factor with at least three items in it produced strong factors for allMultiple Intelligences categories except for Verbal Intelligence. Therefore,a series of additional factor analyses were conducted for VerbalIntelligence to find the best combination of items. Once all of the

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intelligences areas were reduced to three items, a final factor analysis wasconducted for each Multiple Intelligences area. These analyses confirmedthat each of the three items for the area formed only one factor.

Final Form of MIS

Thus, the process of factor analysis was used to confirm the constructvalidity of MIS. This data reduction procedure resulted in MIS beingdecreased from its 45-item, field-testing version to a 27-item preferenceindicator. Each of the nine Multiple Intelligences categories contains threeitems that form a single abstract dimension, and these items are highlycorrelated with that dimension or factor as indicated by their factorloadings.

In addition, the factor analysis process contributed to establishing thecontent validity of the items in MIS. “Item validity is concerned withwhether the test items are relevant to measurement of the intended contentarea” (Gay & Airasian, 2000, p. 163). The high factor loadings for the 27items in the final version of MIS confirm that each item contributes toexplaining the factor. Moreover, each of the items are highly correlatedwith the total score for the three items in the Multiple Intelligencescategory. For the 27 items, the correlations are as follows: .800 and over--1,.700 to .799--12, .600 to .699--9, and .500 to .599--5.

Summary

Factor analysis was used to confirm the construct validity of the itemsof the Multiple Intelligences Survey and to establish construct validity forthe items. Principal components factor analysis was used with the responsesfrom 874 community college students. The first factor analysis failed toconfirm the validity of the 45 items in the MIS. It not only had eight factorsinstead of the nine Multiple Intelligences areas conceptualized by HowardGardner, but also each of the factors contained items from more than oneMultiple Intelligences category. Therefore additional analyses wereconducted to eliminate poorly performing items. Separate factor analyseswere conducted with the five items in each of the nine MultipleIntelligences areas. This process resulted in the number of items in eachMultiple Intelligences area being reduced to three items that had high factorloadings and that correlated highly with the total score for all of the itemsin the Multiple Intelligences category. Thus, the final form of the Multiple

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Intelligences Survey consists of 27 items with construct and contentvalidity (see Insert).

Reliability

The reliability of the Multiple Intelligences Survey was established bythe test-retest process. The test-retest process was employed with 70General Education students at Tulsa Community College. The newMultiple Intelligences preference indicator was administered to thesestudents and then re-administered 2 weeks later. For an acceptable findingof reliability, a correlation of at least .7 should be obtained. Four of the nineMultiple Intelligences areas exceeded the .7 level, four were slightly belowit, and one was at .5: Bodily/Kinesthetic--0.83; Verbal--0.75;Existential--0.73; Interpersonal--0.72; Intrapersonal--0.66;Naturalistic--0.64; Logical--0.59; Musical--0.59; and Visual--0.50. All werestatistically significant. Thus, almost half of the items are at or above thegenerally accepted level for reliability and about half are slightly below thislevel.

Multiple Intelligences Survey Scores

The final form of the Multiple Intelligences Survey after the factoranalyses was used for constructing a Multiple Intelligences profile of the874 Tulsa Community College students. The possible scores ranged from3 to 27 with a midpoint of 15. This is because the participants ranked all ofthe items starting with 1 for the items that were the most like them through9 for the item least like them. Scores were computed for each participantin each Multiple Intelligences area by summing the ranking for each of thethree items in each area. Low scores indicate support of a MultipleIntelligences area while high scores indicate the Multiple Intelligences areadoes not apply to the participant. The area with the lowest score wasidentified as the person’s preferred Multiple Intelligences area. TheMultiple Intelligences preferred area for the 874 TCC students thatparticipated in the study were distributed over the nine MultipleIntelligences categories (see Figure 1). The Multiple Intelligencespreferences categories were distributed as follows: Bodily/KinestheticsIntelligence--19%, Musical Intelligence–18%, Logical MathematicalIntelligence--13%, Interpersonal Intelligence–10%, Interpersonal--10.9%,Intrapersonal--8.2%, Existential--7.7%, Visual--4.6%, Verbal--2.9%, and

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Naturalistic--2.9%. Some (13.4%) of the participants had an equal highscore in more than one Multiple Intelligences area; these preferences werelabeled as “mixed”.

Figure 1: Distribution of Multiple Intelligences Categories for CommunityCollege Participants

Conclusion

A valid and reliable preference indicator, which is named MultipleIntelligences Survey (MIS), exists for identifying Multiple Intelligencepreferences of adult learners (McClellan, 2006). Howard Gardner firstintroduced Multiple Intelligences over 20 years ago. Gardner’s theoryprovides a theoretical foundation for recognizing different abilities andtalents. This theory acknowledges that while all students may not beverbally or mathematically gifted, students may have an expertise in otherareas.

Although the nine Multiple Intelligences are anatomically separated

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from each other, Gardner advises that they rarely operate independently.Rather, the intelligences are used concurrently and typically complimenteach other as individuals develop skills and solve problems. Gardnerbelieves that everyone has Multiple Intelligences, and there areopportunities to strengthen those intelligences. He ascertains MultipleIntelligences is meant to empower and not to label.

Educators have realized that students have unique learning differences,and they have widely embraced Multiple Intelligences. They havereconsidered the “factory” approach to education (Reynolds & Miller,2003, p. 35). Instead, they are encouraging their students to develop theirown intelligence profiles. This individualized evaluation permits educatorsto make more informed decisions on what and how to teach varioussubjects.

Gardner encourages teachers to think of all the Multiple Intelligencesas equally significant. This is in great contrast to traditional educationalsystems. Typically, a significant emphasis has been placed on thedevelopment and use of Verbal and Mathematical Intelligences (Gardner,1983). Thus, the theory of Multiple Intelligences implies that educatorsshould recognize and teach to a broader range of talents and skills.

Moreover, because diversity exists in the Multiple Intelligences of theadult population, educators need to be equipped with the tools tounderstand and address all nine Multiple Intelligences. Arming educatorswith this new knowledge could enable them to use Multiple Intelligencesin planning for and teaching with all nine of the intelligences. In addition,students could be empowered and encouraged to become creative with theirassignments.

With the recognition of Multiple Intelligences by the teachers, studentprojects and assignments could become customized so that presentationscorrespond to one or more of their Multiple Intelligences preferences. Forexample, instead of writing a paper, students could present the results oftheir projects in the form of a video that incorporates linguistic (narrative),musical (background and rhythm), and spatial (pictures and charts)elements. These educational enhancements would seem to be moreaccessible to educators and students as the availability of the MISinstrument increases.

Multiple Intelligences has encouraged the reconsideration ofstandardized tests to determine intelligence. Educators have also began touse Multiple Intelligences checklists, inventories, and surveys to identifytheir students Multiple Intelligences preferences. There are many different

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kinds of Multiple Intelligences checklists and inventories currently beingused in the field. These Multiple Intelligences instruments typicallyrepresents themselves as a legitimate instrument. However, almost none ofthe checklists or inventories currently in the field report validity orreliability statistics. So far, there is only one other Multiple Intelligencesinstrument, the Midas, that has been developed that reports validity andreliability statistics. However, that instrument is not readily available topractitioners.

Therefore, for educators to become successful in teaching withMultiple Intelligences in mind, they must have an accessible, valid, andreliable assessment tool. Assessing a student’s learning preferences allowsa wider range of students to successfully participate in classroom learning(Lazear, 1991). In addition, it can create a learning environment conduciveto adult learning.

The Multiple Intelligences Survey (MIS) is now available forpractitioner use (see Insert). It is designed for easy and convenient use inthe classroom. This 27-item preference indicator can be completed andscored in 5 to 7 minutes.

In addition to making an instrument available to practitioners, thisstudy provided the first insights on the distribution of nine categories ofMultiple Intelligences. Although Gardner does not provide any informationon the relative size of each category of Multiple Intelligences, this studyshows that they are not equally distributed. Moreover, while the traditionalschooling system depends on the intelligences of Visual and Verbal, theseare among the least preferred by the adult learners. The most preferredMultiple Intelligences are ones that allow the learner to be actively andemotionally involved in the learning; these are Bodily-Kinesthetic andMusical.

Thus, the MIS provides practitioners with another tool to help themaddress the individual differences in their students. In addition, the resultsfrom this study provide an initial guide for how frequently teachers canexpect to encounter each of the Multiple Intelligences among their students.Equipped with this information, teachers can create a classroom that issupportive of Knowles’ concepts of andragogy and self-directed learningand which fosters an environment for learner-centered education.

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Fellenz, R. A. & Conti, G. J. (1989). Learning and reality: Reflections ontrends in adult learning. Columbus: The Ohio State University (ERICClearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Training, InformationSeries No. 336.)

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Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice. NewYork, NY: BasicBooks.

Gardner, H. & Walters, J. (1993) Questions and answers about MultipleIntelligences Theory. In H. Gardner (Ed.), Multiple Intelligences: Thetheory in practice (pp. 35-48). New York: Basic Books.

Gardner, H. (1997). The first seven and the eighth. Educational Leadership55, Article 13, p. 8.

Gardner, H. (1999). Are there additional intelligences? The case fornaturalist, spiritual, and existential intelligences. In J. Kane (Ed.),Education, information and transformation (pp. 111 - 131). EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Gardner, H., & Hatch, T. (1989). Multiple Intelligences go to school.Educational Researcher, 18 (8), pp. 4 - 10.

Gay, L. R. (1996). Educational research competencies for analysis andapplication (5th ed.). Upper Saddle-River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Gay, L., & Airasian, P. (2000). Educational research: Competencies foranalysis and application (6 ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:th

Prentice-Hall.Kachigan, S. K. (1991). Multivariant statistical analysis: A conceptual

introduction (2 ed.). New York: Radius Press.nd

Knowles, M. S. (1970). The modern practice of adult education. NewYork, NY: Follett Publishing Company.

Knowles, M. S. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for learning andteachers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Cambridge.

Knowles, M. S., Holton E. F. III, & Swanson, R. A. (1998). The adult

32

learner. Houston, TX: Gulf.Lazear, D. (1991). Seven ways of knowing: Teaching for the Multiple

Intelligences. Andover, MA: Skylight Publishing.McClellan, J. A. (2006). Development of an indicator to identify Multiple

Intelligences preferences of adult learners. Unpublished doctoraldissertation. Stillwater, OK: Oklahoma State University.

Merriam, S. B. (2001). Andragogy and self-directed learning: Pillars ofadult learning theory. In S. B. Merriam (Ed.), The new update on adultlearning theory (pp. 3-14). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Nie, N. H., Hull, C. H, Jenkins, J. G., Steinbrenner, & K, Bent, D. H.(1975). Statistical package for the social sciences (2nd ed.).McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Reynolds, W. E. & Miller, G. E. (Eds.). (2003). Handbook of psychology,Vol. 7 Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Roscoe, J. T. (1975). Fundamental research statistics for the behavioralsciences (2 Ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.nd

Snyder, R. (1999). The relationship between learning styles/multipleintelligences and academic achievement of highschool students (Briefarticle). Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.

Sternberg, R. J. (1990). Real life vs. academic problem solving. In R. A.Fellenz & G. J. Conti (Eds.), Intelligence and adult learning. Bozeman,MT: Center for Adult Learning Research, Montana State University.

Journal of Adult Education

Volume 37, Number 1, 2008

Multiple Intelligences Survey

Directions: People differ in their ways of learning and knowing.These differences are called Multiple Intelligences. Below is a list of27 items in 3 sets that relate to each type of Multiple Intelligence.Some of these will apply to how you like to learn, and others will not.

Ranking: There are nine items in each group. For each of the threegroups, rank the items according to how they apply to you. Put a 1next to the item that is most like you. Put a 2 next to the item thatis second most like you. Do this for each item until you havenumbered every item with a number from 1 to 9. The item least likeyou should be 9. Do not use a number more that once in each group.

Rank each of the following 9 items from 1 to 9.

1. I live an active lifestyle.

2. Meditation exercises are rewarding.

3. I am a "team player".

4. Fairness is important to me.

5. Structure helps me be successful.

6. I enjoy many kinds of music.

7. My home has a recycling system in place.

8. I keep a journal.

9. I enjoy doing three dimensional puzzles.

Rank each of the following 9 items from 1 to 9.

10. I enjoy outdoor games.

11. Questions about the meaning of life are importantto me.

12. I learn best interacting with others.

13. Social justice issues concern me.

14. I get easily frustrated with disorganized people.

15. I have always been interested in playing a musicalinstrument.

16. Animals are important in my life.

17. I write for pleasure.

18. I can recall things in mental pictures.

Rank each of the following 9 items from 1 to 9.

19. I like working with tools.

20. I enjoy discussing questions about life.

21. Things such as clubs and extracurricular activitiesare fun.

22. I learn best when I have an emotional attachmentto the subject.

23. Step-by-step directions are a big help.

24. Remembering song lyrics is easy for me.

25. Hiking is an enjoyable activity.

26. Foreign languages interest me.

27. I can imagine ideas in my mind.

My Score

Scoring the MIS: Add your rankings for the 27 items on the MISaccording to the following table. Your lowest score is your preferredMultiple Intelligence (MI) area.

Bodily/Kinesthetic Existential Interpersonal

Item 1 Item 2 Item 3

Item 10 Item 11 Item 12

Item 19 Item 20 Item 21

Total Total Total

Intrapersonal Logic Musical

Item 4 Item 5 Item 6

Item 13 Item 14 Item 15

Item 22 Item 23 Item 24

Total Total Total

Naturalistic Verbal Visual

Item 7 Item 8 Item 9

Item 16 Item 17 Item 18

Item 25 Item 26 Item 27

Total Total Total

My Multiple Intelligence Area Preferences

1. My most preferred MI area (My lowest score)

2. My second most preferred MI area (My next lowest score)

Distribution of Multiple Intelligences Categoriesfor 874 Tulsa Community College Participants

Bodily/Kinesthetics 19.1%

Musical 18.8%

Logical 13.0%

Interpersonal 10.9%

Intrapersonal 8.2%

Existential 7.7%

Visual 4.6%

Verbal 2.9%

Naturalistic 1.5%

Mixed 13.4%

This instrument should be cited as follows: McClellan, J. A., & Conti, G.J. (2008). Identifying the multiple intelligences of your students. Journalof Adult Education, 37(1), pp. 13-38, Insert.

Journal of Adult Education

Volume 37, Number 1, 2008

33

One Dozen Ways to Expand Your Adult Learning Skills!

Virginia B. Ricard

Abstract

This article presents 12 practical ways of learning as adults at

cognitive, affective, and performance levels. Focused on four areas

of active engagement, learners are encouraged to trust themselves

in formal as well as informal settings with their variety of learning

styles, intelligences, and degrees of self-direction. The importance

of venturing beyond comfort levels to enjoy the surprises that

reside in discovery is emphasized for those in an era of lifelong

learning who take seriously how they want that learning to occur.

Introduction

As adult learners, whatever our positions or related roles, we tend to

rely on our personal strengths. That is, our preferred learning styles,

intelligences and approaches; our favorite learning resources or settings.

Feelings of safety or security at carefully tended learning levels bring

ongoing comfort when knowledge, attitudes, or performance may be

challenged by new learning encounters. Indeed, as Wlodkowski (1999) has

noted, “New learning is usually risky business; the outcome is seldom a

certainty” (p. 73). Certainty can be a concern, especially in the adult years

when interests and needs or priorities and time often conflict in the

decision-making process. Moreover, most adults seek and acquire learning

in formal as well as informal settings but often deliberate over questions of

value or worth, depth or breadth, in addition to relevancy and cost.

Whether related to job, career, or personal growth, learning for the adult

is generally serious business and, when recognized, directly related to

change; change based not only on desire but effective action. In an era when

there is increasing recognition of learning as a lifelong process and persons

______

Virginia B. Ricard is Affiliate Faculty in the Graduate Teacher Education, Adult

Learning, Training, and Development area at Regis University, Denver, CO.

34

are living longer, adult learners must consider not only what, why, and

when or where they want to learn but how they want that learning to occur

in terms of the delivery system or the approach that supports it.

The four areas below contain 12 supportive ways of addressing learning

at cognitive, affective, and performance levels. Learners with a variety of

learning styles and intelligences, as well as self-direction, should find the

approaches useful. Learners may also find the acts of goal-setting, resource

identification, implementation, and evaluation of the learning experiences

invigorating, exciting, challenging, or frustrating. (Does learning occur

without varying degrees of dissonance?) In any case, the learner will be in

charge. Just do not miss the surprises. Sometimes surprises make all the

difference.

Area 1: Learn Something New,

in a New Way, and in a New Setting

Expansion of learning occurs when learners step outside of known areas

where they are capable of functioning effectively—and step we do. Such

action is akin to that noted by Thoreau in his 1857 Journal (cited in Heat-

Moon, 1991): “New earths, new themes expect us” (p. 9). Surely themes for

adult learners abound especially in terms of how the acquired learning

might be used. Application, however, must be understood in relation to

adult development. As described by Tennant and Pogson (1995), “The idea

of development has meaning only in terms of a cultural and historical

framework” (p. 198). Continuing, the authors suggest “Development thus

proceeds through a constant interaction between the person and the social

environment. Both the developing person and the social environment are

active in this process” (p. 199).

Given the opportunities and resources present for today’s adult learners,

most topics can be approached from a variety of perspectives and learning

levels in response to a variety of individual as well as social needs. That can

be a plus for those wanting not only to know but who feel response must be

at a personal action level. In an attempt to relate the Holocaust to the current

situation in Darfur, the need for such action was described by Robert B.

Zoellick in Lessons for Today’s World, the Annual Report (2005-06) of the

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum:

Bearing witness means we remember, but memory is not enough.

Bearing witness means giving testimony, but statements are not

enough. Bearing witness means learning from history, but

knowledge is not enough. Bearing witness must also mean acting.

35

(p. 29)

Even the pursuit of untried areas of learning enrichment can be less

threatening if learner engagement is accompanied by confidence and

tenacity or at least the support of an effective facilitator. For example, Betty

Edwards (1986) convincingly reminded hesitant learners who evidenced

doubt about their artistic abilities: “My claim is quite modest: if you can

catch a baseball, thread a needle, or hold a pencil and write your name, you

can learn to draw skillfully, artistically, and creatively” (p. 8). Such

inspiration can be satisfying, if not personally motivating. However, let us

neither shrink from the new nor wither in self-doubt when determining new

learning directions. We can proceed alone or with others, but if growth is

expected, it is important to proceed.

Area 2: Learn Something Alone,

with One Other Person, and with Others

Let’s face it: The relationship of the individual to the group really does

matter. Here in the United States of America, where individualism ranks

high on the list of national values, we nevertheless work, play, worship, and

(yes) learn with others. Our learning settings may be formal or informal,

self- or other-directed, and designed to meet a multitude of learning needs.

This observation is clearly stated in Learning and Adulthood: A

Comprehensive Guide (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). The

authors observed: “In considering the spectrum of learning opportunities

available to adults, it is important to acknowledge all of these arenas of

learning, from the highly structured to the more informal ways adults go

about learning” (p. 27).

In adult education, we recognize the importance of self-direction in

learning and—depending on particular needs—the benefits, as well as

challenges, of learning in dyads, triads, and small and larger groups. Our

individual skills must often fit to function effectively, and the need for

expansion may surface. Before difficulties arise, it is well to proactively

consider the possible impact of cultural and historical development factors.

In some cases, the greater of these may be cultural.

Area 3: Learn Something Through Use

of Technology, Travel, and Active Experimentation

Earlier, the introduction of the computer may have at least been

considered a catalyst for culture shock. Its impact has been well described

36

by Forester and Morrison (cited in Teich, Technology and the Future,

2006):

Computers are certainly the most important technology to have

come along this century, and the current Information Technology

Revolution may in time equal or even exceed the Industrial

Revolution in terms of social significance. We are still trying to

understand the full implications of the computerization that has

already taken place in key areas of society, such as the workplace.

The impact of computers and computer-based information and

communication systems in our way of life will continue to grow in

the coming years. (pp. 265-266)

The impact is indeed growing and presenting challenges to cultures in

the widest meaning of the term. The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation

recently launched the Global Libraries Initiative with partnerships in three

countries: Botswana, Latvia, and Lithuania. As described by Martha Choe

(2007), director of the initiative, “Everyone should have access to the

benefits of the digital age, no matter their age, gender, ethnicity, income

level, or where they happen to live” (p. 54). Under the arrangement, country

partners will provide significant matching funds to support the libraries and

sustain no-cost access to the technology and training.

Nationally the impact of the computer revolution has been evidenced

in the proliferation of distance education programs. McKenzie (2007)

observed, “Distance education has changed the way education is perceived,

delivered, and planned for the future. It is projected that by 2008, 10% of

all degrees awarded will be on-line” (p. 22).

Whatever the projections or outcomes, the sharpening of computer-

related and other emerging technology skills appears necessary for adult

learners in today’s world. In response, formal or informal learning plans

may need to be drafted without prolonged delay. As Morrison, Ross, and

Kemp (2004) have observed, “The proof of an instructional plan’s success

is whether a satisfactory level of learning is achieved in an acceptable

period of time” (p. 13).

Adult learners should also be attentive to another area of learning

concern: that of experiential learning. In a discussion of multiple

developmental pathways, Tennant and Pogson (1995) suggested:

Turning to experience is fine, but it needs to be done in a critical

way. A little reflection may reveal that these basic skills can be

acquired in other ways, or that they turn out not to be basic skills

at all. What is required here is a certain amount of openness to

experimentation and other possibilities. This general attitude of

37

openness is in fact a frequently cited attribute of those who

successfully develop expertise in their work. (pp. 197-198)

Travel as a way of learning involves experiential approaches of value

and has become a favored activity for adult learners. Why not learn from

the shocks and discover the joys of seeing, speaking, interacting, and

understanding from different perspectives? As North Americans in the

United States, we have something to share as well. It is important to note

here that, as Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner (2007) have suggested,

“The purpose of examining other systems is not to replace the Western

tradition but rather to expand our understanding of learning and knowing”

(p. 219).

Area 4: Learn Something That

Makes You Feel Good, Better, and Best

Having something to share may mean (first) re-assessing our strengths;

that is, those attributes that bring such personal satisfaction and comfort and

are reflected in our attitudes. Wlodkowski (1999) has noted that “attitudes

are of great importance in understanding adult development because they

predispose one’s choices of activities, companions, and environments across

the life span” (p. 73). These choices for the adult learner are not only varied

but may be multi-dimensional. That is, they lead from one thing to another

in connected fashion over a period of time. If we believe we all have our

gifts (and some of us do), we may be in for a lifetime of discovery.

George Vaillant (2002) addressed the issue in a practical message

following a long-term study of adult development at Harvard University:

Play, create, learn new things and, most especially, make new

friends. Do that and getting out of bed in the morning will seem a

joy—even if you are no longer “important;” even if your joints

ache, and even if you no longer enjoy free access to the office

Xerox machine. (p. 248)

The choice of learning pursuits in adulthood can be intriguing and

productive if we are in touch with our values, attitudes, and feelings about

the choices. Whatever the choice, our knowledge, feelings, and abilities as

fully functioning human beings are not separate entities. Nathaniel Burton

(cited in Burton & Lombard, 1978), a Master Chef, expressed his feelings

about his chosen field this way: “It’s an intriguing business, cooking. And

it never ceases to excite or challenge me. I love the preparation and serving

of excellent food” (pp. 7-8). Love may indeed be an important element of

those life-learning choices we make and cling to. If so, do we recognize and

38

value it as a learning outcome?

Conclusion

Maybe this expansion of adult learning skills is all about moving from

something we enjoy (or do not) to something we will enjoy more (or might)

in an ongoing journey of discovery. How that learning occurs may be less

complicated than we imagine. After all, the 12 ways of learning described

are directly related to just three adult and personal skill areas: (a) awareness

(of our values, cultural and historical perspectives); (b) openness (to new

experiences, challenges, or surprises); and (c) connectedness (effective

communication, interaction, and service). The choices and timing for

development indeed are ours and . . . learning occurs where it occurs.

References

Choe, M. (2007). Foundation round up. Carnegie Reporter, 4(2), 53-54.

Burton, N., & Lombard, R. (1978). Creole feast: 15 master chefs of New

Orleans reveal their secrets. New York: Random House.

Edwards, B. (1986). Drawing on the artist within. New York: Simon and

Schuster.

Heat-Moon, W. L. (1991). Prairyerth. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin

Company.

McKenzie, W. H. (2007). Phi Kappa Phi and distance education. Phi Kappa

Phi FORUM, 87(2), 20-23.

Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning

in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Morrison, G. R., Ross, S. M., & Kemp, T. E. (2004). Designing effective

instruction. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Tennant, M., & Pogson, P. (1995). Learning and change in the adult years:

A developmental perspective. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Teich, A. H. (Ed.). (2006). Technology and the future. Belmont, CA:

Thomson Wadsworth.

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. (2007). Lessons for today’s

world: Annual report 2005-06. Washington, DC: Author.

Vaillant, G. E. (2002). Aging well: Surprising guideposts to a happier life.

Boston: Little Brown and Company.

Wlodkowski, R. J. (1999). Enhancing adult motivation to learn: A

comprehensive guide for teaching all adults. San Francisco: Jossey-

Bass.

Journal of Adult Education

Volume 37, Number 1, 2008

39

Book Review

Armstrong, K. B., Nabb, L. W., & Czech, A. P. (Eds.). (2007). NorthAmerican adult educators: Phyllis M Cunningham archive of quintessentialautobiographies for the Twenty-First Century. Chicago: DiscoveryAssociation Publishing House. 307 pages.

As an adult educator, are you sick of reading reports with numbers thatdo not paint a true picture of your program? Are you frustrated with thelimitations that affect how you can design an adult program? Then youneed a break and a quick read that will inspire you to create an innovativeand useful change! Professionals working with adults, whether in the fieldof education, social work, or even the justice system, will find the bookNorth American Adult Educators: Phyllis M Cunningham Archive ofQuintessential Autobiographies for the Twenty-First Century to be trulymotivational. This book is a compilation of various educators' stories oftheir lives and careers in adult education. Many professionals in this fieldwill recognize names (Michael Day or Ralph Brockett) and may even havethe honor of knowing some of these wonderful educators. The book isdedicated to Phyllis M. Cunningham and her experience in the adulteducation field.

In Roots, Cunningham's autobiography, she provides a greatintroduction to her adult life by explaining her family's beliefs and values.This had a tremendous impact on her in that she knew who she was andwhere she came from. Her family instilled values to include equality for all.Cunningham states, "Our family may have been economically poor but wewere culturally rich" (p. 2). What a profound statement to realize aboutone's upbringing. This knowledge provided her with such empathy that itis fitting she became an adult educator.

Most of these educators come from very humble beginnings, some weremore humble than others, but all have had to make choices and sacrificesto reach their end goal. In speaking of their upbringings, they share that thecycle of values and beliefs starts in the home with one's family. This alsohas an impact on the value of education and one's determination to seekhigher education when the barriers make the mission seem impossible.

40

Ralph Brockett not only speaks of his personal journey but also of hisview of the adult education field and its modern history. His honesty in theexamination of the adult education field in recent years is insightful as heprovides hope for the future of adult education while instilling the basicbelief that adult educators are to help learners reach their full potential. Hisinsight may stir professionals to analyze their role in the bigger scheme ofeducation.

Social workers may relate to Ms. Carusetta's autobiography while adulteducators may relate to her words. She feels it is a daily struggle to findintegrity in helping adult learners pursue their educational goals whiledealing with everyday life battles and answering to the limitations of theadult education system. This system possesses a disparity between itsrequirements and the human side of education. For practitioners involvedin adult learning, it is comforting to realize others are just as frustrated andhave been able to overcome such obstacles.

Throughout this book, one may question why professionals pursued acareer in this field and will find a variety of reasons. Tara Fenwick portraysthe purpose of adult education: "When one has the privilege to see this sortof everyday human courage up close, one can only try to become worthy ofit" (p.108). She also sums up the extraordinary barriers that many adultstudents face in their pursuit of education: "People of limited meansconfront oppressive workloads, marginalization and family resistance to dosomething as simple as reading" (p. 109). Dr. Jeanne D'Arc Gaudet states,"I sincerely believe that dreaming gives us the ability to organize ourenvironment in an unconscious manner and leads us to attain our goalswhen the right conditions fall into place" (p. 120). This profound statementcan ring true for anyone at any level of education. Some sort of trauma orexperience may spark an adult to re-engage in a formal school setting, butthey must first have an internal motivation, or dream, to do so.

This book provides a unique method of dialoging thoughts andpractices for professionals. There is no doubt that one will relate to manyof these stories and even see themselves in others' work. It is quiterefreshing to know that others with similar backgrounds and interests aremaking great strides in our field. This book will lighten your heart andinspire you to tackle the insurmountable obstacles of our system. Takingthese autobiographies in context of the historical period, one will glean theamazing accomplishments of our colleagues. These autobiographies arefrom the leading experts in the field who are no different from anybody elseor from the students with whom we work.

41

This book and its contents drive to the heart the reason for pursuing acareer in such a wonderful and rewarding field. The authors are influencingthe future direction of this field not only on a local but global level.Although this review only gives a taste of the 50 adult educator stories, twoquotes in particular are noteworthy: "Learning is a project for life; since theworld is changing rapidly, we have to keep up-to-date in our careers andprofessions" (Dr. Jeanne D'Arc Gaudet, p. 121) and for higher educators,Lee W. Nabb quotes the book's dedicatee Dr. Phyllis M. Cunningham, "It'svery important to keep in touch with your people....There is an everydayreality and you need to be in touch with that reality. So...it's important forpeople in the university to be in touch with the community because if youforget that you also limit yourself” (p. 305).

Kelsee MillerUniversity of Wyoming

Journal of Adult Education

Volume 37, Number 1, 2008

42

Membership Survey

Results of Membership Questionnaire onMethod of Delivery for the Journal of Adult Education

Introduction

Because of the changing nature of how a journal can be produced, aquestionnaire was sent to current members of the Mountain Plains AdultEducation Association (MPAEA) who have an e-mail address recorded inthe association’s database. The purpose of the questionnaire was to solicittheir attitudes related to changing the delivery format for the Journal ofAdult Education from its current paper format delivered by mail to ajournal produced and delivered electronically. There were 456 e-mailaddresses in the membership data base at the time of the survey. Of these,53 were either undeliverable or received responses that the owner was notavailable. Of the 403 requests to participate that were received, 75responded; this is a response rate of 18.6%. A descriptive study such as thisshould have a sample of 10% for a large population and 20% for a smallpopulation (Gay, 1987, p. 114). Since the population of 403 is fairly large,this sample is adequate for making inferences about the overall attitude tothe membership.

The Survey

The questionnaire was short. It had two basic questions anddemographic items. The main question asked if the respondent preferred toreceived the Journal of Adult Education either (1) electronically, (2) bymail in its current format, or (3) no preference on the delivery system. Thesecond question asked how they would like to see the savings spent if theJournal switched to an electronic format: (1) to make MPAEA morefinancially secure, (2) to reduce registration costs for the annualconference, (3) to provide grants for professional activities for themembers, (4) to provide student scholarships, or (5) for some other purpose(the response provided an opportunity for them to suggest that purpose).

43

For the demographic data, they were asked their gender, age, years ofexperience in MPAEA, and years of experience teaching adults. Themembers were sent an e-mail with the following message:

Your opinion is needed related to the future form of the Journal ofAdult Education. As communication patterns change in responseto the growth in technology, the Board for the Mountain PlainsAdult Education Association is discussing the possibility ofswitching the production of the Journal from its present paperformat to an electronic format. Your opinion on this issue isextremely important to us in making that decision. Please click onthe link below to register your opinion on this issue. You canexpress your opinion in just a matter of seconds.

In order to not unduly burden members, no follow-up contacts were made.

Background of Respondents

Because the membership of MPAEA changes dramatically with eachconference, it is important to examine the background of the respondentsbefore interpreting the response of the two main questions in the survey.For the 73 respondents who provided information, their average number ofyears of experience in MPAEA was 7.2 with a standard deviation of 6.9years. The median number of years of membership was 4 years with 3 yearsbeing the most occurring number of years of experience (see Table 1).These numbers reflect the nature of the organization with many of itsmembers joining at the last conference. Slightly over one-fifth (21.92%)have been members since the last conference upon which the mailing listwas based. Although many of the respondents have many years ofexperience in MPAEA, slightly over half (52.05%) have been members foronly 4 years. Thus, the sample is a mixture of years of membership that isfairly representative of the overall MPAEA membership.

The respondents were experienced in teaching adults. Their averagenumber of years teaching adults was 17.2 with a standard deviation of 10.2.The median number of years was 15, and the mode with 7 respondents was15 and 20 years. Table 1 shows the distribution of the respondents whenthey are grouped by quartiles (i.e., four equal groups).

Demographically, the sample of 75 was mostly female (81.3%) withmales making up slightly less than one-fifth (18.7%) of the group. Theaverage age of the 69 respondents was 53.3 with a standard deviation of8.2; both the median and mode were 54-years of age (see Table 1).

44

Table 1: Distribution of Years of Membership, Experience, and Age

Range No. Percent

Years of Membership in MPAEA

1-2 16 21.92

3-4 22 30.14

5-9 14 19.19

10-32 21 28.77

Years of Experience

2-8 17 24.64

9-15 20 28.99

16-24 15 21.74

25-40 17 24.64

Age

25-49 18 26.09

50-54 18 26.09

55-58 15 21.73

59-69 18 26.09

Opinions of Respondents

There was strong support among the participants for receiving theJournal in an electronic format. Over half (53.33%) of the respondentspreferred to receive the Journal electronically. The number favoring theelectronic format was over twice (2.4 times as large) that of those favoringthe traditional paper format delivered by the regular postal service (seeTable 2). Indeed, almost the same number had no preference for how thejournal is delivered as those who prefer the paper mode. Thus, out of thethree choices, the present mode of producing the Journal was the lowest(even though it was only by 1).

Table 2: Frequency of Preferred Mode of Delivery for the Journal

Journal Format No. Percent

Electronic 40 53.33

Paper 17 22.67

No preference 18 24.00

45

Because of stereotypes that electronic means of communication arebiased toward the young because of the recent development of technology,statistics were calculated to explore for differences between the threepreference groups based on age, years of membership in MPAEA, andexperience in teaching adults. Gender differences were also explored.Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used for these analyses. In ANOVA,the participants are placed into groups to determine if there is a significantdifference among the group based on the measurement variable. Fourseparate one-way ANOVAs were run. For each, the participants weregrouped according to their preference for the format of the Journal, and thenumber of years were used as the measurement for age, length of MPAEAmembership, and length of experience teaching adults. Because gender isa dichotomous variable, it can be treated in this same fashion. Using thecriterion level of .05, no significant differences were found for any of thevariables (see Table 3). Thus, the preferences were statistically equivalentfor all the groups for the professional and demographic differencescollected.

Table 3: ANOVA of Format Preference for Journal by Professional andDemographic Variables

Source SS df MS F p

Age

Between 562.64 4 140.66 2.13 0.09

Within 4027.68 61 66.03

MPAEA

Between 167.85 4 41.96 0.85 0.50

Within 3215.35 65 49.47

Teaching Experience

Between 524.92 4 131.23 1.26 0.30

Within 6362.54 61 104.30

Gender

Between 0.19 4 0.05 0.28 0.89

Within 11.05 66 0.17

The participants varied in how they felt any savings should be used thatresulted from switching to an electronic format for the Journal (see Table

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4). The greatest support is for reducing the registration costs for the annualconference followed by using the money to make MPAEA financially moresecure. Lesser support was registered for using the money for professionaldevelopment grants for members (16.9%) and for student scholarships(11.27%). Only two respondents checked other, and one of these was toindicate no preference.

Table 4: Frequency of Preferences for Use of Savings from ElectronicFormat

Use of Savings No. Percent

Reduce Registration 29 40.85

Financially Secure 20 28.17

Professional Development Grants 12 16.90

Student Scholarships 8 11.27

Other 2 2.82

Total 71 100.00

Conclusion

The Journal of Adult Education has a long history and much tradition.It has always been produced in the standard fashion for a professionaljournal; that is, it has been printed in a paper format and mailed tosubscribers through the postal system. However, recent developments intechnology are transforming how we communicate as a society. Thesepresent both challenges and opportunities for the Journal. One of these isto convert to an electronic format. One of the first steps in this process isuncovering the opinions of the membership related to such a change, andthe purpose of this survey was to give the membership a chance to voicetheir opinions. The results clearly show that there is not strong support forcontinuing to produce the Journal in its paper format. Over three-fourths ofthe members either favor an electronic version of the Journal or do not haveany strong preference for how it is delivered. Over half of the respondentspreferred a move to an electronic format. Moreover, this support is spreadacross gender, age, length of MPAEA membership, and amount of teachingexperience.

Since the sample was large enough to represent the population andsince it was fairly representative of the population, it can be concluded that

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the membership would support a move toward converting the Journal ofAdult Education to an electronic format. Instead of asking the question of“if” a switch should be made, the results of this survey suggest that theMPAEA leadership should be probing “how” and “when” this changeshould be made. In addition, it should be considering how the cost savingshould be used. Support exists both for using the money to make MPAEAstronger financially and for reducing the cost for the annual conference.Other possible uses should be discussed. In addition, the relationshipshould be explored between increasing conference participation byreducing costs and the strength that increased membership could bring tothe organization. Thus, this quantitative survey indicates that themembership is ready to move on the issue converting to an electronicjournal, and they have provided some directions for the leadership toconsider. However, there is still time for you to qualitatively have yourvoice heard on this issue . Contact your regional representative to shareyour views on the future direction that your professional journal shouldtake.

Gary J. ContiOklahoma State University

Reference

Gay, L. R. (1987). Educational research: Competencies for analysis andapplication (3 ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Publishing.rd