journal of the australian naval institute · warships is a symbol of ultimate weapon control....

VOLUME 9NOVEMBER 1983NUMBER 4

JOURNAL OF THEAUSTRALIAN NAVAL

INSTITUTE

Registered by AustratiaT^st̂ ubfiea'Bon NoMjflfr028«

AUSTRALIAN NAVAL INSTITUTE

1. The Australian Naval Institute is incorporated in the Australian Capital Territory. The main objects ofthe Institute are:

a. to encourage and promote the advancement of knowledge related to the Navy and the maritimeprofession,

b. to provide a forum for the exchange of ideas concerning subjects related to the Navy and themaritime profession, and

c. to publish a journal.

2. The Institute is self supporting and non-profit making. The aim is to encourage discussion, dis-semination of information, comment and opinion and the advancement of professional knowledgeconcerning naval and maritime matters.

3. Membership of the Institute is open to —

a. Regular Members - Members of the Permanent Naval Forces of Australia.

b. Associate Members -(1) Members of the Reserve Naval Forces of Australia.(2) Members of the Australian Military Forces and the Royal Australian

Air Force both permanent and reserve.(3) Ex-members of the Australian Defence Force, both permanent

and reserve components, provided that they have been honourablydischarged from that Force.

(4) Other persons having and professing a special interest in naval andmaritime affairs.

c. Honorary Members - Persons who have made distinguished contributions to the naval ormaritime profession or who have rendered distinguished service to theInstitute may be elected by the Council to Honorary Membership.

4. Joining fee for Regular and Associate members if $5. Annual subscription for both is $15.

5. Inquiries and application for membership should be directed to:

The Secretary,Australian Naval Institute,PO Box 18,DEAKIN, ACT 2600

CONTRIBUTIONS

In order to achieve the stated aims of the Institute, all readers, both members and non-members, areencouraged to submit articles for publication. Preferably, submissions should be typed, double spaced, onA4 paper; the author's name and address must be shown clearly, even if a pseudonym is required forprinting purposes: to be eligible for prizes, original articles must be accompanied by statements that theyhave been written expressly for the ANI; and short biographies will be welcomed. The Editor reserves theright to reject or amend articles for publication.

DISCLAIMER

Views expressed in this journal are those of the authors, and not necessarily those of the Departmentof Defence, the Chief of Naval Staff or the Institute.

JOURNAL OF THE AUSTRALIAN NAVAL INSTITUTE (INC.)

TITLE CONTENTS PAGE

From the Editor 3Seapower '84 3AMI Library 5Correspondence 71982-1983 President's Report 9Financial Statements 11West Coast Report

—by Vic Jeffery 13RAN Oceanographic and Meteorological Service

—by Commander Haydn L. Daw RAN 15Oceanographic Analysis of the Western Tasman

—by Lieutenant Commander C.A. Low 21Save the KRAIT

—by Ross Gillett 25Meteorological Support tor the America's Cup

—by Lieutenant Commander K.L. Hancock RAN 30HMAS KIMBLA Oceanographic Operations 1983

—by Sub-Liuetenant P.L Mulready RAN 35Naval Implications of Coastal Surveillance

— by Commander A.M.R. Brecht RAN 38The Work Of the RAN Hydrographic Service

— by Lieutenant Commander J. Leech RAN 45Developments in Laser Hydrography in Australia

— by Lieutenant Commander D.C. Holliday RAN 49Occasional Papers in Maritime Affairs

— Review 52The Road Beyond Montego Bay — Progress with 1982 UN Convention of the Law and Sea

—by Captain W.S.G. Bateman RAN 53Coastwatch

—Department of Transport 59The wreck of Barque ZANONI

—by Commander R. Pennock RAN 61Washington Notes

— by Tom Friedmann 65Book Reviews 67Application for Membership 68

Articles or condensations of articles are not to be reprinted or reproduced without the permissionof the Institute. Extracts may be quoted for the purposes of research, review or commentprovided the source is acknowledged.

The front cover: AUSTRALIA II Courtesy of the Bond Corporation

Journal of the Australian Naval Institute — Page 1

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Page 2 — Journal of the Australian Naval Institute

FROM THE EDITOR

The composite theme of this journal is oceanography, hydrography, meteorology, coastalsurveillance and law of the sea. There is no one word to represent these various interests, but theyare all closely related, as revealed by the cross references within the articles.

Overviews of the hydrographic, oceanographic and meteorological services are provided byLieutenant Commander Leech and Commander Daw, whereas more specific articles have beenprovided by Lieutenant Commander Holliday on laser hydrography and Lieutenant CommanderLow on current oceanographic research in the Western Tasman. An article on practicalmeteorology comes from Lieutenant Commander Hancock who provided advice to one of theAmerica's Cup challengers, and he reveals in passing, a glimpse of the hard work those crewswent through. Captain Bateman has written an update on where we stand with the latestconference on the law of the sea, and has concentrated especially on clauses relating tonavigation.

Commander Brecht has written the first of two articles on the real Patrol Boat — naval coastalsurveillance as he sees it after two years as CO of HMAS CAIRNS. The Department responsiblefor coastal surveillance was not in a position to provide an article as a Ministerial review of theservice is currently underway; however, Transport and Construction did provide me with aselection of printed works and I chose an extract from their August 1983 Manual as a goodsummary for those unfamiliar with their work and roles. Institute members in Canberra are mostwelcome to visit the Australian Coastal Surveillance Centre at any time of the day or night,provided there is no major incident in progress; those interested should ring the senior coordinatoron duty (870132).

Our correspondents in far flung places have provided interesting reading: CommanderPennock on details of South Australian shipwrecks, Vic Jeffery on ship movements in WesternAustralia, and Tom Friedmann on a pacesetting theme for the next Seapower Seminar (moredetails in this edition). I hope Washington Notes will provide some responses for the next edition ofthe journal.

Last but not least, two ships related to the theme rate a mention — KIMBLA and KRAIT. Thearticle on the former by Sub-Lieutenant Mulready is a resume of recent activities; the latter, byRoss Gillett, is reprinted from the latest issue of the magazine of the Navy League — we do notusually reprint from other journals, but in this case we had been planning an article on the KRAITfor some five months, and it is in a good cause.

May I draw readers' attention to the need for some stimulating copy for the February edition.That will be the last issue before the Seminar and I would like some provocative pieces to set thescene; so if you will be unable to attend, or if you just wish to make sure your views are known —the deadline for copy is 23 January 1984. And please remember to provide a brief biography.

Geoff Cutts

SEAPOWER 84

Time: 27 and 28 April, 1984Place: H.C. Coombs Lecture Theatre, Canberra

Since the last edition of the Journal, arrangements for Seapower 84 have been proceedingsatisfactorily. The mail strike in Canberra didn't help matters but the lost time is being regained.

A draft outline of the programme is reproduced on the following page. Astute readers willnotice a few gaps in speakers; this is because those particular arrangements are yet to befinalized — a function of the mail strike. In any event, the outline is there and although there mayyet be some minor change in topics, the Seminar will have the overall shape as shown.

Brochures, with final details and registration requirements, will be distributed shortly.


— Journal of the Australian Naval Institute

FRIDAY 27 APRIL. 1984

1400-1430

1430-1515

1515-160016301715-18302030

160016301715180020302130

SEAPOWER 84AUSTRALIA'S MARITIME INTERESTS

DRAFT PROGRAMME

Introduction AMI PresidentPatron's Address and Official Opening His Excellency the Governor-GeneralThe Strategic Setting

A Legal and Diplomatic ViewTeaA Regional ViewA Defence ViewDinnerA Personal View

Dr T.B. Millar, AO, Australian NationalUniversity

The Hon Sir Charles Court, AK, KCMG,OBE Former Permier of Western Au-stralia

SATURDAY 28 APRIL, 19840900-0945 Industry View

0945-10301030-11451100-1145

1145-1230

1230-14001400-15301530-1555

1555-1600

An Economist's ViewTeaThe Naval View

A Decision Maker's View

LunchOpen ForumClosing Address

Closing Remarks

Mr J.F. Kirk, Chairman and Chief Execu-tive Esso Australia Ltd

Vice Admiral D.W. Leach SO, CBE,MVO, RAN Chief of Naval StaffThe Rt Hon I.M. Sinclair, OppositionSpokesman on Defence

Admiral Sir Anthony Synnot, KBE, AO,RAN (Rtd) Former Chief of DefenceForce StaffANI President

ANI LIBRARY

The ANI Library is now located in RussellBuilding A, opposite room A-3-17. The library isin glass-fronted bookcases and loans can bemade at any time. The librarian is located inA-3-17. Telephone 654760.

The following books have been added to thelibrary:

• Who Dares Wins — Tony Geraghty. Armsand Armour Press, 1980

• The Battle for the Falklands - - MaxHastings, Simon Jenkins. Michael Joseph1983

• US Aircraft Carriers — Norman Friedman.Naval Institute Press, 1983 (Presented byCommander Robin Pennock RAN)

• Soldiers and Scholars — John Maslandand Laurence Radway. Princeton UniversityPress 1957.

The following books are missing from thelibrary and their return is requested:

• Lonely Vigil, Coastwatchers of the Solo-mons — Walter Lord

• The Coast Watchers — Eric Feldt• Ultimost Tish — Hugh McCann• Old Friends New Enemies - • Arthur

Marden• Men of War — Geoff Vollmer

Robin Pennock is attempting to locate thefollowing items:

• National Geographic Magazine of January1933, (Vol LXIII);

• The Colonial Clippers, by Basil Lubbock:• Naval History of South Australia, by H.M.

Cooper;• Ships in Australian Waters, by P.J. William;

and• The Tall Ships Pass, by W.L.A. Derby.

Anyone able to help should write to him asNOCSA, HMAS ENCOUNTER.


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submarine programme, combined withthe expertise gained from building 316submarines over a period of 96 yearsfor the British Royal Navy and overseasnaval customers.Designed in close association with theRoyal Navy, the Type 2400 will have asubmerged displacement of 2400tonnes and, within the confines of its hull,can accept a wide variety of weaponfits, fire control systems andcommunications equipment.VSEL are now engaged in theconstruction of the first of this class,likely to be named 'Upholder', for theRoyal Navy.The design sets new standards inhabitability, reliability and operationalavailability and will, we believe, providean exceptional patrol submarine facilityinto the 21st century.

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Correspondence

HMAS SUCCESS

Dear Sir,

The comments, by your predecessor, about thenew HMAS SUCCESS, under construction at VickersCockatoo Dockyard, are both mischievous and incor-rect.

The AOE, which project was cancelled in 1973,would have been in service by 1980. The AOR-01, its'successor, was ordered only in October 1979, and laiddown in August 1980. Delay and dislocation to thebuilding programme, caused mainly by technical andcontractual problems, has postponed planned deliveryto February 1986.

Your correspondent's contribution does little justiceto those many people, not only at VCD but also withinNavy, whose tremendous efforts are producing a veryfine ship.

Yours faithfully

R Humbley

Dear Sir,

In his article "MORE SUCCESS" in your August1983 issue, Robin Pennock should have checked hisinformation regarding delivery date for the RAM's newFleet Underway Replenishment Ship, under construc-tion at Vickers Cockatoo Dockyard.

It is bad enough that the press is inclined onoccasions to publish misleading information on thesubject of the construction of the AOR-01, to be namedHMAS SUCCESS That the ANI Journal should do sois the last straw!

Delivery is planned for early 1986.

Yours faithfully,

B.M. ZieglerCommander RAN (Ret'd)

Comments on Commander Ziegler's letter byCommander Pennock:

Thank you for clarifying the date of delivery ofHMAS SUCCESS. Telephone calls to the builder whilstI was writing the article subjected me to the old game of'switchboard roulette'. In other words, I was passedfrom department to department and no-one could givea definite answer, let alone his name.

However, is Commander Zeigler protesting toomuch? In my article I stated that the delivery date,although still not firm, will probably not be untilsometime in 1987.

As one of the original members of the AOR PCProject way back in October 1975, I have kept aninterested eye on the AOR project and would defendmy statement although still not firm. After all, thedifference between 1986 and 1987 is only one day.

WHO SANK THE SYDNEY?

Further to the correspondence in Vol. 8 No. 4,Robin Pennock has sent in this extract, which ispublished with the permission of Southdown Press. Itcomes from 'Signature', the magazine of Diners Club,June/July 1983, p. 23:

American adventure novelist and marine explorerClive Cussler has issued a challenge to all Australiansinterested in solving the secrets beneath our coastalwaters.

The author of the blockbuster Raise The Titanicwants to locate the Australian cruiser HMAS Sydney,sunk by the German raider Kormoran, 150 miles offCarnarvon, WA, in November, 1941.

"The Germans claimed the Sydney drifted off overthe horizon, blew up and sank," says Cussler.

"We know what the raider's position was at thetime, and if we find the Sydney nearby, the Germanexplanation will look shaky. But if they were five or 10miles apart, it will look valid."

But Clive Cussler needs financial help:"It's a matter of chartering a boat to bring my men

and equipment here.""It would take about 60 days to complete the

operation, and there are vast amounts of moneyinvolved. But if it were found we could perhaps startdiving in late 1983 or early '84."

It has often been speculated that the Kormoranmachine-gunned the Sydney's lifeboats so no onewould learn she had fired under a neutral flag.

The raider was also damaged in the fray — withher 317 survivors escaping by boat. But all the 645officers and men from the Sydney were lost: not asingle survivor to tell the tale.

Cussler says his interest here is not in opening oldwar wounds, but solving another maritime mystery.

A sizeable slice of the author's book royalties go tofund the National Underwater Marine Agency, anon-profit organisation dedicated to searching forwrecks, founded by Cussler in 1978.

NUMA has 16 trustees, including marinearchaeologists, engineers and oceanographers.


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1982 — 1983 PRESIDENT'S REPORT

1982 — 1983 has been a satisfactory year tor the Australian Naval Institute with emphasis onfurther progress of administrative and other tasks. Planning for Seapower 84 has been a majoractivity.

Once again your Council adopted a set of objectives as a basis for continuing development ofthe Institute and longer term budgetary planning. The goals have provided the necessary focus forCouncil activities and an effective means of measuring achievement. Progress towards ourprincipal objectives is summarised under the activities of each Sub-Committee.

Financially, the Institute has continued to consolidate its position, by achieving a furtherprudent surplus for 1982/83.

Operating expenses have been contained within income. In particular, the Institute's primaryoperating cost, that of publishing the Journal has again been substantially offset by advertisingrevenue.

A draft budget has been prepared for 1983/84, having regard to performance in 1982/83, theforthcoming major financial commitment to Seapower 84 and new Council initiatives to improveadministration.

The Administrative Sub-Committee which is now established by the Council as a permanentbody has had a particularly active year.

Terms of Reference for all Council Office Bearers and Sub-committees were drawn up andissued. An annual Schedule of Recurring Events was also completed. These two actions areexpected to make it easier for new Councillors to take their places and for each newly electedCouncil to become effective more quickly.

A review of the work load of our Treasurer revealed that he was being overworked. As a resultthe Treasurer now has an assistant. Although in the long term other arrangements are likely to benecessary we consider the present arrangement should be adequate for a membership up toabout 1000 financial members.

In an endeavour to streamline the operation of the Institute, the Council has decided thatmembership records should be maintained by computer and action has been taken to introducesuch services by contract.

The Membership Sub-Committee's tasks this year have been of a routine nature. An on-goingproblem is that of keeping up to date with members' addresses; the onus is on members to informthe Secretary of any changes of name, rank or address.

Membership growth continues with a total of 620 Regular and Associate members on thebooks. This represents a modest growth rate of 6% annually.

The Council is optimistic that this trend will continue but we would like to see more youngermembers including sailors and an increase in the number of lady members.

The Journal has maintained a satisfactory standard with some good articles. The desiredstandard will be maintained only if Institute members contribute. The Journal exists to provide aforum for the expression of individual's views on any topic of maritime interest and there is acontinuing need for contributions.

As further encouragement the Council has decided that from 1983 onwards the value ofannual prizes awarded for the best contributions to the Journal would be increased substantially.Details are published in the Journal.

The ANI Library has grown to respectable size and the donations have so far been mostgenerous. However if the collection is to be developed further it needs a continuing inflow of newmaterial. As well as donations, advice for notable and out-of-print works available for purchase ata modest price would be appreciated.

Arrangements for storage and display of books in Canberra have been improved and thisshould increase the rate of borrowing. Arrangements for borrowing books will be notified in theJournal.

Chapters have been active in Canberra, Sydney and Perth but the Melbourne Chapter hasbeen dormant. Money set aside for Chapter support has not been used.

Seapower 84 is to be held in Canberra on 27 and 28 April next year and the theme will beAustralia's Maritime Interests. Planning is progressing satisfactorily and the initial response fromprospective speakers has been encouraging. Subject to members showing sufficient interest andspreading word about the seminar it is hoped it can be equally as successful as its predecessors.


During the year ANI Silver Medals were presented to Lieutenant Commander M.K. GahanRAN and Lieutenant Commander D.J. Farrell RAN, students at the RAN Staft College, for the bestessays on Maritime Strategy.

Recently the Council canvassed members' views and endorsed the design of an AustralianNaval Institute tie which will be on sale, at the modest price of $7.50, before or at the time ofSeapower 84. This has been made possible by a most generous anonymous gift of the cost ofdevelopment of the tie.

Next year, in addition to the major undertaking of Seapower 84 ana continued publication of aregular journal, the Council wishes to encourage greater activity by the Chapters and to continueto improve our administrative arrangements.

For some time now it has been evident that the efforts of the Council and a few othervolunteers are no longer adequate to cope with an increasing administrative load. The Institutealready pays for some clerical support and we must expect an increased outlay in the future. Thismatter is under active consideration by your Council.

At the same time the membership could do more to help. Therefore the Council would like toencourage members including associates to become more active in the affairs of the Institute byvolunteering their services in support of Institute. Chapter, Journal and Seapower 84 activities.Once again a significant amount of help will be needed from ANI members outside the Council ifthe Seminar is to succeed as its predecessors did.

In summary, whilst progress has been achieved during 1982-83 there have been difficulties insome areas. The Council looks forward to 1983-84 as a more active and productive year and inparticular to Seapower 84 which will be a major event of national interest. I am hopeful that thisimportant Seminar will be well supported by members and by many others with an interest inmaritime affairs.

Before concluding, I would like to pay a tribute to Rear Admiral Swan whom the Council haselected an Honorary Life Member in recognition of his unparalleled service to the Institute, inparticular during his four years as President.

I also take this opportunity to thank on my own behalf and on behalf of the members all thosewho have served on the Council, or performed other duties, for their contribution and time given tothe Institute. Captain Orm Cooper our retiring Junior Vice President merits special mention. Hehas been a tireless worker behind the scenes and if it were not for him our administration wouldnot be nearly as sound. I am also confident that you will agree with me if I specially mentionCaptain Les Fox — a foundation member, former Vice-President and until recently CanberraChapter convenor. On your behalf, I thank him for his great contribution.

Finally may I express the Council's appreciation for the continuing support of all members.

CHANGED YOUR ADDRESS?

Did your last Journal turn up late, or come via another ship or establishment? If it did. thenperhaps you have moved and forgotten to tell us. Similarly, if the rank was wrong then perhaps youmay have forgotten to amend that too.

During the rush to distribute the Journal to members, a great number of the distribution teammake comment on the obvious incorrect addresses that they are aware of, but in their efforts to getthe job done they do not have the time to alter the address labels

If you have changed your address, or rank, or intend to do one or the other, or both, before thenext edition please let us know Just drop a note to the Membership Secretary and advise him of

your name;membership number (top of the address label);new address (or new title)

Page 10 — Journal ot the Australian Naval Institute

AUSTRALIAN NAUflL INSTITUTE

BALANCE SHEET

AS OT 30 SEPTEMBER 19B3

ACCUMULATED FUNDS

Balance as at 1 October 1982

ADD Surplus for Veer

Provision for Replacement

Medals

Provision for Legsl Fees

LIABILITIES

Subscriptions in Advance

1982/83

1983/81.

198I./85

1985/86

Sundry Creditors

1982

16,

3,

20,

3,

187

'11. '3

133

boo100

-BV'j

1.5

105

?13

.62

.77

.39

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.30

11,601..

1..583.

16,187.

300.

-

332.

1.5.

30.

60.

2. 101..

28

2i.62

00

DO

00

00

00

85

Sundry Debtors

Commonuiealth' Bonds

Savings Investment Account

Cash at Bank

Stock on Hand

Inaignia

Medals

Medal Die

Seapouer 81. Advance

3,3314.00

15,000.00

3,1.56.60

1,668.96

1.00

1,ODD.00

1,681..00

10,500.00

".,000.00

1,961..51

$25,071.69 $19,059.1.7 $25,071.69 $19,059.1.7

EXPENDITURE

Journal Operating Coat

Postage

Audit Fees

Company Fees

Donation to Legacy

Advertising

Stationery

Engraving

Library Additions

Bank Charges

Presentation Medals

Chapter Support

Provision for Replacement Medals

Provision for Legs! Fees

Entertainment CUADAM Kennon)

Gift

Bank Accounts Debits Tax

Secretary's Expenses

UADAM Kennon's Lecture

Surplus Trsnsf to AccumulatedFunds

AUSTRALIAN NAUAL INSTITUTE

INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT

FOR

19BJ

3,960.63

381.68

130.00

2.00

100.00

29.88

1,003.61

17.50

M.95

61.51.

1.6.63

-

300.00

100.00

1.2. 37

51.65

1.85

1.0.80

250.00

6,565.09

3.91.5.77

10,510.86

THE 12 MONTHS ENDED 30 SEPTEMBER 1983

1982

3,852.

11.0.

130.

11. .

100.

91.

595.

10.

-30.

l>6.

200.

300.

-

-

-

--_

INCOME

21* Insignia Trading

28 Joining Fees

00 Subscriptions

00 Interest

00 Proceedings Ssles

11.

1.8

90

87

63

00

00

5,511.51.

1..583.3I.

$10,091..88

1983

1.5.80

21.5.00

8,399.88

1,820.18

1982

78.55

305.00

8,596.00

875.33

21.0.00

$10,510.86 $10,091..88

Journal of the Australian Naval Institute — Page 7)

NPVAL INSTITUTE

INSIGNIfl PNO MEDAL TRADTNG ACCOUNT

FDR THE 1g MONTHS ENDED 30 SEPTEMBER 1983

INSIGNIA

Stock on Hand 30 September 82

Purchases

Profit Transferred to Income

Bnd Expenditure Account

198,3 1982

617.15 1,061..50

$662.95 $1,11,3.05

Sales

Stock an Hand 3D September 63

19B3 198?

296,00 525.90

361..95 617.15

1662.95 J1.U3.05

MEDALS

Stock on Hand 30 September 82

Purchases

1292.81 $339.1.1.

Presentations

Stack on Hand 30 September 83

146.63 1-6.63

21.6.18 292.81

$292.81 $339.1.1.

EXPENDITURE

Printing. November 1982

Printing February 1983

Printing May 1983

Printing August 1983

Photos

Postage

Prizes

Editor's Expenses

Corrigendum

1

2

2

3

1C

FOR

1983

,887.00

,602.00

,502.00

,052.00

-

1.70.00

95.00

61.88_

,669.BB


JOURNAL OPERATING ACCOUNT

THE 12 MONTHS ENDED 3D SEPTEMBER 1983

1982 INCOME

1,81.5.00 Journal Sales

1,81.5.00 Journal Subscriptions

1,926.00 Advertising

1,926.00 Net Operating Cost Transferred

55.1*5 to Income & Expenditure Account

581.. 90

95.00

18.70

16.93

$ 8,312.98

1983

123.50

1,01.7.00

5,538.75

3,960.63

1982

92.50

987.80

3,380.1.1.

3,852.21.

$10,669.88 $ 8,312.98


WEST COAST REPORTThe RAN guided-missile destroyer HMAS HOBART recorded its name in HMAS STIRLING'S

history book for the second time when it berthed at the West coast base on 22 September. HMASHOBART had the distinction of being the 100th visitor to the support facility since itscommissioning on 28 July 1978. This total excluded patrol boats, home ported and base portedvessels. Ironically, this was HMAS HOBART's first visit to HMAS STIRLING since the base'scommissioning. However, HMAS HOBART already holds the distinction of being the first ship tocome alongside the newly completed wharves way back on 11th August, 1975 — three yearsbefore HMAS STIRLING was commissioned.

Accompanying HMAS HOBART when it berthed on 22 September were the guided-missilefrigate HMAS CANBERRA, the two US Navy Knox-class frigates USS LOCKWOOD and MARVINSHIELDS, and the New Zealand frigate HMNZS CANTERBURY. This was the first time there hadbeen five destroyer-type ships alongside at one time. The ships were alongside only 36 hoursbefore departing under the cover of darkness to participate in Exercise Kangaroo '83.

HMAS LEEUWIN, the west coast Junior Recruit training establishment held its 82nd PassingOut Parade of Junior Recruits on 20 September, 1983. Sixty-one recruits graduated, taking thetotal number of graduates since 1960 to 10,464. The reviewing officer for the parade wasCommodore N.A. Ralph, AM, DSC, RAN.

The United States Navy nuclear-powered Los Angeles-class submarine USS BOSTON visitedbetween 9-16 September, 1983, for rest and recreation purposes. Displacing 6,100 tonnes, USSBOSTON was the 39th US Navy submarine to visit the base since its commissioning five yearsago.

HMAS ADROIT became the Fremantle Port Division Naval Reserve training patrol boat in asimple ceremony conducted at HMAS STIRLING on 26 August, 1983. STIRLING-based since 21January, ADROIT was replaced as the Permanent Naval Force patrol boat on the West Coast bysister-ship HMAS ASSAIL on 1 July. Having just completed a pre-handover refit at HMASSTIRLING prior to its handover, the ADROIT has the distinction, prior to coming to HMASSTIRLING, of being the longest serving patrol boat at Darwin where it spent 14 1/2 years.

ADROIT joins sister-ships ADVANCE, ARDENT, AWARE and BAYONET as RAN Reservetraining boats allocated to Port Divisions. In its new role, it will be used for fisheries patrols duringannual continuous training periods. It will also provide valuable practical training in seamanship,navigational and technical training. It is the third Attack class vessel to serve with the FremantlePort Division. The others, HMAS ACUTE which served between 1968-78 and HMASBARRICADE (1981-82), have both been since transferred to Indonesia.

Wartime memories were recalled when the US Navy frigate USS LOCKWOOD visited the westcoast last September. USS LOCKWOOD proudly carries the name of Vice Admiral Charles A.Lockwood, USN who commanded the Fremantle submarine base during 1942-43 whilst a RearAdmiral. On his promotion in 1943, he was the youngest Vice Admiral in the US Navy and wasappointed Commander of the US Navy Pacific Fleet submarines at Pearl Harbour. In his memoirs,published in 1951, Lockwood wrote of the warmth of the Australian people. Another US Navyvisitor which brought back memories of this dark-era was the USS HOLLAND, a submarine depotship which visited Fremantle in September. Its predecessor of the same name served inFremantle during World War Two.

The visit by the Royal Navy task group led by HMS INVINCIBLE to Western Australia inNovember, 1983 was the first Royal Navy task group to visit the West Coast since July, 1979. Itwas more than a decade since a Royal Navy carrier had visited the port. Certainly a far cry fromthe 1950s and 60s when Royal Navy visits were regular. The last Royal Navy submarine seen onthe west coast was HMS ODIN, way back in 1973. Since then, more than 40 US Navy submarineshave visited Western Australia.

Vic Jeffery

The AuthorVic Jeffery is the Navy Public Relations Officer for Western Australia. He was appointed to this position in August. 1981and is a Lieutenant in the RANR attached to the Fremantle Port Division.

' Former Vice President of the WA Division of the Navy League of Aust.' Member of the Naval Historical Society of Aust.' Associate member of the Institute since 1979.* Keen Naval Historian and a very parochial West Aussie.


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RAN OCEANOGRAPHIC ANDMETEOROLOGICAL SERVICE

By Commander Haydn L Daw RAN

In 1948, when the Naval Weather servicewas established, the role was clear. The newFleet Air Arm required that a weather forecastingcapability be established. Everyone recognizedthat aircraft operations ashore and at searequired weather observations and forecasts.This requirement was primarily to ensure thesafe operation of aircraft. Because of the need tohave this capability at sea, a uniformed Serviceresulted.

During the 1960s when I completed mytraining with the Royal Navy in Cornwall, theaccent of the course was still oriented towardsthe development of forecasting skill to servicethe aviation requirement. It was about this timethat the oceanographic component of the coursewas first developed. It was a very simpletreatment based on present day standards andonly really covered thermal structure of theocean and elementary ray path diagrams fordifferent seasonal thermal structures.

The seventies saw a change in focus of theNaval Weather Service. This change occurredon two fronts, both of which have continued intothe eighties. Firstly, whilst the aviation require-ment continued, the marine forecasting loadincreased and this trend continues today both innumber of forecasts issued and the scope of theactual forecast itself. Secondly, the oceanog-raphic role developed from nothing to a signifi-cant component of the organisational activity.

Officers qualifying in meteorology have al-ways been drawn from the Instructor Branch ofthe Navy. The Director of the Naval WeatherService was a double hatted job for the Directorof Naval Education. In the 'good old days' toqualify 'MET'1 was almost a requirement forpromotion to commander, so it was not until theseventies that the Navy suddenly found itselfwith a Director of Naval Education (who was alsoDirector of Naval Weather Service) who did nothave a meteorological background. This dualhatted arrangement had never been satisfactoryfor a variety of reasons. One simply was thelocation of the Director in the Personnel Division.However, although the Director's name waschanged to Director of Naval Meteorological andOceanographical Services (DONMOS) in themid seventies, it was not until the early eightiesthat a separate Director was created with, ofcourse, the inevitable change of name to

Director, Oceanography and Meteorology, orDOM.

The new Director was located in the Hydrog-raphic Branch and the Hydrographer was per-suaded to move from Sydney to Canberra tokeep an eye on him. I have resisted thetemptation to use the word Directorate as itseems a little ostentatious when only talkingabout one person. This new organisation andlocation has resulted in a much more effectivearrangement. It is essential that the Director belocated and be part of the DCNS Division toprovide the service required by the users and tointeract properly with the Naval Staff.

HMAS ALBATROSS

Personnel in the field are located in two majorconcentrations, although there are meteorologic-al sailors in all major Fleet units where they fulfilthe role of Navigator's Yeoman as well as doingthe meteorological observing. The Meteorologic-al Office at HMAS ALBATROSS is the largestconcentration of personnel, where a staff ofabout 20, headed by a commander, provide allthe meteorological and oceanographic analysesand forecasts required throughout the Navy andalso complete all meteorological training with theexception of the Long Meteorological andOceanographic course which is still completed inthe UK.

All raw data used for plotting meteorologicalcharts arrives from the Bureau of Meteorologyvia land line communications, both teletype andfacsimile. Some readers would be aware that allobserved meteorological data is transmitted incoded form in a number of five figure groups.Meteorological personnel have to rote-learn theliteral description of the observation, the numer-ical code and the pictorial representation (forplotting). There are, for example, 100 differentpresent weathers and this is only one of a largenumber of codes and types of messages.

The incoming observations are plotted onsurface charts at three hourly periods and upperair and thickness charts twice a day. Standard

The Author:Commander Daw is an Instructor Officer who qualified in

meteorology in 1967. He has had experience forecasting forthe Fleet Air Arm both at the RAN Air Station and at sea inHMAS MELBOURNE. Commander Daw is currently serving inNavy Office as Director. Oceanography and Meteorology.


forecasts for aviation and marine users areissued twice a day with special forecasts issuedas required by the user.

In a separate article in this journal, LieutenantCommander Low has described the oceanog-raphic analysis of the East Australian Current inthe West Tasman and the observations that areavailable for the analysis of the charts. Thisproduct is fairly new and contains very importantinformation for Naval forces. It will be discussedlater in this article.

The forecaster uses the observational in-formation he has available to generate a threedimensional model of the atmosphere. As theatmosphere is a fluid, application of the laws offluid dynamics allows the forecaster to prognosti-cate the future state of the atmosphere andproduce a forecast based on it. Whilst thissounds simple, it is not, and large computers arenow used by major meteorological services tomake all the calculations required and produce arange of forecast charts. The UK meteorologicaloffice now has a Control Data CYBER 205computer that performs 400 million calculations/second and produces forecast charts for theworld in four minutes. The reader should becautioned that this does not mean the computerproduces the actual forecast in its final form.

Although computers can produce the fore-cast charts, the judgement of a forecaster is stillrequired to monitor the weather and modify thecomputer forecasts when they are wrong. Thehand produced forecast charts at ALBATROSSare not only required to supplement the compu-ter products but also to give the forecaster aclear mental grasp of the three dimensional stateof the atmosphere in order to make a betterforecast.

The office at ALBATROSS is also a fullsurface and upper air observing station in theBureau of Meteorology network. Surfaceobservations are made three hourly, hourly whenflying; upper winds are observed six hourly; andupper air soundings made twice a day. Theforecasting and observing role continues roundthe clock for 365 days each year.The Hydrographic Office

The second concentration of field forcesoccurs in the Hydrographic Office in NorthSydney. Here Staff Officer Oceanography andthe Australian Oceanographic Data Centre carryon their operations, both reporting direct to theDirector Oceanography and Meteorology.

The Australian Oceanographic Data Centre(AODC) was set up by the Hydrographer overtwenty years ago in a far sighted move to archiveOceanographic data which would be required bythe Navy and the nation in the future. For almosttwenty years with a rather flattering name, the

AODC was only a one man operation. In the lastthree or four years it has grown in stature, sizeand capability and is still expanding.

The major focus of AODC has been toarchive bathythermal data. At present, this databank is stored in a commercial computer and alladditions, processing and products cost money.Following a study which indicated that long termsavings and other benefits would accrue with aninternal computing system, a mini computingsystem called HYDROCOMP is being acquiredfor AODC. In the interim, a data bank of nansencast data is being established. Initially this databank will contain 50,000 data stations, Eachnansen cast contains measurements of moreparameters than the typical bathy in thebathythermal data bank and is collected to agreater depth than is the bathythermal.

AODC also maintain a close quality controlfunction over Fleet expandable bathythermo-graph (XBT), or bathy, operations. The develop-ment of expertise and establishment of goodfeedback procedures to Fleet units has resultedin the success rate of XBTs rising from 30% to70%. That may not sound significant, but whenthe saving is translated into dollars it indicates adirect saving of $100,000 annually of the cost ofless than half the time of a Leading Seaman

Most of the climatological briefings preparedfor major events such as exercises and deploy-ments are now prepared by AODC and thatcapability is being developed. Readers who haveseen recent productions will have noted theincreasing utility of them. These briefings arebased on climatic averages and should be usedfor planning only and not for real time support.They contain a broad range of environmentalinformation embracing both meteorology andoceanography.

AODC also executes the Hydrographer'sresponsibilities in International OceanographicData Exchange (IODE) under the auspices of theIntergovernmental Oceanographic Commission.As previously stated, AODC is the NationalOceanographic Centre for Australia. The Hyd-rographer is also the national Integrated GlobalOcean Services System (IGOSS) representa-tive. This responsibility involves the real timetransmission of Oceanographic observations andproducts around the world. AODC plays a rolehere as all RAN XBTs are routed over the GlobalTelecommunications System via the Bureau ofMeteorology, and Oceanographic products fromALBATROSS are distributed nationally andinternationally by AODC.

Before going on to look at some of the usesof meteorological and Oceanographic products, acouple of points should be made. I would arguethat meteorology and oceanography are closely


Enhanced Visual Image from Geostationary Meteorological satelite — 28 March 1983Courtesy: Macquarie University

related. You can't have an oceanographicservice without strong inputs from meteorology.For example, sea state is dependent on wind butis an important input into oceanographic pro-ducts such as sonar range prediction. Similarly,meteorologists are now more concerned with theocean and its interaction with weather andclimate. There is a clearer recognition now of aneed to more closely monitor the ocean,particularly the tropical ocean, in order to moreproperly understand its influence on weather andclimate. To give a simple example of theconnection, the warm eddies off the NSW coastdescribed in Lieutenant Commander Low'sarticle will often give rise to increased convectivecloud, in the same way that it can develop overland during the day due to surface heating.

I think it'salso worth making the point that theRAN Oceanographic and Meteorological Servicedoes not duplicate other existing civil services. Ifnecessary, I could go through and point this outfunction by function but I think it worth makingreaders aware that we complement the servicesoffered by, say, the Bureau of Meteorology. Inaddition, the Service routinely performs other

functions not normally part of other organiza-tions' repertoires; for example, oceanographicanalysis, range prediction, ballistic informationand so on.

When thinking about this article I thought itmay be worth going through each parameter of aparticular product and talking about the tacticalapplications. There may be some merit in this assome readers may not be aware that a windforecast, for example, has applications whichrange from positioning chaff, through determin-ing the flying and replenishment course to layingsmoke. I have resisted this temptation because itmay be more profitable to take two examplesand look at them in a little more detail.

Before doing so one more point should bedeveloped. Early in this article I mentioned thatthe initial role of the developing Naval WeatherService related to the safe operation of navalaircraft. This has changed to include shipforecasts and oceanography. I think that therehas been a slow but, I hope acceleratingawareness, that the environment affects not justthe platform and its capacity to operate, but alsosensors and weapons systems and that the


tactical applications of the forecasts at this levelhave to be considered because ultimately thiswill affect the safety of us all. This is not to saythat the early forecasters did not take account ofFleet Programmes and Exercise Programmes inwriting their forecasts, but rather an increasingawareness by the astute user and the forecasterthat the maximum benefit must be made of theenvironment, down to identifying and takingaccount of the effect the environment has onindividual sensors and systems.The West Tasman

The first example I wish to examine involvesthe West Tasman Analysis. If the reader were toconsult the diagrams accompanying LieutenantCommander Low's article elsewhere in theJournal he would note the following generalconclusions:

• greatest layer depths are associated withthe warm core of the eddies

• eddies are not necessarily clearly deline-ated by sea surface temperature

• geostrophic currents are associated withthe eddies (anticlockwise around warmcore eddies)

• horizontal temperature gradients at theboundary of eddies are associated withdecreasing layer depths.

Whilst I do not intend to go into detail about theoffensive/ defensive tactics that should beemployed in using these analyses to maximumadvantage, the following results are obvious:

• Better sonar ranges are likely in the centreof the eddy than the boundary.

• Sonar ranges at the eddy boundary arelikely to be low and bearing errors are likely.

• Currents will move ships, submarines andbuoys and have applications for shiprouting, navigation and reducing self noiseif sympathetic. The current strength de-pends on the thermal gradient at 250m andgeostrophic currents as strong as 6 knotshave been reported.

• Because the position of eddies cannotalways be determined by SST alone, the250 metre and mixed layer depth analysisare required as planning tools.

The oceanographic conditions in a regionsuch as the West Tasman are complex. I canremember CASEXs in the sixties where, inhindsight, the location of the exercise must havebeen in a frontal region where surface and airunits had about as much chance of locating thesubmarine as walking on water. Now plannershave more flexibility and are able to increase ordecrease submarine detection chances at will byvarying the start position.

A lot of work has been done on the EastAustralian Current, but recent research on the

Leeuwin Current which flows south along theWest Australian Coast indicates that this coastalcurrent may be as complex as the EastAustralian Current with its own eddy systems. Itis also seasonal in nature and can be expectedto have a marked effect on underwater sensors.At present, we have no capacity to monitor thiscurrent in real time and this may be required inthe future if naval forces are to be deployed andoperate regularly in this region. I mention theLeeuwin Current just to demonstrate the com-plexity of waters around Australia and the workthat must be done in order for us to use thiscomplex environment to our advantage.

Electromagnetic RefractionA second example relates to electromagnetic

refraction in the atmosphere. The effect of theatmosphere on electromagnetic propagation hasbeen known for a long time. To produce goodforecasts, detailed information of the verticaltemperature and humidity structure of theatmosphere is required. In the same way thatsound waves are refracted in the ocean,electromagnetic waves can be refracted in theatmosphere. Particularly important are regionswhere the atmosphere dries out rapidly and/orcontains a temperature inversion. These condi-tions can cause unexpectedly long ranges ordangerously short ranges. This anomalouspropagation, or anaprop, is caused by thepresence of ducts which concentrate the electro-magnetic energy in a narrow channel.

Australia is surrounded by ocean and there isno real-time atmospheric sounding informationavailable over it from conventional radiosondesources (apart from HMAS COOK). If thedetailed temperature-humidity structure is notavailable, then the forcaster has to make ajudgement about the airmass either by using thesurface and upper air charts or by some form ofextrapolation either downstream or upstreamfrom the nearest radiosonde station, as the casemay be.

Satellite derived atmospheric sounding in-formation may be available within five years in aform which will greatly increase the capability ofnaval forecasters to forecast atmospheric effectson electomagnetic transmissions and allowgreater precision than is presently available.

There are generally accepted to be threetypes of ducts, evaporative, surface and ele-vated. The evaporative duct is often found in thelower few metres of the ocean and is caused, asits name suggests, by evaporation causing highhumidity near the sea surface with a rapid dryingof the air above. If the transmitter and target arewithin the duct, then detection ranges can begreatly extended beyond the normal horizon.The existence and vertical extent of the evapora-


live duct can be determined from accuratemeasurements of sea temperature, air tempera-ture, humidity and surface wind. Because smallrelative changes in these elements can meandifferent conditions, it is preferable that individualunits perform their own calculations based onlocal measurements

Surface and elevated ducts are caused by atemperature inversion which may sometimes beassociated with a decrease in humidity, such asin an anticyclone.

The presence of a duct causes electro-magnetic waves to be refracted down at agreater rate than the earth's curvature. In thecase of a surface duct it is the refraction downand reflection from the sea surface that allowsfor detections far beyond the normal horizon.When hot, dry air is advected over the ocean, theincrease in radar range can be prodigious.Ranges of over 1000 miles have been obtainedunder these conditions. These situations candevelop off the NW coast of WA particularly inlate spring and autumn with an offshore circula-tion established.

Whilst ducts can give rise to increasedranges, they can also cause gaps in coverage or'radar holes'. Figure 1 illustrates the air to air

FIGURE 12

Coverage Diagram for Typical Airborne Early-Warning Radar in the Presence of a 15 to 17 kftElevated Duct. Radar Altitude is 17 kft.

50K r -

situation with an elevated duct between 15-17000 ft. The Airborne Early Warning (AEW)radar located at the top of the duct has marked'radar hole'. Targets in the 'radar hole' couldremain undetected until about 15 miles distant.This 'radar hole' could be eliminated by taskingthe AEW aircraft to fly at the base of the duct,that is 15000 ft.

Figure 2 indicates the situation for a surfacetransmission with an intense surface duct. Forsystems operating the surface to air mode,ranges are greatly extended but in the surface tosurface mode, the range is reduced and a wedgeshaped radar hole exists above the top of theduct. This hole could be exploited in a strike roleor, in the defensive role, covering with an AEWaircraft operating well above the duct. Theimportant lesson from these two examples is thatjust because a sensor is indicating increaseddetection ranges, this does not mean suchcoverage is enhanced in the three dimensions.In fact, quite the contrary situation exists in thesetwo examples.

Systems do exist now which will visuallyindicate electromagnetic profiles for varioussensors, given atmospheric sounding informa-tion and system characteristics, although theyare not yet in the RAN inventory. Other importanttactical considerations would be detectionranges of friendly systems relative to interceptionranges by opposition systems and vice versa.

RANGE IN NAUTICAL MILES

200


20K •,

HEIGHT

IN

FEET

15K

10K -

5K -

50 100

RANGE IN NAUTICAL MILES

SOURCE HEIGHT -- tOOFEC'ion:.7ON

150 200

FIGURE 23

Coverage diagram for a typical radar in thepresence of an intense surface duct with topnear 600 feet.

There is a strong demand for electromagne-tic refraction forecasts and this need is nowbeing partly met on a trial basis. More observeddata is required to make the service better andprobably an education programme to ensure theforecasts are properly applied.

Conclusion

In this article, I have attempted to provide abrief introduction to the RAN Oceanographic andMeteorological Service. Whilst the bread andbutter weather forecasts for safety and planningpurposes, which have been the output of theservice since its inception, continue, there is agrowing demand from the Fleet for environmen-tal products which can be used tactically. While

the lack of observed environmental data willprevent all demands from being met now, someproducts are available which can be used tobuild up expertise and test expectations. Therequirement to maximise the value of oursensors and weapons systems and to limit theirshortcomings will always mean that the complexair/ sea environment we operate in will have tobe exploited to our advantage at all times.

Notes

1. The qualification is now 'METOC' to indicate that thetraining now includes both meteorology andoceanography.

2. Diagram from USN NAVOCEANCOMINST C3160.4Apage 1-15 1981.

3. Diagram from USN Refractive Effects Guidebook 1976.

G 75


OCEANOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OFTHE WESTERN TASMAN —A PRACTICAL APPROACH

by Lieutenant Commander C.A. Low RAN

During the 1970s, the Royal Australian NavyResearch Laboratory (RANRL), located at Rush-cutters Bay, Sydney, produced a WesternTasman Oceanographic Analysis. Three chartswere produced showing a detailed analysis of:

• sea surface temperatures (SST)• 250m temperatures (T250), and• the mixed layer depth (MLD).In early 1981, the responsibility of producing

these charts was given to the MeteorologicalOffice, RAN Air Station, Nowra. After severalmonths, it was decided that the product could beproduced on a weekly basis. This was mainly asa result of the considerable interest shown in theanalyses by RAN Fleet Units. Currently, thesecharts are distributed weekly to the followingaddressees:

• various RAN departments• the Australian Oceanographic Data

Centre• the RAN Research Laboratory• the CSIRO, Division of Fisheries and

Oceanography• the Department of Primary Industry,

Fisheries Division• various commercial fishing organizations• various USA Oceanographic organiza-

tions• the Bureau of Meteorology• the World Meteorological Organisation

(Geneva)• the International Oceanographic Com-

missions (Paris)The charts provide a valuable source of

information for both the military oceanographeras well as the commercial fishing industry.

The remainder of the article provides a briefdescription of the general Oceanographic condi-tions which exist in the western Tasman,followed by detail of the processes currentlybeing employed in the production of the weeklyanalyses.

GENERAL OCEANOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS—WESTERN TASMAN

As shown in figure 1, the Oceanographic

conditions in the western Tasman Sea aredominated by the East Australian Current (EAC).Studies over several years have shown that thecurrent leads to the formation of warm-coreeddies and contrasting cold pools in the area.Having formed, these features drift along boththe vertical and horizontal planes, and it is themonitoring of these changes which constitutesthe weekly analyses. By using data from:

• RAN e x p e n d a b l e ba thy -thermographs (XBT),

• RAN and RAAF airborne expendablebathythermographs (AXBT),RANRL and CSIRO research cruises,infra-red satellite imagery,satellite tracked SST readings,satellite tracked buoys, andgeneral shipping sea surface temperatureobservations,

it has been possible to provide a detailedforecast of the likely acoustic propagationcharacteristics and the commercial fishingpotential of particular areas of the westernTasman.

Sea Surface Temperature (SST)

Because of the greater availability of rawdata, the SST analysis has generally been themost detailed. As shown in figure 2, the EACflows south along the New South Wales coastbefore being deflected east by the coolersouthern ocean water. This Coral Sea water canbreak away from the general flow and formwarm-core eddies within the cooler Tasman Seawater.

Frequently, during the summer months,surface temperatures to 26°C have been re-corded at the centre of these eddies. The eddiescan be identified as well defined features forseveral weeks, before dissipating.

250m Isotherms T250

The accuracy of the T250 analysis is naturallydetermined by the number and scatter ofobservations. Frequently, new sub-surface data


150° Ifao*

Fig 1. The East Australia Current

I7Q°EL

is not available. The EAC can be identified as afeature detectable well below the surface. Theinterface between the Coral Sea and southernTasman waters at 250m is known as theTasman Front', and on the J25o analysis, isarbitrarily delineated by the 15°C isotherm.

The Tasman Front and warm-core eddiescan give rise to anomolous acoustic propagationcharacteristics, as well as providing unseasonalfishing conditions, in well defined areas.

Mixed Layer Depth (MLD)

The MLD, within the Tasman analysis, istaken as the depth in metres from the surface toa point at which the temperature is 0.5 degreesCelcius below the surface, then this is taken asbeing the layer depth.

During the summer months, as a result ofsurface heating, layer depths tend to be relative-ly small. With the on-set of winter, the MLDgradually increases as the warm water graduallymixes down. Such conditions can also lead toanomolous acoustic propagation characteristics,or to the migration south, during the wintermonths, of Coral Sea marine life. These crea-tures, for example, have frequently been caughtduring winter, in a layer of warm Coral Sea wateroverlying the southwestern Tasman water.

AVAILABILITY OF DATA

Sea Surface Temperatures. SST readingsare available from RAN Fleet Units, RANRL andCSIRO cruises, QMS and NOAA satellite data aswell as merchant shipping. The coverage,accuracy and irregularity of these observationsmakes an accurate analysis difficult. The CMSdata is particularly disappointing, even when thewestern Tasman is cloud-free. The discrimina-tion of the 'grey-scale' format of the photographsappears too insensitive to facilitate a one degreeCelcius interval analysis of the western Tasman.

250 Temperatures. T250 data is limited to theXBT and AXBT readings available from the RANand RAAF as well as RANRL and CSIROcruises. Infrequently, data from the DriftingCurrent Buoys of the CSIRO Division of Fisher-ies and Oceanography provide accurate temper-ature readings at 250m. The buoys also make itpossible to accurately determine the currentsassociated with the eddies or the Tasman Front.

Mixed Layer Depth. The number of MLDobservations is generally the same as thenumber of T250 observations. The actual layerdepth is taken from either the graphical print-outof the bathy or from the coded message receivedat NAS Nowra. The second and more commonmeans of obtaining MLD data is rather subjec-tive.


Fig 2. Eddy Formation in the East AustralianCurrent

Fig 3. Sea Surface Temperature

Fig 4. 250m Isotherm Fig 5. Mixed layer Depth


ANALYSIS PROCEDURE

In view of the military significance attached tothe T250 profile, this chart is generally drawn upfirst. The analysis of the previous week ismodified according to the new data available. Onoccasions, this can be supported by the SSTsatellite picture, although this must be appliedwith caution, particularly in summer wherelocalised surface heating can occur.

In recent weeks, the availability of a limitednumber of AXBT drops by the RAN has led to adifferent approach to the analysis. Havingdecided upon a given track for the aircraft fofollow, the bathy data obtained will then supportor cast doubt upon the previous analyses. Suchan approach has also been used in the planningof RANRL or CSIRO cruises.

Frequently, subjective assessments have tobe made as to the validity of some of the data,either with respect to its accuracy or its time ofobservation as compared to chart time. Lack ofnew data occasionally requires that two orthree-week-old observations have to be plottedon a chart.

The sea surface temperature analysis, be-cause of the generally greater number ofobservations compared with the other twoparameters, has often to be completed first.During the winter months, this is, perhaps, anacceptable alternative. During fleet exercisesand RANRL or CSIRO cruises, it is oftenpossible to obtain a very detailed analysis of avery small area of the chart. As is the case for allthree charts, the approach used is to assumethat the previous analysis is accurate and will bechanged only after careful consideration of anynew data.

This approach does tend to lead to small andoften insignificant changes in all three chartsover a period of three or four weeks, followed bya radical change as a large number of observa-tions becomes available.

Ocean Current Calculations

The surface currents associated with theEAC are of particular interest to:

• the submarine arm,• military and commercial surface shipping,• search and rescue organisations, and• fishing fleets.The strength of surface currents in the

western Tasman has been directly related to thetemperature gradient across the 100m or 250misotherms. The 250m analysis is used tocalculate the current near:

• eddy boundaries,• the Tasman Front, and• along the continental shelf.

The calculation is simply:12

current (knots) • distance in nm betweenadjacent isotherms

Though rarely available, the drifting buoydata has proven a very accurate means ofcalculating ocean currents. This has beensupported by actual reports from fleet units, bothsurface and sub-surface. Examples of recentanalyses are shown at figures 3, 4, and 5.

FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS

The interest shown in the product so far hascertainly made the effort involved in its prepara-tion, worthwhile. Undoubtedly, however, a grea-ter coverage of XBT drops has to be made tosignificantly improve the overall accuracy.

The ever-expanding field of anti-submarinewarfare within the RAN and RAAF, and the greatinterest shown by the fishing industry, suggestthat all parties have a vested interest insupporting these analyses. The support can bestbe given in the form of frequent and accurateobservations from the western Tasman. Withsufficient data, such analyses could be extendedto encompass a much larger area of the TasmanSea.

It is hoped that in the near future coloursatellite imagery will be available to NAS Nowrato greatly facilitate the analysis process.

By virtue of their inherent speed of operation,aircraft, with AXBTs, must form an integral partof the overall programme. The regular andextensive coverage available from such dropswould greatly improve the overall accuracy andcoverage given by the 'Oceanographic Analysisof the Western Tasman Sea1.

SUMMARY

The western Tasman oceanographic analy-sis is developing rapidly, but in the future this canbe further improved by increasing the amount ofinput information. Any form of thermal data fromthe western Tasman Sea would be mostwelcome, on a regular or irregular basis.Information, particularly from fishing vessels,could be forwarded to the Meteorological Office,RAN Air Station, Nowra, via the Department of

'Primary Industry, Fisheries Division (ResourceManagement). In turn, the Australian Oceano-graphic Data Centre, Sydney, can providecopies of the weekly analyses to any interestedparties.


(This article is reprinted from Jhe Navy Oct 83' by permission of the editor.)

SAVE THE KRAITBy Ross Gillett

In The Beginning

KRAIT was launched as the KOFUKU MARUfor a Singapore based fishing company. Thestyle of construction suggests she was built byChinese shipbuilders some time before 1920.About 70 feet long overall and with an 11 footbeam, KRAIT was constructed of Burmese teakand fitted with a 75 hp Deutz engine providing aspeed of seven knots. Until the Japanese dec-laration of war in December, 1941, the KOFUKUMARU served as a 'go-fer' — taking supplies outto the fishing fleet and returning to base with thecatch.

For more than 20 years, the little vesselroamed about the Rhio Archipelago, leading afairly low key existence. However, all thatchanged on 7th December, 1941, when Japanattacked the American naval base at PearlHarbour.

Back in Singapore KOFUKU MARU, towingtwo fish barges and with a crew of 17, began avoyage to Japan. Five days later, the vessel wasintercepted by a Royal Australian Navy unit,HMAS GOULBURN, and instructed to return toSingapore. The Japanese crew were sent toBombay as prisoners of war and the vesselimpounded.

KOFUKU MARU thus became the firstenemy ship captured by the Royal AustralianNavy in the Pacific war zone of World War Two.

KOFUKU MARU was soon put to good use.During the three weeks preceding the fall ofSingapore, the boat made ten trips to Sumatra,carrying refugees to short-lived safety from theadvancing Japanese military.

On her tenth voyage, with 120 Chinesewomen and children hospital patients aboardand in the company of nine other refugee ships,she came under heavy aerial attack. Eight of theother vessels were sunk and the ninth ranaground. The unscathed KOFUKU MARU pick-ed up as many survivors as possible, but onreaching Sumatra her crew discovered the islandhad been occupied by the Japanese.

The decision was then made to sail toTrincomalee, Ceylon, a distance of 2700kmunder the command of a retired naval comman-der, W.R. Reynolds. The crowded vessel aver-aged only 3.5 knots on the long journey, arrivingthree weeks later with no water left and sufficient

fuel for just 12 more hours sailing. After dis-embarking her cargo of passengers, the vesselmade for Bombay.

In Bombay when Kofuku Maru arrived wasCaptain Ivan Lyon of the Gordon Highlanders,who had escaped to India from Singapore.

Commando VesselIt was to be Lyon who conceived the idea of a

raid on Japanese shipping in Singapore, usingthe KOFUKU MARU to transport commandounits to and from the area. He had, at the time,volunteered to join the Special Operations (laterZ Force) section. Captain Lyon's scheme ofutilising the craft in its old working ground wasagreed to.

The failure of the vessel's engine preventedher from sailing to Sydney as planned so shewas carried as deck cargo on a merchant ship.After arrival she underwent repairs at the HolmesShipyard.

With training of volunteers to carry out theraid already underway the Japanese vessel wasrenamed KRAIT, after a particularly venomousCeylonese snake of the cobra family. TheSingapore operation was code-named 'Jaywick'and KRAIT transferred from Sydney Harbour toRefuge Bay, near the mouth of the HawkesburyRiver, about 40km north of the city.

In this restricted military area, the comman-dos and crew underwent intensive and secrettraining to fit them for the arduous voyage anddangerous attack against the Japanesestronghold.

The chosen few then sailed aboard KRAIT toCairns. During the voyage, the over-workedengine gave more trouble, necessitating KRAI7being towed into Brisbane for repairs. Subse-quently, she was towed into Cairns for furtherwork. The authorities obviously considered thatthese setbacks boded ill for the raid and therewas much talk of the operation being totallyabandoned.

The scheme was saved when CommanderLong, Director of Naval Intelligence, arranged forthe requisitioning of a Gardner 6L3 engine hehad found which the army had been using forsawmilling in Tasmania's Huon Valley.

Getting the engine to Cairns was now theproblem. Eventually a Dakota aircraft managed


to lift the heavy load off the Hobart runway andheaded for the northern city. Despite the weightloss through fuel consumption, the plane'sundercarriage still collapsed on landing atCairns. The fuselage had to be hacked open toretrieve the engine, after which the Gardner wasfitted into KRAIT. It is still performing almost aswell nearly 40 years later.

From Cairns, KRAIT proceeded around thetop of Australia to Exmouth Gulf in WesternAustralia, where she was re-provisioned andrefuelled for the assault on Singapore. KRAITwas carrying sufficient fuel for almost 15,000kmcruising. KRAIT slipped her moorings but only aminute later the propeller shaft broke. Fortunate-ly, the United States submarine repair ship USSCHANTICLEER had entered the Gulf and repairswere quickly effected.

Towards SingaporeKRAIT, its volunteer crew and commandos,

sailed toward Bali through the Lombok Strait on2nd September, 1943. During the voyage, thevessel flew the Japanese ensign. While sailingthrough enemy waters, those onboard dyed theirskins in an effort to resemble Malaysians. Strictsecurity ensured that other vessels were seenbefore the KRAIT herself was detected.

Strong tides in the Lombok Strait plus heavypatrols by Japanese craft, restricted headway totortoise pace. At one stage KRAIT made only10km in four hours. She eventually cleared thesehazardous waters and continued on her journey,playing a cat-and-mouse game with other ship-ping.

Not long after midnight on 18th September,the little ship dropped anchor off Panjang Islandin the Rhio Archipelago, about 30km fromSingapore, very near the place where she hadbeen captured by a boarding party from theAMS, HMAS Goulburn some 19 months earlier.

The three two-man crews were Lyon andHuston, Lieutenant D.M. Davidson and AbleSeaman W.G. Falls and Lieutenant R.C. Pageand Able Seaman A.W. Jones. All crews madeready their folding canoes with limpet mines,food and other essential gear for the attack andleft KRAIT to establish themselves on PanjangIsland to rest and watch shipping movementsinto and out of Singapore's harbour.

With the commandos safely ashore, KRAITretraced her voyage to the southwest coast ofBorneo, where she spent the following 14 dayswaiting to return to retrieve her commandos. Thewaiting game of avoiding contact with othershipping proved a trying period for the ship'screw. They had no way of knowing if theoperation was going to schedule, whether in factit had taken place, or whether there would be anysurvivors at all from the raiding party to collect.

After two days' rest, the commandos paddledto Dongas Island, from where they could betterobserve activity in the harbour and roads, only afew miles distant.

In darkness on 24th September, the threeteams set out to make their attack. However,strong tides forced them to abandon the attempt.They then shifted base to Subar Island, closer toSingapore.

The AttackAt 1900 on 26th September the six men set

off once more in their canoes. By midnight theywere bobbing about amidst an armada of enemymerchant ships. Lyon and Huston attached twolimpet mines to the engine room of a tanker as acrewman looked on from a porthole just abovethem. Then they placed another on the propellershaft.

Davidson and Falls did their work on threeships in the Roads while Page and Jonesattacked two ships in Keppel Harbour and one atBukum Island. The job completed, the threecrews paddled toward the safety of the man-grove swamps on nearby islands to await theresults of their handiwork. Right on time at 0515,with two crews already back at Dongas Island,the air was rent by explosions. Shipboard firesthen spread to the wharves and other installa-tions.

Of the estimated 70,000 tonnes of Japaneseshipping in Singapore's Keppel Harbour and theRoads on that night of 26th September, 1943,only 30,000 tonnes escaped the devastationwrought by the three two-man commando par-ties which had set out from Australia aboard theKRAIT a few weeks before. Two of the fully-laden cargo ships sank and the other five wereseriously damaged in the raid.

The Japanese military mounted a majorsearch over the next few days in an attempt tofind the saboteurs.

Satisfied with the result, the commandos,taking separate courses, paddled the 32km tothe pick-up point at Pompong Island, scheduledfor the night of 1st-2nd October. The onlyproblem to affect the operation was a misunder-standing about the exact rendezvous by two ofthe crews, and they were not gathered up byKRAIT until the following night.

The return journey through hostile waters toAustralia then began, but apart from one minorincident in the treacherous Lombok Strait, thingswent relatively smoothly. Sailing through theStrait in bright moonlight, KRAIT wasapproached by a Japanese destroyer.

The warship came alongside and paced theNippon-flag-flying Australian vessel for aboutfive minutes before turning away and sailing intothe night. For some unknown reason, the


Japanese did not hail or challenge KRAIT, nordid they use a searchlight for a clearer view.

The Japanese ensign was finally hauleddown on 12th October, shortly before the islandsoff the West Australian coast were sighted andExmouth Gulf reached.

Subsequent DutiesLater KRAIT was engaged as a supply ship

for coast watcher units on Timor, moving by nightto avoid detection by enemy warships. As thePacific war neared its close, she landed intelli-gence groups on Ambon and Morotai Islands tosearch for evidence of atrocities and warcriminals. On 5th April, 1944, KRAIT was finallycommissioned into the Royal Australian Navy asa special service vessel.

Manned by naval personnel, rather than thevolunteers of Z Force, KRAIT sailed with HMASBUNDABERG to attend the surrender ofJapanese forces on Ambon Island.

At war's end, British occupation forces inNorth Borneo took KRAIT over and then sold herto understandably unknown buyers who duringthe ensuing years used her for smuggling heroin,hashish, guns and war surplus goods to variousoutlets in the South China Sea. Interpol even-tually caught up with KRAIT and took theinnocent victim to Bali, where she became avirtual derelict.

A North Borneo sawmiller named Barrettlater purchased the old vessel and used her tohaul logs in the rivers and to transfer loggingcrews around the North Borneo coast, anoccupation which lasted some eight years.

RediscoveredDuring September, 1962, two Australian

timber merchants and former Z Force memberswere on a buying trip in Borneo. In SandakanHarbour they saw a vessel closely resemblingKRAIT, but carrying the name PENANG.

Steve Stevenson and Max Hayman, both ofSydney, made enquiries and found that thePENANG was, in fact, KRAIT. Its name had beenaltered because of its unsavoury connection withthe drug-running trade.

Following protracted and sometimes difficultnegotiations, the vessel was purchased by aspecially-convened board of trustees with fundsraised by public appeal through The Sun'newspaper, Sydney. Due to her poor condition,the ship was unable to sail under her own powerto Australia. P & O came to the rescue andgenerously cargoed her to Brisbane free ofcharge. There the Army Water Transport Squad-ron, helped by volunteers from the RoyalVolunteer Coastal Patrol and the Z Special UnitAssociation (Z Force), thoroughly cleaned,scraped, painted and mechanically repaired

KRAIT in preparation for her voyage to Sydney.In April, 1964, the vessel, again renamed

KRAIT, anchored near Refuge Bay, from whereshe had set sail on Operation 'Jaywick' 21 yearsbefore. Her original Australian skipper, Lieut TedCarse, had sailed her from Brisbane. Otheroriginals on board were Horrie Young and ArthurJones. Before leaving for Sydney on the finalshort leg of the trip, the ashes of the 'Jaywick'engineer, former Leading Stoker PaddyMcDowell, were ceremoniously buried at sea.

Floating War Memorial

As she entered the Heads, Sydney gaveKRAIT the type of marine welcome matched onlyby the attendance on departing yachts in theSydney-Hobart race. On arrival at Man-O-WarSteps she was dedicated as a war memorial andhanded over to the safekeeping of the RoyalVolunteer Coastal Patrol.

Retirement from 'active service' broughtKRAIT into probably the busiest period of her life.Since Anzac Day, 1964, when she was handedin trust to the Royal Volunteer Coastal Patrol toadminister and operate, the vessel has averagedaround 80 trips per year.

Although the vessel was originally solidlybuilt, and its Burmese Teak timbers were inexcellent condition despite their age, KRAIT had,by the early 1980s, reached the stage where itwas necessary to sail her from Sydney to Ballina,on the NSW north coast for major repairs. Duringthe voyage she began taking water and had tobe towed into Coffs Harbour. Eventually shereached Ballina under her own power, riding thebar in fine style.

The only major repair prior to this time was anew keel in 1972, accomplished with timberdonated by Hayman and Ellis, the Sydney-basedtimber merchants.

A target of $250,000 was set in May, 1981,for the restoration of KRAIT's hull. The NewSouth Wales Government opened the fund with$25,000. After that the appeal was kept movingby the devotion of Volunteer Coastal Patrolmembers. The Fraser Government matched theWran Government's $25.000 donation and mostof the $250.000 appeal target had been sub-scribed.

The Role of KRAITThe floating war memorial KRAIT satisfies

countless community and official requests in theservice of the people of Australia.

Since 1964, KRAIT has been used mainly inthe educational field for the public boatingcommunity. These duties involve radio training


courses, coastal navigation and celestial naviga-tion. Seamanship courses are also demons-trated by instructors from the Royal VolunteerCoastal Patrol.

KRAIT is also well known as a regularparticipant in all water activities including theSydney to Hobart yacht race and Great SydneyFerry Race.

As a television star, KRAIT appeared in thefirst series of the ABC's 'Patrol Boat' (1980) andfor the Simon Townsend Group. KRAIT has alsosteamed in the documentary of her own life inThis is Your Life' and a number of movies.

At all times KRAIT is on stand-by for searchand rescue operations. She also renders anannual service to the MS Society, the lastoccasion (in 1981) raising $28,000. Opportuni-ties for fund raising are given to numerouscommunity service and ex-service groups. Aswell, the Naval Reserve Cadets have employedKRAIT for annual navigational exercises in theHawkesbury River and in recent times the vesselhas participated in Navy Week displays atGarden Island.

KRAIT continually receives invitations toappear at all manner of public functions, from theGrafton Jacaranda Festival, to KiamaAnniversary, to the Festival of Wollongong.Requests as far afield as Adelaide and Exmouth,WA, have unfortunately been turned down due tothe excessive distances involved. Three re-quests have also been made for KRAIT to star ina documentary re-enactment of her famousSingapore raid. Hopefully, remaining afloat, afilm can be produced for Australian television.

KRAIT is now approaching 20 years' serviceto the Australian community, a fine record whichmust be allowed to continue.

At the Ballina Slipway and EngineeringCompany KRAIT was extensively restored withtimber donated by the NSW Country TimberSawmillers Association. The decks were re-newed and extensive restoration effected on thehull and wheelhouse. Total restoration costscame to $170,000 by the time KRAIT wasre-launched in September, 1982. After finalfitting-out she sailed to Brisbane to join theescort for the Royal Yacht BRITANNIA to theCommonwealth Games.

Memorial, thereby necessitating her being leftout in the open with only a temporary cover ofsome kind.

Expert opinion claims that unless the eightyton ship is housed in an air conditioned building,the total lack of humidity in the ACT will not onlycause the timber to shrink, but also causesplitting and consequent disintegration of thewhole vessel.

It also seems ironical that without a validreason KRAIT should prematurely end her days,when only in 1983 her lifetime was extended forfurther service to the community. It is recognisedby many that when her life finally reaches an endKRAIT should eventually have a final restingplace, but that the vessel should be allowed toserve the community for at least another fifteenor twenty years. What should be asked is whyspend $170,000 of public monies just to put herin a museum, when the appeal was to restoreher to her peacetime role, not just a museumpiece. It should be noted that KRAIT is unique,being the only Operational Floating War Memo-rial in the world.

Anyone wishing to help keep the KRAITafloat should write to: Mr Max Smith, 11 BunganPlace Mona Vale, NSW, 2103.

KRAIT crossing the bar at Ballina

Safe for the Future?The present condition of KRAIT is excellent.

New decks, new hull frames and planks havebeen fitted where required so the vessel is tightand seaworthy.

A proposal to send KRAIT to Canberra isbeing pursued by individuals who have very little,if any, knowledge of wooden ships or otherwise.There are no facilities to house KRAIT in the War


KRAI Jin January 1978

All photos by couresty M. Melliar-Phelps

At her moorings in the Pittwater — April 1975


METEOROLOGICAL SUPPORTFOR THE AMERICA'S CUP 1983

by Lieutenant Commander K.L. Hancock, RAN

The success of AUSTRALIA 2 in the Amer-ica's Cup was the result of the most concen-trated effort by any one nation in the 132 yearhistory of the Cup.

Seven syndicates, from four different nations,representing their respective yacht clubs, viedfor the honour of challenging for the America'sCup. Three of these challengers, under acommon banner of 'ADVANCE AUSTRALIA',formed the Australian contingent attempting towrest the 'auld mug' from its 132 year restingplace. ADVANCE, CHALLENGE 12 and AU-STRALIA 2 formed a formidable challenge. Theprofessional and dedicated manner in which theAustralian crews approached the eliminationseries caused some trepidation, later justified,within the 'portals' of the New York Yacht Club.

In February 1983, Advance Australia Amer-ica's Cup Challenge 1983 Ltd., an unwieldyname and more commonly referred to as'Challenge 12 Syndicate', forwarded a writtenrequest to the Chief of Naval Staff for support inthe form of an RAN meteorologist. CHALLENGE12 was the first America's Cup Challenge torepresent Victoria and carried the insignia of the130 year old Royal Yacht Club of Victoria. Mr.Richard Pratt, one of Australia's most successfulbusinessmen, was the sole charterer of CHAL-LENGE 12 and co-chairman, with Sir PeterDerham, of the Challenge 12 Syndicate. Mr.Malcolm Fraser was patron-in-chief.

As a result of the request to CNS, approvalwas given for an RAN forecaster to be secondedto CHALLENGE 12. The Challenge 12 Syndicatewas to meet all travel and accommodationexpenses, and the services of the forecaster wasto be provided to the other Australian syndicatesif required.

Thursday 19 May, notice of posting wasreceived — 'loaned for duty with the America'sCup Challenge from 20 May 1983'. Monday 23May I arrived at the CHALLENGE 12 teamaccommodation, Newport, Rhode Island. Theteam accommodation, 'Nethercliffe', one of thenumerous mansions within Newport, providedample room to accommodate the 30 plusmembers of the CHALLENGE 12 crew andsupport team. A four storey brick building in alarge tree lined setting provided pleasant sur-roundings and comfortable accommodation.

The weather information required was ofdetailed forecasts specifying wind speed anddirection, visibility, wind wave height, swellheight and direction, and current flow. Emphasiswas to be placed on expected changes to winddirection. Details of increases/decreases to windspeed, visibility and wind wave height were alsoto be emphasised.

Weather forecasts were formulated by refer-ence to:

• Weather charts received via a radio facsi-mile receiver of the USA, Canada and theWestern Atlantic Ocean area. This enabledinterpretation of the large scale synopticsituation.

• Three hourly weather reports from coast-guard stations around the area to deter-mine conditions being experienced. Thesereports were received over a weather radioreceiver.

• Raw meteorological data from a receivingstation in Newport. By reference to the rawdata it was possible to promulgate theforecast with the detail required.

The period from the time when it waspossible to promulgate forecasts to the com-mencement of the first elimination series, 18June, was a period of validation. Numeroushours were spent on the waters of Rhode IslandSound monitoring actual weather conditions andsurface current flow. The development of a 'feel'for the local conditions, the bottom line indetermining the accuracy of a weather forecast,was therefore possible.

The waters of Rhode Island Sound arerelatively shallow, the mean depth of the watersof the race area being approximately 30 metres.The shallow depth of water resulted in a surfacewater chop in excess of that to be expectedwhen compared to the waves generated from

The Author:Lieutenant Commander Kevin Hancock joined the RAN in

HMAS CERBERUS Electrical school and, in 1972, to HMASMELBOURNE as Education Officer. He sub-specialised inmeteorology in 1973 and, to the time of his present postingMarch 1983 as Quality control Officer, Air TrainingDepartment/Resettlement Officer, HMAS ALBATROSS, filleda number of meteorological billets either at NAS NOWRA or inHMAS MELBOURNE


similar strength winds over open ocean waters.Tidal currents of the order of 1 knot, whenopposed to the wind flow also increased thechop.

The America's Cup race area, locatedapproximately 8 nm from the coastline, wassubject to sea breezes modifying the prevailingwest to northwest flow. The predominant winddirection over the area was a south westerly seabreeze. Wind flow from the northeast or north-west quadrant was found to decrease as theland/sea temperature difference developed withinsolation. The tendency was for winds with anortherly component to:

• decrease to calm prior to the southwesterlysea breeze becoming established. Underthese conditions it was generally around1400 local time before the sea breezedirection was steady and of sufficientstrength to enable a warning of a race startto be signalled. Consequently a 2 hourpostponement was not uncommon.

• decrease and back south westerly beforestrengthening. Under these conditions thesouthwest sea breeze generally was estab-lished by early afternoon. If a postpone-ment was necessary it was usually ofshorter duration.

Large air temperature differences over landwhen compared to over sea were at timesrecorded. These differences were of the order of10 to 15 degrees Celcius. The strength of thesea breeze generated by these temperaturedifferences was less than expected, being in therange of 10 to 13 knots. Sea breezes off theNSW coast associated with temperature differ-ences of this magnitude would be expected to bearound 25 to 30 knots. Sea breezes of 5 to 8knots were predominant, being associated withthe more general temperature differences be-tween land and sea of less than 10 degreesCelcius.

A further peculiarity of the area was the shearin both speed and direction between the surfacewind and the wind at 25 metres (top of the mast).The difference in speed was generally of theorder of 6 to 12 knots while the difference in winddirection was at times as large as 50 degrees.

A southwest gradient flow, usually precedinga frontal passage, invariably caused a reductionin visibility. In dry air, haze resulted in visibilitybeing reduced to 1 to 3 nm. With moist air, as thetemperature of the warm southerly flow de-creased on moving over the colder northernwaters, dense fog was frequently formed. Thefog at times reducing the visibility to virtuallyzero, tended to persist until the passage of afront caused a change in air mass. Fog resultedin a number of races being postponed during theelimination series.

Weather briefings were issued three timesdaily. On completion of the evening meal, at theteam meeting to analyse the day's racing andpre-planning of tactics for the next race, a twentyfour hour forecast was issued. This forecast wasan integral part of the tactics planned to beemployed.

At 0700 local time, by reference to ananalysed chart of the synoptic situation affectingthe area, forecast winds, weather, visibility andsea state were covered in detail. Discussionswith regard to main sail selection, the range ofhead sails and spinnakers required and pre-starttactics were then finalised.

A light air mainsail was selected if forecastmaximum winds were 12 knots or less; for windsin the range of 10 to 20 knots the medium airmainsail was required and the heavy mainsailwas used when maximum winds in excess of 20knots were forecast. Different headsails andspinnakers were required for varying windstrength over a narrow range and also fordifferent sea conditions.

Prior to race start, the actual weatherconditions affecting the area were monitored.The final detailed forecast of wind speed anddirection was then issued. During this briefing,the increase/ decrease in wind strength, thedirection of movements of wind during the raceand the side of the course with the morefavourable wind pressure was emphasised.

No contact with a competing yacht waspermissible once a race was underway.

The daily routine of the 12 metre yacht crewsvaried little from day to day. On lay days, with nocompetitive racing, sail testing and crew trainingcontinued. A typical day consisted of 10 to 12hours at sea, including the time required to get toand from the course, preceded and followed byphysical training. Attendance at team meetingsto analyse and pre-plan tactics extended theday's activities to around 16 hours each day ofthe week.

With the intense rivalry and competitivenessbetween the challengers, it was not possible tobe closely associated with, or provide meteorolo-gical support to more than one syndicate.AUSTRALIA 2 and ADVANCE syndicatesarranged for meteorological support from USsources.

AUSTRALIA 2, with its radical keel, from thebeginning of the elimination series stood out asthe yacht to beat. The lower point of gravitycompared to the conventional 12 metre yachts,enabled greater manoeuvrability and for AU-STRALIA 2 to 'point higher' into wind. AUSTRA-LIA 2 had marked superiority on the 'towindward' legs.


The technical achievement in the develop-ment of the 'winged keel' and the dedication ofthe crews of the Australian challengers culmin-

ated in AUSTRALIA 2's success in winning theAmerica's Cup, the world's most coveted yach-ting trophy.

Challenge 12By Courtesy: Challenge 12 America's Cup 1983


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HMAS KIMBLAOCEANOGRAPHIC OPERATIONS

1983By Sub-Lieutenant P.L. Mulready RAN

Continuing oceanographic surveys have pro-vided a busy programme for HMAS KIMBLA thisyear. The first half of 1983 saw the shipsurveying and dredging underwater canyons,and conducting measurement of currents withinthe Tasman Sea and Bass Strait. This work wasundertaken by scientists from the Royal Austra-lian Navy Research Laboratory (RANRL) and theUniversity of NSW. Further research work wascontinued within Bass Strait in conjunction withthe Victorian Institute of Marine Science (VIMS)and the Warrnambool Institute of Technology.This work inivolved study of current flows andcurrent characteristics within the Strait.

The ship's company enjoyed a welcomereprieve from the colder climes as research workin August and September was conducted inwarm waters north of Cairns.

Scientists from the Australian Institute ofMarine Science (AIMS) led by Dr. Edward A.Drew embarked in Cairns. The objective of theAIMS Cruise was to determine the quantity andspecies of living Halimeda on the inter-reefalseabed. (Halimeda is a calcareous algae whichcontributes to the sediment.) The trial wasconducted in areas where geological surveyshad revealed up to 80% of the sediment wascomposed of Halimeda debris. The Halimedawhen seen in its living form grows on the seabedas a dark green plant like algae. Its frequency ofgrowth varies within any given area.

KIMBLA departed Cairns in early August,laden with equipment designed to obtain sam-ples from the seabed. A variety of divingequipment including SCUBA gear and a sharkcage were stowed onboard as comprehensivesurveys of certain defined areas of seabed wereto be conducted by divers from AIMS.

Although prevailing winds were gale force atthe first station near Lizard Island, the first graband dredge deployed from the ship wereencouraging, good harvests of Halimeda beingobtained. Diving in the area was postponed untilthe following week when the weather hadsufficiently improved. Halimeda collection con-tinued in different areas of the inter-reefal

seabed from the Second Three Mile Openingand Tijou Reef area, further north to the FlindersIsland Group, and the Quoin Island Entrancearea. Grab stations in the latter were temporarilydelayed with the breakdown of the ship'shydrology winch. Further samples were obtainedby lowering and raising the grab by hand fromthe starboard general purpose davit. Thismethod proved very successful and allowedgrabs to be completed in better time than byusing the more conventional winching. It didrequire a lot of manpower, yet provided theopportunity for good humoured competitionbetween messes who provided teams for eachevolution. It would have been a formidable taskhad the winch become unserviceable during theearly days of the cruise.

Unfortunately, strong to gale force windswere encountered and visibility was very poor onmost days, thereby hindering navigation andship station keeping on task. Some areas initiallyplanned for survey could not be sampled due tothe risk of mining conducted during the war(1941-45) in reef entrance areas. These areasare completely safe for surface navigation butcould prove hazardous when conducting dredg-ing operations on the seabed. AIMS did lose agrab and dredge from snagging during samplecollection. These losses are accepted as aroutine risk when operating in reefal areas.

Despite these problems, the cruise provedsuccessful as three areas worked by the shipproduced good quantities and varieties ofHalimeda. Sample containers unloaded inCairns were completely full and should ensureincreased knowledge of the growth and effects ofthe sediment formed from Halimeda in inter-reefal areas.

The trip illustrates the variety of tasks andresearch cruises HMAS KIMBLA, originally aboom defence vessel, is required to undertake ina usual sea-going year. The ship has, since1959, been continually involved in oceano-graphic research along the Australian coast, andcontinues to be an asset for many facets ofmilitary and scientific research of the ocean.


NAVAL IMPLICATIONS OFCOASTAL SURVEILLANCE

By Commander A.M.R. Brecht, RAN

The quality of coastal surveillance has comea long way since the Defence Force first becameinvolved in 1968, and the results now achieved inAustralian waters are about as good as onecould reasonably expect from the funds in-vested. But to many people in the community,and in the Navy as well, it is something of a blackart; perceptions of what actually happens areoften based as much upon 'Patrol Boat' televi-sion productions as upon fact. This article is thefirst of two planned to provide readers withinformation about the subject with the hope thatan understanding of some of the organisationdedicated to achieving the surveillance task, itsimplications for the Defence Force and the RANin particular, and its community impact, mightstimulate debate in this journal.

The matter of coastal surveillance is impor-tant in its own right as a means to solving animportant national requirement and responsibil-ity, but it also raises some difficulties for the RANin that scarce resources have to be dedicated toit and there are those who maintain that suchresources could be better spent. The commentsand opinions I shall give in these pages arebased upon more than two years experience inoperating FREMANTLE class patrol boats(FCPB) from the Cairns Naval Base, and ofmaintaining such boats in operational service;thus, there will be opportunity for readers todisagree if Bass Strait or other Australian areaexperiences differ. In general terms though, Ibelieve that coastal surveillance is practisedmuch the same in each part of the country, andin any case, the organisation for it is basicallyidentical.

Most people are surprised to learn that theAustralian Defence Force has no charter fromgovernment for coastal surveillance duties. Thisresponsibility is given to the Department ofTransport and Construction which co-ordinatesthe Australian Coastal Surveillance Organisa-tion, better known as COASTWATCH. Today'sarrangements have evolved over many years,but Australian surveillance techniques first be-gan to become properly organised in September1973 as far as the RAN is concerned, when thegovernment decided that Defence and Customsshould jointly address the problem of drugsmuggling in northern Australia. The influx ofrefugee boats from Vietnam and other points

north in 1977 next stirred public interest suchthat emotive media reports began to emerge ofmassive illegal immigration, and led to NavyTracker patrols based in Darwin and to aresurgence of awareness in surveillance bypartol boat. It was at about this time that plans toupgrade naval base facilities in Cairns andDarwin began to be taken seriously.

Role of AircraftUnfortunately, one of the most important

misconceptions concerning coastal surveillancetook root in these heady times when Trackeraircraft were being extremely successful indirecting patrol boats to illegal refugees on thehigh seas, with subsequent wide publicity whenships discharged their helpless human cargo inDarwin. The idea grew that it was theapprehending patrol boat which held the answerto detection; the vital role of aircraft was largelyoverlooked then and is still much neglectedtoday. Too many people believe that increasingthe patrol boat force will also improve oursurveillance effectiveness, and although time onpatrol could undoubtedly be longer with moreboats, the area covered would not necessarilygrow proportionately. To illustrate this point letme draw upon an admittedly loose analogy. In asingle day, one FCPB might cover a sea areaabout the size of the city of Sydney, whereas agood patrol aircraft such as a Tracker couldcover most of New South Wales in the sametime. An Orion P3C, for example, will do about300,000 square miles in 12 hours and detect asteel hulled trawler up to 60 nm from 6,000 feet -no patrol boat can compete with this.

Existing aerial surveillance resources arefairly limited, particularly when one considers thelength of Australia's coastline and the enormoussea areas generated by the 200 nautical mileAustralian Fishing Zone. The area of Queens-land and Northern Territory covered by Cairnsbased patrol boats comprises almost 2,500 milesof coastline and over 400,000 square miles ofoffshore ocean, yet this is only a fraction of theAustralian total. With more than 12,000 miles ofcoast to protect, together with the entire AFZ, oursurveillance resources have to cope with amaritime area of over 2Va million square miles,equivalent to 70% of the entire Australianlandmass. If one accepts the argument that


patrol boats alone cannot cover such an areawith any acceptable degree of effectiveness,then the onus falls very much upon aviation.

A point for debate here might be the questionof how much of the surveillance dollar should thegovernment invest in new aircraft? Or shouldDefence be asked to do more? Part of thegovernment thinking which rejected the use ofTrackers for surveillance after their impendingRAN demise followed a line which argued anincorrect cost equation. Whilst I agree that hourfor hour, a small civil charter aircraft has lessoperating cost than a Tracker or P3C Orion, sucha view takes no account of times on task. Thelatter aircraft will complete any given surveillancetask in far less time than a Nomad or similarplatform would require; when detailed costingsare done, the Service aircraft presents verycompetitively. Giving the Trackers a stay ofexecution and using them for northern aerialsurveillance based at Townsville RAAF Basewould certainly bolster the somewhat scarceresources government now has at its disposal forthe task.

The heavy reliance upon civil charter aircraftfor surveillance presently practised by COAST-WATCH results in barely adequate coverage.Fourteen civil aircraft are involved in daily aerialsurveillance between Karratha in Western Au-stralia and Cairns in Queensland and these aresupplemented by Navy Trackers flying BassStrait sorties and a restricted RAAF P3C Orionprogramme. Participation by the latter twoService aircraft is governed very much by thepoint referred to earlier, that Defence has nocharier for surveillance per se, and that thenormal requirements of training and operationsmust be met. As far as the Orion is concerned,this means that patrolling the Queenslandoffshore areas is limited to not more than onesortie in 10 days, and I am sure that thisfrequency is indicative of the coverage in otherareas as well.

COASTWATCH would no doubt benefit fromincreased aircraft surveillance which could great-ly improve the degree of reliability placed uponsightings at present. Many surface sightingshave to be verified by aircraft, but if none isavailable at the time, then the target has oftenvanished when a sortie is mounted. This isparticularly important in the Queensland andTorres Strait sea areas where myriad islandsand coral cays are readily available as shelter orcamouflage for small ships and yachts which donot wish to be found. However, as things stand atpresent, there is little chance of any significantchange to the level of air surveillance now beingprogrammed; thus, Navy has no real alternativeto its current participation. (The matter of

whether it should participate will be discussed inthe second of these articles).

Role of Coastwatch

As previously mentioned, the role of RANpatrol boats in coastal surveillance is oftenmisconstrued or misunderstood. Their true func-tion is to support aircraft as rapid responseplatforms, on hand in patrol areas to quicklyinvestigate sightings made. In this capacity,HMA ships engaged in such tasks admirablysupplement the COASTWATCH organisation.Based in Canberra, the latter is controlled andstaffed mostly by ex-Servicemen who keepduties on a watchkeeping basis to maintainaccurate, up-to-date surface plots of Australiancoastal waters and to so build up a comprehen-sive picture of activities in and around ourwaterways. More than 6000 reports each monthare received from surveillance aircraft and ships,and from a variety of other sources includingmembers of the public living in remote areas.Most of these are routine sightings of ships oryachts legitimately engaged in their normalbusiness, but about 10 percent of all reportsrequire subsequent investigation. For Navypatrol boats, this might mean anything from amercy dash, to a stricken yacht aground on acoral reef, to a routine investigation boarding of aforeign fishing vessel inside Australian waters.Because such tasks are not strictly in accord withits primary role, ie, the defence of Australia, theDefence Department and COASTWATCH en-gage in a rather detailed procedure wheneverparticular RAN assistance is required. Eachrequest is relayed from COASTWATCH throughDefence to DEFNAV Canberra to the FleetCommander, and lastly to the appropriateoperating authority in the form of a directive. Insuch fashion, the apprehension of an illegalTaiwanese fisherman in the Great Barrier Reefmay have its origins in a request to Defencehandled by more than a dozen people. Althoughit sounds slow and clumsy, this procedure in factworks very quickly and smoothly, through theclose co-operation of all parties along the line.

Behind those surveillance exploits which hitthe headlines lies much co-ordination byCOASTWATCH. Headline seekers expect to betold of fishing arrests, or heroic SAR achieve-ments, but as in most things, Navy patrol boatsmake their greatest contribution to nationalsurveillance by doing everyday things whichdraw no publicity at all. COASTWATCH activitiesare aimed at helping to prevent the introductionof dangerous animal and plant diseases as wellas combatting smuggling; unauthorised landingson our coastline by people from other countrieshave to be prevented; checks have to be madeupon the health of indigenous aboriginals or


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Torres Strait Islanders in isolated places; closeobservation of fishing activities must be main-tained; all these and more require the assistanceof several government departments other thanDefence. Because these needs have to be meton an almost daily basis, RAN patrol boats aretasked to conduct particular patrols in desig-nated sea areas, often embarking an officer froma relevant government department, say Healthor Immigration, and spend much of their time onseemingly mundane duties. For the Navy per-sonnel concerned, such routine tasks help todevelop or preserve just those skills which will beneeded in tricky situations when a boarding isneeded or an emergency develops.

Patrol Boat Activity

The importance of such surveillance work isgenerally unknown amongst the community.Estimates have been made that the Australianeconomy could suffer almost irreparable dam-age through agricultural or animal diseases, andthese are too numerous to list. One little knownstrain called Newcastle disease, prevalent in themany small islands to the north of Australia, hasthe potenial to virtually wipe out this country'spoultry industry just as it did in California a fewyears ago. RAN patrol boats spend many hoursassisting in its prevention by ferrying appropriatefield officers to and from the various islandssuspected of harbouring it; although unsung, thiskind of assistance from the Navy probablycontributes as much to our nation's continuedprosperity as any other activity we undertake.

Undoubtedly, the most widely publicisedpatrol boat activity concerns the apprehension offoreign vessels found illegally fishing in the AFZ.Co-operation between Navy and the Departmentof Primary Industry (DPI) is very close in thisaspect of operations, to ensure that the max-imum is achieved without wastage of patrollingtime. As described previously, COASTWATCHco-ordination is essential, indeed the main thrustof effective fisheries surveillance could not beachieved without it. Scrutiny concentrates uponthe operations of licensed foreign fishing vesselswhich allows the presence of an illegal boat to bequickly detected. (The COASTWATCH/ Defencerequest procedure described previously is thenimplemented). Under relevant Federal govern-ment legislation, RAN patrol boat commandingofficers have the authority to arrest vesselssuspected of engaging in illegal activities, but inmost cases a DPI Fisheries officer is embarkedwhen a particular investigation is begun. Otherthan to give evidence at any subsequent courtproceedings, Navy is not involved once thesuspect boat has been escorted to harbour, and

experience has shown that things go verysmoothly when a Fisheries expert is present atthe apprehension. For incidents in the BassStrait, patrol boat captains are invested with thepowers of the Australian Federal Police inprotection of oil rigs from terrorist activity; thus,legally, the RAN is well protected againstcharges of enthusiasm or overstepping authorityon the high seas.

Although lacking in glamour, routine patrolsare the ones which count. In order to achievethese, COASTWATCH relies upon inputs fromthe various government departments concerned,and seeks assistance from naval operationsstaffs in Fleet Headquarters and the operationalbases. Using Cairns based FCPB as an exam-ple, each patrol promulgated in the FleetProgramme, is the result of close consultation atthe local level between the naval base andappropriate government field officers to providethe Fleet Commander with a picture of just whatsurveillance activities are required to be per-formed. This is incorporated into his Defencerequirements and the patrol boat is tasked. Whileon patrol, the PTF will report all sightings toCOASTWATCH and to those naval authoritieswho need to know, so that at all times everyoneconcerned at the various operations centres hasthe fullest picture possible of what is happeningaround Australia's coastline.

Information is also provided from coast-watchers, merchant ships, private civil aircraftand the airlines, the owners of small boats andlighthouse keepers. The picture compiled thusshows what is happening on the fishing scene;gives details of the movements of small boats oryachts (these are particularly relevant to theImmigration and Customs departments if remoteor isolated waterways are involved); providesdata upon pollution at sea, in estuaries, andalong the coast; and permits rapid response tobe organised in SAR situations.

Navy's CommitmentNavy's commitment in terms of manpower,

ships, and facilities has grown steadily over theyears. Introduction of the FREMANTLE boatshas meant a quantum jump over the capabilitiesof their predecessors, although it must berecognised that the ATTACKS rendered sterlingservice to the surveillance cause. FCPB arebigger, faster, and more sophisticated, withgreater endurance and sea keeping qualities.Their dedication to the coastal surveillance taskhas significantly increased Navy's effectivenessin this role but has similarly raised the level ofmaintenance commitments, noting that the


FCPB is a new class of ship for the RAN. Therelevance of such commitments including theireffects upon manpower and patrolling availabilitywill be discussed in a subsequent article, so itsuffices here merely to say that although theyare proving excellent response platforms, theFCPB are not a panacea for all of thesurveillance ills, imaginary or otherwise.

As the FREMANTLE class building program-me winds down (the last boat, HMAS BUN-BURY, commissions in December 1984) theRAN patrol boat force structure sees 15 FCPBsupplemented by ATTACK class boats in RANRport divisions. Most surplus ATTACKS haveeither been designated for the Defence Co-operation Programme or for disposal, but recon-sideration of this is possible given recentgovernment inclinations concerning DCP. It mayeven be possible to retain one or two ATTACKSfor patrol duties but this would depend muchupon estimated ship life. Surveillance isachieved through regular patrols by PTF basedat Sydney, Cairns, and Darwin, with future boatsto be deployed to Perth and Westernport.Although the Sydney PTF contribute to theorganisation previously described, they areprimarily employed in Bass Strait oil rig protec-tion, which means that the bulk of routine patrolsis conducted by northern boats based at Cairnsand Darwin. Coincidentally, the northern areas ofAustralia are at present drawing the mostinterest from government departments con-cerned with the surveillance programme, for it ishere that our country is very vulnerable toincursion by unwanted elements. As mattersstand in 1983, illegal immigration is rated asperhaps the greatest problem, because althoughoverseas fishermen still operate against the lawin Australian waters, their numbers are decreas-ing. Smuggling is perennial, but measures takenby Customs in conjunction with the efforts ofCOASTWATCH and RAN patrols seem at leastto keep abreast of the moves and countermovesmade by drug runners and others. Nevertheless,constant and careful vigilance must continue.

This article has attempted to show that avibrant, efficient organisation exists in Australiato implement coastal surveillance and thatoverall it achieves satisfactory results. Protectionof Australia's huge coastline and offshore watersis clearly an enormous task, one which requiresa great deal of time, effort, and money frommany departments and dedicated people. Underpresent arrangements, much data is collectedand analysed, but it can be argued that more isneeded before Australian coastal surveillancecould be regarded as fully and comprehensivelymeeting the requirement. This aspect of the

subject will be addressed later. Aerial resourcesmust be improved and perhaps Defence cancontribute more in this area. As far as the RAN is'concerned, there are few organisational 'bones'which could be pointed. The patrol boat force isactive, conspicuous, and effective, a situationresulting very much from the fact that surveill-ance patrols are accorded high priority in RANoperations. For example, patrol boats havesuffered little from the current fleet fuel consump-tion limitations and deployment of boats to basesaround the country achieves a good balancebetween needs and resources. Some effects ofthis policy upon the RAN as a whole, and othersurveillance aspects alluded to earlier, will be thesubject of a future article.

The Author

Commander Alan Brecht joined the RAN in 1957 as atelegraphist and. after training, served in HMA shipsQUICK/MATCH (twice). PARRAMATTA and MEL-BOURNE. He attended the SD officers promotioncourse in UK as a Petty Officer Radio Supervisor, waspromoted to Sub-Lieutenant SDEXC in January 1975and served in the RN in HMS DEFENDER and HMSMERCURY (the RN Communications School). Sincehis return to the RAN in 1966 he has served in HMASPARRAMATTA. the RAN Communications School, theDirectorate of Naval Communications (twice), NavalCommunications Station Canberra and HMAS ALBAT-ROSS. He was promoted to Lieutenant SDEXC inJanuary 1967 and transferred to the Gereral List in1970. He attended the RN Advanced CommunicationsCourse at the Royal Military College of Science,Shrivenham, UK in 1974 and then served as Com-munications Officer in HMAS MELBOURNE. He iscurrently CO of HMAS CAIRNS.


THE WORK OF THE ROYALAUSTRALIAN NAVY

HYDROGRAPHIC SERVICEby Lieutenant Commander J.W. Leech RAN

May 1983 was a month for bad news in theRAN Hydrographic Office. In that month, aninternational bulk carrier struck an unsurveyedshoal in the main shipping lane off Cape Otway,suffering extensive damage to the fore-peak anddouble bottoms, and a large ship struck a shoaloff Lancelin, severely damageing her screws.(Both ships forwarded a hydrographic note.) Thecharts of the areas in which these incidentsoccurred contain warnings of the inadequacy ofthe survey information upon which they arebased. It is perhaps not widely appreciated thatonly about 20% of Australia's continental shelfhas been satisfactorily examined using echosounder and sonar, that a further 16% has beensurveyed less adequately at either open spacingor without sonar examination, and that theremaining 64% has never been surveyed sincesonar and echo sounder were invented. Chartingin these areas depends upon random lead linesoundings. Mariners are well advised to heed thenotes about the reliance to be placed on charts,which are published in the Mariners' Handbook.Figure 1 shows the areas surveyed by the RANsince 1945.

The Department of Defence (Navy) is thegovernment department responsible for the sur-veying and charting of Australian waters, andhydrographer RAN is the responsible officerwithin the Department. This responsibility waslaid down by Cabinet in 1946, and was re-affirmed as a result of the Review of Common-wealth Functions in 1981. The Navy has a dutyto provide accurate charts of Australia's coastsfor the benefit of all Australian and internationalmariners. The Navy carries this reponsibilitybecause obtaining a full chart coverage is anexpensive undertaking essential for nationaldefence, and such wide coverage, although ofvalue to civil interests, is not essential.

The civil task is important to Australia for thesafety of commercial shipping, for reasons ofmarine science research, for the development ofresources both in the Exclusive Economic Zone(EEZ) and on the mainland, and for the delinea-tion of the EEZ. The importance placed on thecivil task was summarised in the 1981 Senate

Report on Australian Marine Science, whichrecommended that all possible avenues beexplored to acquire a complete bathymetric andhydrographic survey of the Australian coast asrapidly as possible. An example of the value ofhydrographic surveys to the commercial worldwas the discovery in 1981 of 'Hydrographer'sPassage', a deep water channel through theGreat Barrier Reef east of Mackay. The surveywas carried out for defence purposes, becausethe lack of a channel through the reef betweenCapricorn Channel and Palm Passage, a dis-tance of some 500 miles, was a severe restric-tion on naval operations. However, its discoveryoff Hay Point, a port for the bulk export ofminerals, will save commercial ship operators(and indirectly Australia) many millions of dollarseach year.

The availability of accurate and up-to-datenavigational charts is a prerequisite for thesuccessful conduct of maritime operations, bothnaval and commercial. Without charts, nonavigation can be safely undertaken. The surveywork required for the preparation of charts isextremely time-consuming, involving the collec-tion and verification of large volumes of data. It isan activity comparable with the provision ofinfrastructure and the collection of intelligence,and is best carried out in peacetime, since it isalmost impossible to collect data in the requireddetail in a war zone.

Hydrographic surveys provide the raw datafrom which navigational charts are produced.The Australian chart series, which includesPapua New Guinea, will, when complete, consistof some 650 charts. To date, 350 charts have

The AuthorLieutenant Commander Leech is a hydrographic surveying

specialist who joined the Royal Austraian Navy in 1977 afterserving ten years in the Royal Navy. His principal postingssince arriving in Australia have been Executive Officer ofHMAS MORESBY and Officer in Charge of the RAN Hydrog-raphic School. He is at present serving in navy Office as StaffOfficer to the Hydrographer


been published. In addition to the publication ofnew charts, there is a continuing requirement forchart maintenance. Charts become obsoletewhen they are no longer accurate, and neweditions must be published at intervals varyingfrom 5 to 15 years, depending upon the rate ofdevelopment of the geographical area covered.These new editions normally require a re-surveyof some part of that area. As an aside, 270 chartsin the current series are in need of metrication.Hydrographic surveys are also required for anumber of special Defence purposes, notably foramphibious and mine warfare operations.

Surveys are progressed according to a fiveyear plan called the Hydroscheme. This is puttogether by a consultative process involving theDepartments of Defence and Transport, theShipping Industry, and the State HydrographicDepartments. The majority of surveying effort inthe next few years will be concentrated in theNorth and North West of Australia and in theGreat Barrier Reef.

Hydrographer is Australia's representative inthe International Hydrographic Organisation(IHO). This is the world's governing body onhydrography and nautical charting, and it laysdown minimum standards for surveying, chart-ing, and training in these disciplines, whichHydrographer administers and improves upon inthe Australian context. The RAN HydrographicSchool has been accepted by the IHO asoperating to standards which will train CategoryB surveyors — hence its attraction to studentsfrom overseas hydrographic authorities.

Hydrographer maintains close contact withother Commonwealth, State and commercialauthorities which engage in hydrographic sur-veying for their own purposes, in order toencourage sufficiently high standards in theirwork that the data may be used to improve thenational chart series. For this reason, he is theChairman and Convenor of the HydrographicSub-Committee of the Australian Association ofPort and Marine Authorities. He is also one of thefour federal members of the National MappingCouncil and an adviser to the CommonwealthCo-ordinating Group for Mapping Charting andSurveying. He has regular contact with theDepartment of Transport, both when decidingwhat areas require to be surveyed, and also as amember of the Maritime Services Advisory Com-mittee which is concerned with many aspects ofmaritime safety.

Complementary to the external liaisons main-tained in surveying, Hydrographer has closelinks with all organisations in Australia (andmany overseas) who publish charts and maps ofthe marine environment. Wherever practicable,the quality of these products is reviewed and, if

satisfactory, they are incorporated in Australiancharts.

Under a tripartite agreement with the UnitedKingdom and New Zealand, Australia is re-sponsible for providing nautical chart coveragefor an area stretching from the southern shoresof Indonesia to the Antarctic and from west of theCocos/Keeling Islands to east of Norfolk Island,including all PNG waters. Current cartographicresources allow fewer than 40 new charts, ormajor new editions of existing charts, to beprepared each year and, once again, it will not bemuch before 2020 that the full series will exist,some of which will still depend on inadequatedata. New products are prepared to standardsand in a format laid down by the IHO, and theHydrographer RAN is a member of IHO's ChartStandardisation Committee. Several small scalecharts are already published by Australia in theInternational Chart Series, and it is expectedthat, as time goes on, more of the medium scaleand even large-scale charts will be published inthis series.

Hydrographer is also responsible for pub-lishing annually the Australian National TideTables, and officers of the Branch are membersof the National Mapping Council's PermanentCommittee on Tides and Mean Sea Level. Thefirst steps have been taken towards preparing anexpanded series of Sailing Directions for Austra-lian waters, which will eventually supercede theUK volumes. Hydrographer also works with theDivision of National Mapping in delineating thebase lines from which the nation's off-shoreboundaries and exclusive zones are calculated.

Apart from supplying charts and publicationsto the Fleet and other government departments,Hydrographer administers the sale of theseproducts to commercial shipping interests, andmembers of the general public. This is effectedthrough agency agreements with some 70 out-lets in Australia and another dozen overseas.This involves responsibility for sales worth about$750,000 a year and for the collection of salestax worth about $40,000 a year. This is not asmall business, and is a rarity for a branch ofNavy Office!

The hub of the Hydrographic organisation isthe Hydrographic Office in North Sydney, argu-ably one of the Navy's best pieces of real estate.The work of the office includes the planning andquality control of surveys, scheming of charts,chart compilation, chart amendment, issue ofnotices to mariners, publication of tide tables,and chart issue and accounting. At present, themajority of this work is done manually, butcomputers are being introduced to provide ahydrographic data base, an automated chartcompilation facility and a new stock and financial


HMAS FLINDERS

accounting system. The printing of charts is doneby the Army Survey Regiment at Bendigo.

The Hydrographic Office embodies the Au-stralian Oceanographic Data Centre (AODC),the repository of oceanograpic data obtainedaround the country not only by Fleet units butalso through the close links which exist withresearch establishments elsewhere in the coun-try. The AODC is closely associated with region-al and world data centres and there is a regularexchange of such data, with the AODC acting asthe national focus. Through the AODC, Australiais one of the principal contributors of oceanog-raphic data to the International OceanographicCommission.

Partly because there are aspiring navalsurveyors there, but also because he is thenational authority, Hydrographer is closely con-nected with the surveying faculty of the Universi-ty of New South Wales, and is a member of theVisiting Committee. He has also been consultedby other tertiary institutions involved with hyd-rography, particularly during the last year by theAustralian Maritime College in Launceston. Thisliaison, with educational establishments and withsuch professioal bodies as the Institution ofSurveyors of Australia and the Institute of Car-tographers of Australia, is considered essentialto the promotion within Australia of the standardsof the international bodies concerned with hyd-rography and nautical charting.

Every year, Hydrographer and his staff re-spond to a very large number of enquiries on awide range of subjects from civil organisationsand members of the public. These includequestions on navigation, chart coverage, equip-ment, nautical history and various researchsubjects. In the latter cases, the unique collec-tion of survey documents and old charts whichform part of tine national archive are available forscrutiny by serious students.

Hydrographer is responsible for the profes-sional tasking of the Marine Science Force. The

ships available for hydrographic surveying atpresent are HMA Ships MORESBY and FLIN-DERS. In the not-too-distant future, it is hopedthat the force will be expanded to include fourSurveying Motor Launches, a Laser Air DepthSounder (LADS) unit, and perhaps other minorfleet units allocated to the surveying role. Evenwith these (and their replacements) it will not beuntil well into the next century that all parts ofAustralia's area of charting responsibility will beadequately surveyed. The field force is sup-ported by the RAN Hydrographic School atHMAS PENGUIN, and a hydrographic adviser ison loan to the Solomon Islands Marine Depart-ment under arrangements within the DefenceCo-operation Programme. The uniformed man-power of the Hydrographic service consists of 36surveying officers and 77 survey recorders. Thecivilian staff is 72, and includes cartographers,draughtsmen, computing systems analysts,oceanographers and administrators.

In closing this brief description of the hydrog-raphic service, I would like to return to the themewith which I started. I have on my desk anewspaper cutting from the West AustralianDaily News of 28 May 1980. Under the title 'Forthe Want of a Map the Battle ....' the author saysthat during the Soviet intervention in Afghanistanand the troubles in Iran, US maps and chartswere found to be so basic as to be almostuseless, and this was one of the causes of failureof the mission to rescue the hostages in Tehran.The Defence Mapping Agency (DMA) subse-quently sought a staff increase of 150, and anannual budget of $350m. It is interesting tocontrast this with the British experience in theFalkland Islands. The Royal Navy, using its IcePatrol Ship, had over many years been re-surveying the waters of the Falkland Islands, andas a result during the recent war, navigationalsafety was not a hazard with which the NavalCommander had to contend.

Journal ol the Australian Naval Institute — Page 47

31'

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(This article was published in the Journal of the Australian Marine Science Association and in Wishbone, the Hydrographers'Journal)

DEVELOPMENTS IN LASERHYDROGRAPHY IN AUSTRALIA

by Lieutenant Commander D.C. Holliday RAN

The Hydrographer RAN is the nationalhydrographic and charting authority. The area ofAustralian charting responsibility includes largetracts of the Indian and South West PacificOceans and the adjacent waters of Papua NewGuinea and Antarctica. By modern standards,the area of the Australian continental shelf ispoorly surveyed. Statistically, 20 per cent isclassified as satisfactorily examined, 16 per centless so, while the remaining 64 per cent dependson early lead-line soundings or is completelyunsurveyed.

Inadequate chart coverage has major im-plications for defence, particularly for a maritimenation such as Australia. The collection ofhydrographic and oceanographic information foruse by the defence forces is a primary peacetimerole of the Hydrographic Service. In fulfilling thisrole, support of defence requirements must bebalanced against the needs of the civil maritimecommunity and safety of navigation in general.

In 1972, the RAN initiated a study intoavailable techniques capable of improving theefficiency of hydrographic surveying. The con-cept of using an airborne laser sensor wasidentified as having the greatest potential andthe task of developing the necessary lasertechnology was given to the Defence ResearchCentre, Salisbury (DRCS). Two experimentalsystems, designated WRELADS 1 and WRE-LADS 2, were developed. Extensive field testingin South Australian and Queensland waters havedemonstrated the feasibility of laser techniques.Continued development has been formalised ina Naval Project and the system redesignated asthe Laser Airborne Depth Sounder (LADS). Theproject has entered a Project Definition studyphase which will form the basis for the subse-quent production phase. The current timetableprovides for delivery of the first productionsystem in 1987.

LADS is designed to operate in depths from 2to 30m with penetration to 50m under favourableconditions. As almost half of the continental shelflies in depths of less than 50m, LADS will have alarge area of potential use.

System Configuration

The basic elements of the proposed LADSsystem include: (see Fig 1)

• A suitable aircraft fitted with the laserdepth sounder and associated sub-systems for navigation, data processing,and aircraft systems integration.

• A Ground Analysis Sub-System (GASS).• A suitable radio navigation position fixing

system.

Aircraft

The RAN intends to use a modified FokkerF27 aircraft. In the operational role, the aircraft isrequired to fly at an altitude of 500m at a groundspeed of 135 knots (70m/sec). Enduranceprovides for a 4 hour survey sortie plus a transittime of 11/2 hours each way from the operatingairfield. Given a ferry range of 1200n miles, theF27 can be rapidly deployed to remote areas andis capable of operating from unsealed runwayswith a minimum length of 1200m.

Laser Sounder

LADS uses a Nd:YAG laser which generates5n sec light pulses at 1064nm wavelength in theinfra-red band. The infra-red (IR) beam is splitand using frequency doubling techniques, asecond green laser with a 532nm wavelength isgenerated. The lasers are housed in a TransmitReceive Scanner (TRS) which is mounted on astabilized platform above a modified camerabay, cut in the fuselage of the aircraft. A highresolution colour video camera is also mountedon the TRS platform for use in navigationalchecks, monitoring of sea surface conditions andsubsequent processing of LADS data.

In operation, the sounder transmits red andgreen laser pulses towards the sea surface. Thered beam is held vertical to provide a height andsea surface reference while the green beampenetrates the water column and is scannedthrough an arc of 30" at right angles to theaircraft track to produce a swath of soundingsapproximately 270m wide. At the operational


SIT3-SYS7EHSAIRCRAFTKAVIGATIONUSER DEPTH SOUNDERAIRBORNE DATA ACQUISITION

GROUND ANALYSIS MAINTENANCEt SUB-SYSTEM FACILITY

REMOTE BASE UNIT

Fig 1: LADS System Configuration.


height and speed of the aircraft, LADS willgenerate a grid of soundings at a nominalspacing of 10m square. The depth measurementis provided by the difference between the redand green pulses. Correction for systematic andrandom errors provides a resolution of betterthan one metre.

Navigation Systems

The RAN uses the Cubic Western ARGODM54 position fixing system to conduct hydrog-raphic surveys. LADS will operate with ARGO ina passive hyperbolic mode which requires aminimum of three transmitting stations to beestablished in the survey area. The aircraftreceiver provides continuous position infor-mation which is correlated with the soundingdata and recorded by the onboard data proces-sor. The aircraft's Navigation sub System pro-vides outputs to a pilot display and to theauto-pilot giving cross-track and height correc-tions which are used to maintain accuratetracking of pre-programmed flight paths.

Within the limitations of the ARGO andscanning systems, LADS will provide discretepositional data for each sounding in absoluteterms on the Australian Map Grid to an accuracyof better than 20m.

Ground Analysis Sub-System

The GASS is co-located with the aircraft atthe operating airfield. It consists of two standardISO containers which house the dedicatedcomputers and displays required for processingthe raw sortie data. Position and depth (x.y.z)information is corrected and output in x,y,z,cformat where c is a confidence factor derivedduring processing. Because of the volume ofdata, the process is highly automated and callsfor operation through a hierarchy of quality flags.

Concept of Operations

The LADS system will normally be deployedin consort with a conventional survey vessel. Theship's responsibilities include the establishmentof ARGO and tidal stations, the provision ofground truth information in selected calibrationareas, the investigation of critical depths andanomalous LADS data and any operations inwater depths beyond LADS capabilities.

Prior to deployment, the tidal regime in thesurvey area will have to be defined and theappropriate co-tidal factors provided as inputs forthe reduction of depth data to a common datum.Tide gauges monitored by ship's staff willprovide real time base data for tidal reductions.

Index errors in the navigation and lasersub-systems are determined on a sortie basis byoverflying established calibration areas. Thesurvey sortie then involves flying a predeter-

mined pattern of parallel flight paths at a typical250m spacing optimised to reduce time lost inaircraft turns at the end of each swath. Given amaximum on task time of 4 hours, LADS iscapable of generating in excess of two millionsoundings or the equivalent area coverage of 50square nautical miles.

The LADS laser is designed to be eyesafe at500m and conforms to Standard AS2211-1981of the Australian Code of Practice for LaserSafety. In addition, a basic laser inhibit switch isprovided at pilot and operator consoles for usewhen over flying vessels and populated areas.

Post sortie data processing is to be under-taken by the GASS facility. To avoid a proces-sing backlog and enable efficient survey plan-ning, it is essential that a 4 hour sortie beprocessed in less than 7 hours. A high level ofautomation is mandatory; however, operatorinteraction will be required in the validation ofdata. As the survey progresses, selected data iswritten to a master file for eventual onforwardingto the Hydrographic Office. Areas of anomalousdata are identified for re-fly action or investiga-tion by conventional means.

The RAN manning for LADS calls for twopilots, a flight engineer, six Hydrographic spe-cialists, a systems analyst and a systemsmaintainer. Of the hydrographic specialists, oneis appointed 'In Charge of Surveys'. From theremainder, four are split into teams of operators.Each team will alternate on a daily basiscollecting and processing their own data. It isenvisaged that 5 sorties will be flown per weekwith a nominal 1000 hours flown annually.

On completion of a survey, the selected datais forwarded as an input to the HydrographicOffice and used in the updating and productionof charts. All original raw data tapes will bearchived to allow reprocessing for any futureapplications.

Basic Depth Measurement and Accuracy

The heart of the LADS system is the lasersensor. The determination of depths depends onthe speed of light through sea water and the timedifference between the reception of the IRsurface return and the sea-bed return. Accuracyis subject to the systematic and random errorsassociated with the measuring equipment andenvironmental factors such as sea state andturbidity.

Beam geometry assumes that the laserenergy is refracted at a flat sea surface andreflected back along the reciprocal path. Inreality, the presence of ripples, waves, swell andmultiple scattering increases the average pathlength and is a major contributor to bias error inthe basic measurement. The limitation on depthis given by the ability of the system to


discriminate between reflected sea-bed signalsand background noise. In coastal waters, themaximum depth is a function of turbidity while inthe clearer offshore water, reflected sunlight isthe dominant noise source. Experimentation todate, has established an empirical relationshipbetween turbidity, beam attenuation and extinc-tion depth (the depth at which the sea-bed signalis lost in noise). Utilisation of this relationshipenables the system to remotely sense turbidityand produce qualifying statistics on systemperformance.

Overall system accuracy depends on thedetermination of bias errors and the effects ofrandom errors. Developments in system designcoupled with suitable calibration and field techni-ques should allow depth discrimination to onedecimetre with an absolute accuracy of betterthan one metre.

Future Development

Current and future development centres onthe refinement of data processing and fieldtechniques. The basic technical aspects of theLADS concept have been proven by DRCSduring the WRELADS trials, but data processingrequires more attention. The sheer volume ofdata produced by a single sortie presents adaunting processing task. The presence of ambi-guous data is a limiting factor in automaticvalidation and selection of data. Development ofsoftware algorithms which incorporate conven-tional hydrographic philosophy is essential if the

high levels of automation required are to beachieved.

The advent of the Global Positioning System(GPS) later this decade will permit independentLADS operations. This will give LADS significantpotential as a reconnaissance platform in addi-tion to its normal survey role. In addition, theGPS will increase the geographical area in whichLADS can be used by allowing it to operateoutside the present limits of land based electro-nic survey control systems.

Conclusion

Subject to the successful completion of theproject, LADS will represent a quantum leapahead in hydrographic surveying technology andwill have a profound effect on the charting of theshallower waters of the continental shelf. Currentestimates of this task put completion of basiccoverage at 50 years using conventional assets.LADS has the potential to provide detailedcoverage in less than 13 years.

The availabiltiy of accurate bathymetric datais of fundamental importance to navigation andDefence. It is also becoming increasingly impor-tant in terms of national development, marineresearch and the management of natural re-sources. On this basis, the advent of LADS willhave a substantial impact on the future ofhydrography and marine science in Australia.

Acknowledgements: 1. Penny M.F., 1982. DRCS-ERL 0229TR

ISSUES IN AUSTRALIAN SHIPPING. OccasionalPapers on Maritime Affairs: 2. Canberra, AustralianCentre for Maritime Studies, 1983. 73 pp, ill, tables.$9.00

This volume of papers addresses itself to currentissues in mercantile shipping with particular emphasison Australian mercantile shipping.

The volume includes ten papers. A breakdown ofthe contents shows three papers discussing thevalidity, operation and effectiveness of the LinerConferences, two papers on aspects of ship design,two papers discussing the Australian shipping industryand one each on the OECD outlook for the future ofWestern shipping, the new Law of the Sea andAustralian shipping and the shipping problems associ-ated with Tasmania as an Island State.

It is interesting to note that it is unlikely ship typeswill change in the near future. With ships presently in

operation, the main changes are operating at lowerspeeds and or limiting the amount of cargo carried onany particular ship. Some ships have been re-enginedbut this is subject to a strict cost analysis for each case.

It was gratifying to note that Australia is in theforefront of some of the new developments. Particular-ly noted was the world's first natural gas powered ship(built by Carringtons, N.S.W.). Even though the volumeis dated 1983 there was only one very brief mention ofthe ANL order for two coal fuelled bulk carriers.

Included were a number of clear and well captionedphotographs, all of ships to be seen in Australianwaters. This volume is interesting, but it must be said ithas very little that is of direct application to defenceconsiderations. It is available from the Secretary,ACMS, PO Box E20, Queen Victoria Terrace.Canberra, A.C.T, 2601.

J. Wishart


('The views expressed in this paper are the author's and do not necessarily reflect those of the Australian Department ofDefence or the Minister for Defence.)

THE ROAD BEYONDMONTEGO BAY

Progress with the 1982UN Convention on the

Law of the Sea

By Captain W.S.G. Bateman RAN*

BACKGROUND

The last article in the ANI Journal on the UNConvention on the Law of the Sea appeared in1980 and was called cryptically, The Road toCaracas'."1 The author, Captain Whitten, re-viewed progress with the Third UN Conferenceon the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III). In doing so,he looked forward to the expected occasion inCaracas, Venezuela, when members of theUnited Nations would sign a new Law of the SeaConvention, finally agreed after the years of longand arduous negotiation which had commencedwith the first session of UNCLOS III at UNHeadquarters in New York in December 1973;Caracas was to be selected for the location ofthe final signing session since the initial, majornegotiation session of the Conference, thesecond session, was held there between Juneand August 1974.

Unfortunately, there was to be no return toCaracas — due to concerns about provisions inthe new Convention regarding substantive andprocedural aspects of the delimitation of marineand submarine areas between States with oppo-site or adjacent coasts, Venezuela withdrew itssupport for the convention and voted against it atthe last UNCLOS III negotiating session in NewYork in April 1982. Three other countries (Israel,Turkey and the United States) also voted againstthe Convention and there were seventeen ab-stentions, but otherwise a very large measure ofinternational support was shown by 130 coun-tries, including Australia, voting in favour of itsadoption.

We should not underestimate the signifi-cance of this support for the new Conventionshown in April 1982. With the exception of somefinal tying up of loose ends in drafting, there wasthen ready for the formalities of signature, acomprehensive, international treaty covering vir-tually every area and aspect of man's uses of the

sea — from the shoreline to the most remoteocean spaces and the deepest seabed. It repre-sented major political agreements on matters ofvital national and global interest, and has beenhailed as probably the most significant interna-tional agreement since the UN Charter itself. Thepurpose of this article is to review what hashappened since April 1982 and to discuss thedefence importance to Australia of the Law of theSea Convention eventually entering into force.

UNCLOS III ended at Montego Bay inJamaica, the location chosen instead of Cara-cas, on 10 December 1982 with the signature by118 countries, including Australia, of the newConvention (another eleven had signed by Au-gust 1983). Whilst it is unusual for so manycountries to sign a convention as soon as it wasopened for signature, unfortunately the non-signatories included three of the world's majormaritime nations, the Federal Republic of Ger-many, the United Kingdom and the United States(Japan did not sign the Convention at MontegoBay but has since done so). Countries, havingsigned a Convention, must subsequently ratify itbefore they have a binding commitment to it.Signature of a convention does not create legalobligations for the signing country, other than anobligation to refrain from actions which woulddefeat the object and purpose of the treaty. Thelegal obligation results from the stage of ratifica-tion which is achieved in Australia through theprocesses of Government and the approval ofthe Executive Council. An essential step is toensure that domestic law is or will be inconformity with the treaty.

The Convention on the Law of the Sea willenter into force twelve months after it has beenratified by at least sixty countries. So far only afew countries have done so (nine as of August1983) and the whole process of ratification andentry into force may take several years tocomplete.


Although Australia has signed the Conven-tion, this does not necessarily mean that we willratify it. The ratification decision will be made bythe Government taking account of a range ofpolitical and economic factors, most particularly,the degree of acceptance of the principles of theConvention by other countries and the level ofthe financial contribution Australia will be re-quired to make to support the activities of thesupranational seabed mining organisation estab-lished by the Convention (this contribution couldbe quite large, if, as seems possible, the US andsome other major Western industrial nationsremain outside the Convention).

Defence InterestsDuring the next year or so, all Australian

interest groups concerned with using the sea willneed to determine whether or not their interestswill best be served by Australia's ratification ofthe Convention.1" Defence has an importantgeneral interest in the early international accept-ance of a comprehensive and widely acceptedConvention which reduces the potential forconflict between nations. Australia, as a maritimenation with diverse maritime interests (mostparticularly, seaborne trade, offshore territoriesand resources) has a significant vested interestin any development which reduces the potentialfor maritime disorder.

Particular aspects of the Law of the Sea, ofDefence significance, which have been clarifiedin the new Convention include:• freedom of navigation,• freedom of overflight beyond areas of

national sovereignty,• a clear and agreed delineation of areas

which can be brought under Australianjurisdiction (the territorial sea, the Con-tiguous Zone, the Exclusive Economic Zone,and the continental shelf), and

• an effective system for the peaceful settle-ment of maritime disputes (through theInternational Tribunal for the Law of the Seato be established in Hamburg).

(This paper concentrates mainly upon the free-dom of navigation, as the topic presumably ofmost interest to readers of the ANI Journal.)

NAVIGATION ISSUESThe provisions of the new Convention deal-

ing with the freedom of navigation should beseen against the background of the last thirtyyears or so which have witnessed a process ofcreeping national jurisdiction seawards, placingwider controls over the areas of marine spaceavailable to shipping. Many coastal States havesought to push their territorial sea boundariesbeyond the traditionally accepted three mile limit

to 12, 100 and even 200 miles. Widely varyingnational laws have been passed with regard tofishing rights, offshore oil production, and marineenvironmental issues, including a proliferation ofconflicting pollution laws which could haveplaced severe limitations on the navigation ofparticular types of vessels.

The first UN Conference on the Law of theSea held in Geneva in 1958 was not able toreach agreement on the breadth of the territorialsea. The Convention on the High Seas, agreedat that Conference, established the high seas asall parts of the sea that are not included in theterritorial sea (of unspecified breadth) or theinternal waters of a State. The complementaryConvention on the Territorial Sea and the Con-tiguous Zone provided for the sovereignty of thecoastal State over the territorial sea and theexercise of certain controls by the State in aContiguous Zone extending not beyond twelvemiles from the baseline from which the breadthof territorial sea is measured. Whilst this sug-gested an effective limit to the breadth of theterritorial sea, on the other hand it did not rule outthat a coastal state could claim a territorial seabeyond twelve miles, but by doing so, the Statecould not claim additional Contiguous Zonerights.

Innocent PassageUnder the 1958 Convention on the Territorial

Sea and the Contiguous Zone, ships of all Statesenjoy the right of innocent passage through theterritorial sea. Coastal States can neither ham-per innocent passage through the territorial seanor suspend the innocent passage of foreignships through straits which are used for interna-tional navigation between one part of the highseas and another part of the high seas or theterritorial sea of a foreign State. This relativelyliberal interpretation of innocent passage cameto be seen by some coastal States, which havegained their independence since 1958, as anintrusion on their sovereignty and an attempt bymajor maritime nations to enshrine traditional,over-bearing rights under one particular inter-pretation of international law. Some uncertaintyalso began to emerge regarding what activitiesare innocent and what are non-innocent, notleast of all because the concept of innocentpassage in the 1958 convention is the historicalone which evolved before the advent of sub-marines and aircraft.

The new Convention on the Law of the Seahas two fundamental differences on these pointsfrom the 1958 convention. First, it permits theterritorial sea to extend up to twelve miles with aContiguous Zone of up to twenty four miles fromthe territorial sea baselines. This provision hasthe effect of closing off as territorial sea 116


additional straits used tor international naviga-tion which had previously been regarded as highseas passages.13'

Secondly, to accommodate the concerns ofcoastal States for pollution control measures andthe protection of national security, the regime ofinnocent passage is much stricter under the newConvention than it was under the earlier one. Acoastal State may, without discrimination amongforeign ships, temporarily suspend innocent pas-sage for the protection of its security, andspecific activities are listed as being contrary tothe meaning of innocent passage. These aregenerally directed at warships and include suchissues as the prohibition of any exercise orpractice with weapons of any kind and thelaunching, landing or taking onboard of anyaircraft or military device. A warship which ismerely exercising the right of innocent passageis thus inhibited from taking some fundamentalmeasures of self-defence. Submarines are re-quired to navigate on the surface and show theirflag. The new Convention's greater clarity onthese points has been described as 'a majorimprovement over the 1958 Convention'.141

The coastal State is also allowed to adoptlaws and regulations relating to innocent pas-sage through the territorial sea in respect of thesafety of navigation and regulation of maritimetraffic and various other specified issues. It mayrequire ships to confine their passage to stipu-lated sealanes within the territorial sea withspecial mention being made of foreign nuclear-powered ships and ships carrying nuclear orother inherently dangerous or noxious subst-ances. Whilst the Convention states that thecoastal State shall not hamper innocent passageexcept in accordance with the Convention, itseems possible that a coastal State would havelittle difficulty in justifying the disruption of theflow of shipping which was merely exercising therights of innocent passage in accordance withthe Convention. Strictly, the State is not ableunder the Convention to impose requirements onforeign ships which have the practical effect ofdenying or impairing the right of innocent pas-sage but there remains the fundamental right ofthe coastal State, expressly stated in the Con-vention, to take steps it deems essential for theprotection of its security.

There was considerable polarisation of viewsat UNCLOS III between the coastal States,particularly those adjacent to major shiping'choke points' (eg, Spain and Morocco for theStraits of Gibraltar, and Malaysia, Singapore andIndonesia for the Malacca Straits), on the onehand, and the major maritime powers (eg, US,UK, Japan, USSR) on the other. Invariably,Australia closely identified with the latter coun-tries on navigational issues.

Transit PassageTo overcome the limitations of the innocent

passage regime, the maritime powers weresuccessful in achieving acceptance of a newregime of transit passage, which shall not beimpeded, to be applied to straits which are usedfor international navigation. This right, to beallowed by coastal States, was in effect the quidpro quo for the acceptance of the twelve milelimit of territorial sea which had earlier beenopposed by the major maritime powers becauseof the additional straits which could becomeclosed as territorial sea. Whilst ships exercisingthe right of transit passage are required to refrainfrom any activities other than those incidental totheir normal modes of continuous and expedi-tious transit, these activities are not specified inthe same way as they are with the innocentpassage regime. Since it is also not possible tosuspend transit passage, this new regime canonly be regarded as an important new contribu-tion to the freedom of navigation. A coastal Statecan make laws and regulations relating tonavigation and pollution, for example, but itcannot hamper or suspend transit passage.

The regimes of innocent and transit passage,as they are established in the new convention,are well illustrated by consideration of Australia'stwo major international waterways — the Torresand Bass Straits. Passage through the TorresStrait by the recommended route via the Princeof Wales Channel requires at present the exer-cise of the right of innocent passage throughAustralian territorial seas within the current threemile limit. After the entry into force of the newConvention, passage will be governed by thetransit passage regime for straits used forinternational navigation.

Bass Strait is at present a high seas routesince the recommended passage can be usedwithout passing within three miles of Australianterritory. However, if or when Australia declaresa 12 mile territorial sea, as allowed by the newConvention, the territorial seas of islands in theStrait between Wilson's Promontory and FlindersIsland will overlap and passage will only bepossible using Australian territorial seas. BassStrait will then become a 'strait used for interna-tional navigation' within the provisions of theConvention and the transit passage regime willapply.

Archipelagic StatesThe other major provision of the new Con-

vention which has significant implications for thefreedom of navigation of Australian shipping is itsestablishment of the new category of 'archipela-gic States'. States which are constituted whollyof one or more groups of islands and meet


certain other criteria specified in the Conventionmay draw archipelagic baselines joining theoutermost islands and drying reefs of thearchipelago. The waters between the islands ofthe archipelago and within these baselinesassume characteristics of the territorial sea inthat the archipelagic State exercises sovereigntyregardless of the depth of these waters or theirdistance from the coast. This sovereignty ex-tends to the air space over the archipelagicwaters, as well as to the seabed, and theresources contained therein.

This regime of archipelagic States has con-siderable importance to Australia in view of thenumber of countries in Australia's region whichclaim the status of 'archipelagic States'. The listof such countries comprises from west to east:Indonesia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea,Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Fiji. New Caledo-nia will also be able to do so after Independence,but cannot do so at present since France, as anation, could not qualify for archipelagic status!

The quid pro quo for international accept-ance of archipelagic status is the regime ofarchipelagic sealanes passage which allowsships of all nations the right of unimpeded,continuous and expeditious passage througharchipelagic waters along sea lanes which maybe designated by the archipelagic State. If theState does not designate these sea lanes, thenthe right of archipelagic sealanes passage maybe exercised through the routes normally usedfor international navigation. The archipelagicsealanes passage regime is the same in effect,and is governed by similar provisions, as thetransit passage regime with the archipelagicsealanes (up to 50 miles wide) becoming virtual'straits' through the archipelagic waters. Outsidethese 'straits', ships of all nations have the rightof innocent passage only and must abide by theprovisions of that more restrictive regime, includ-ing recognition of the power of the archipelagicState to temporarily suspend innocent passagein specified areas of its archipelagic waters forthe protection of its security.

The regime of archipelagic sealanes pas-sage should ensure the freedom of mobility ofAustralian naval and air forces through and overthe archipelagos in our region. In the words ofarticle 53 of the new Convention, archipelagicsealanes passage means 'the exercise inaccordance with this convention of the rights ofnavigation and overflight in the normal modesolely for the purpose of continuous, expeditionsand unobstructed transit' (emphasis added).'Normal mode' is interpreted, at least by themajor maritime nations, as meaning that sub-marines can transit submerged and that surfaceunits may undertake those activities which arenecessary for their security, including the laun-

ching and recovery of aircraft and streamingtowed sonar arrays, for example. Subject only torestrictions on navigation, presumably this alsowould allow a naval task group to proceed alongan archipelagic sealane, which may be up to fiftynautical miles wide, in its normal cruising forma-tion with aircraft in support and a deployed ASWscreen.

To return briefly to the regime of straits'transit passage, significantly the term, 'in thenormal mode', which is not defined in theConvention, does not appear in the equivalentarticle which gives the meaning of transit pas-sage (Article 38). However, the next article(Article 39, which incidentally also applies muta-tis mutandis to archipelagic sealanes passage)states that ships and aircraft while exercising theright of transit passage, shall 'refrain from anyactivities othemas watson.modes of continuous and expeditious transitunless rendered necessary by force majeure orby distress'. This reference to 'normal modes' isregarded as 'euphemism for submerged transitof submarines'.151 The omission of the words 'inthe normal mode' from the description of transitpassage permits the view that archipelagic sea-lanes passage has rather more clarity, particular-ly with regard to the activities of surface ships,than the regime of transit passage.

DIFFERENT NATIONAL VIEWS

Before work started on the provisions of thenew Convention relating to the freedom ofnavigation, uncertainty was beginning to appearregarding assured navigation rights for bothwarships and commercial vessels, with even theconcept of transit fees or tolls through certainstraits looming as a possibility.161 With warhships,some nations had sought to have the right toreceiving prior notification or granting prior au-thorisation of ship transits throught the territorialsea or other waters under some form of nationaljurisdiction. Australia interprets the relevant arti-cles of the new convention as providing thesame rights for warships as for commercialvessels without any need to obtain prior author-isation or to give prior notification. Unfortunately,even now, there is no certainty that theseprovisions will be universally accepted despitethe hard bargaining during UNCLOS III and therequirement for States to accept the Conventionas a 'package', ie, they must accept the goodwith the bad, with an aspiring archipelagic State,for example, theoretically being unable to claimthe benefits of archipelagic status without at thesame time granting the right of unimpededarchipelagic sealanes passage to ships of allnations.

Dissenting national views regarding thisissue of prior notification of warship transits were


still being expressed at the last session ofUNCLOS III in Montego Bay. The round-uppress release of that session records that:

'A number of States which had unsuccessful-ly sought to amend the draft Convention inorder to require prior notification or authoriza-tion for innocent passage of foreign warshipsthrough the territorial sea, repeated theirsupport for that position in the interest ofcoastal State security. Benin regretted thatcoastal States had had to accept omission ofsuch a clause, at the price of their security.The Democratic People's Republic of Korea,Romania and the Sudan contended thatcoastal States had the right to safeguard theirsecurity interests in regard to the passage ofwarships through their territorial waters. Mal-ta said it went along with the compromise onthis point, and reserved the right to submit adeclaration. Saint Lucia regretted what itdescribed as the vagueness of the test onthis point. The United Arab Emirates dis-agreed with the article as it stood. Vanuaturegretted that the text permitted vesselscarrying nuclear weapons and materials topass through the territorial sea. In Yemen'sview, the passage of warships through theterritorial waters of a small developing coun-try was a violation of its sovereignty.'"1

Seabed MiningAlthough the United States, as a non-

signatory State, now argues that the navigationrights under the convention are available undercustomary international law (and is therefore ineffect being selective itself in its approach to theConvention because it has rejected the seabedmining provisions of the Convention), it is clearthat the American arguments will not beaccepted by many States. In addition to theMontego Bay statements noted in the UN Pressrelease quoted above, the Philippines claimedthat sealanes passage would apply only in suchpassages as the archipelagic State maydesignate.181 It is more that probable that thesedissenting views of the Convention have beenlargely inspired by a desire 'to see the Americansoff and some may not have been stated if the UShad continued its earlier support for the Conven-tion.

The United States has so far refused to signthe Convention on the grounds that its seabedmining provisions do not meet US objectives.The problems with these include:191

• A decision-making process that would notgive the US or others a role that fairly reflectsand protects their interests.

• Provisions that would allow amendments toenter into force for the US without itsapproval.

• Stipulations relating to mandatory transfer ofprivate seabed mining technology.

• The absence of assured access for futurequalified deep seabed miners to promote thedevelopment of these resources.Although it is not the purpose of this article to

discuss the seabed mining issue and the USconcerns in any detail, at least it should be notedthat it is now a matter of public record in thereport of the Australian delegation that the finalnegotiating session of UNCLOS in New York inApril 1982 was nearer achieving consensus thanwas commonly appreciated at the time. In theearly stages of the session, the United States,joined by several other large Western industrialcountries, pushed for amendments to the text ofthe Convention which were not acceptable tomany other national delegations and were alsoknown to be 'far in excess of what the UnitedStates might have been prepared to accept'."01 Inan attempt to overcome these difficulties withoutdisturbing fundamental elements of the seabedpackage negotiated during previous years,eleven smaller Western nations, includingAustralia, proposed their own set of amend-ments to bridge the gap in the opposing nationalpositions. These included less onerous obliga-tions on seabed miners to make technologyavailable to the International Seabed Authority,and a clause to the effect that future amend-ments would not bind States that did not formallyadhere to them. Unfortunately, by the time aUnited States 'bottom line' began to emerge withregard to these amendments, it was the finaldays and hours of the conference, things hadmoved too far and the situation could not beretrieved.'1"

Aside from the UNCLOS III activities, the USand some other major industrialised nationshave pursued a Reciprocating States Agreement(RSA) to establish a general framework forreciprocal recognition of national seabed li-cences between countries which have the tech-nology and general wherewithal to undertakedeep seabed mining. Six nations (FRG, UK, US,Japan, USSR and France) have enacted domes-tic legislation on seabed mining and others are inthe process of legislating."'1 Due to the generalslow-down in economic activity, and falls incommodity prices, deep seabed mining nowappears less attractive than it did several yearsago. An Australan mining expert has assessedthat 'the possibility of seabed mining taking placeon a healthy commercial basis in the mediumterm future of 20 to 30 years is only slight'."31

Australian policy on seabed mining has'generally been to steer a middle course be-tween the aggressive demands of Westernmining interest and the ideologically opposed


developing States'.1"1 Although Australia's min-ing will be mainly land-based for the foreseeablefuture and there is little common ground with theUS concerns regarding seabed mining, theAustralian mining industry remains quite luke-warm with regard to the new Convention. Itsproblems lie in the Convention's seabed miningprovisions which are considered to violate orthreaten freedom of access to markets, as wellas introducing regulatory and bureaucratic procedures, the totality of which could give seabedmining unfair advantages over land-basedprocedures."" Meanwhile, since commercialseabed mining is unlikely to be economicallyviable for the time being, the Australian miningindustry is unlikely to argue strongly againstAustralia's ratification of the Convention.

It is easy to be pessimistic about the future ofthe Law of the Sea Convention. It is clear that USmining interests and the so-called 'ideologues',who suspect that the Convention could becomea means for the less developed countries 'rippingoff' the major Western industrialised nations,have been able to carry the day against thoseUS interests which identify with the positivebenefits of the Convention. Some would arguethat the US is now set on a path which coulddestroy the Convention."61 Other nations willassist in this outcome if they persist with inter-pretations of the Convention which are contraryto the process of consensus and compromisewhich prevailed during the nine years of negotia-tion at UNCLOS III.

On the credit side, the 1983 sessions of thePreparatory Commission for the main institutionsto be established under the Convention — theInternational Sea Bed Authority and the Interna-tional Tribunal for the Law of the Sea — havebeen relatively successful. This could well pro-vide a vehicle for achieving an accommodationthat would enable additional States to adhere tothe Convention. It is now possible that anygeneral perception of the success of the Prepa-ratory Commission will produce a sufficientnumber of ratifications to ensure the entry intoforce of the Convention.

CONCLUSIONWith the new Convention, nations have been

compelled to take the widest possible view oftheir uses of the sea. They have not been able toview their interest in combatting marine pollution,for example, in isolation from their interests inother major maritime matters such as the free-dom of navigation, seabed mining, maritimeboundaries or marine scientific research. Thishas been the problem with international Conven-tions in the past which have attempted to cometo grips with important maritime issues. Now,however, all nations have to take a 'big picture'view of their uses of the sea and reach a decision

to ratify the Convention by weighing the benefitsthey receive from it against the possible costs.

The aura of uncertainty which at presentsurrounds particular uses of the sea by man willonly be resolved by a widely accepted Conven-tion on the Law of the Sea. The non-entry intoforce of the 1982 Convention could have seriousimplications for the risk of maritime conflict,including within our region, and for the freedomof mobility required for our warships and militaryaircraft. However whilst ratification of the Con-vention by Australia would best serve our de-fence and maritime interests, the road beyondMontego Bay is not without its pot-holes andcorrugations.

NOTES

1. Whitten, R.J., The Road to Caracas', Journal ot the ANI,Vol 6, No 3 August 1983, pp 47-50

2. For a full description of the background to, and Australianconcerns with the UN Convention on the Law of the Seasee shearer, I.A., 'International Legal Aspects of Austra-lia's Maritime Environment1 in Australian Centre forMaritime studies, 'Australia's Maritime Horizons in the1980's. Occasional Papers in Maritime Affairs: 1, Can-berra 1982

3 63 of these straits affected by the Convention's 12 mileterritorial sea limit lie in the Western Pacific Region in theSW Pacific, SE and East Asia. Neutze. D.R.. 'Whose Lawof the Sea?', United States Naval Institute Proceedings.Vol 109, No 1. January 1983. p 47.

4. Richardson, Elliot L., 'Law of the Sea: Navigation andOther Traditional National Security Considerations'. SanDiego Law Review, Vol 19, No 3. April 1983. p.506.

5. Grunawalt, R.J. 'US Navy Contingency Operations underthe Law of the Sea Convention', Proceedings of EighthRAN Legal Conference. HMAS WATSON, 19-20 Janu-ary, 1983, p.37.

6. Oxman, B.H.. The New Law of the Sea'. American BarAssociation Journal. Vol 69, February 1982. p. 158.

7. UN Press Release SEA/514 dated 10 December 1982,Dept of Public Information, United Nations, New York.

8. UNCLOS III. Provisional verbatim Record of the 189thMeeting held at Montego Bay, Jamaica. December 1982.A/CONF. 62pv.189. 23-25.

9. US President's Statement on the Law of the Sea dated 9July 1982.

10. Dept of Foreign Affairs, UNCLOS III Eleventh Session —Report of the Australian Delegation. (Canberra. AGPS.1982), p.14.

11. rtwd,p1512. Cohen, L.I.. 'International Co-operation on Seabed Min-

ing'. Prepared for the Center for Oceans Law and Policy7th Annual Seminar, Montego Bay. Jamaica, 6-9 Janu-ary, 1983. mimeo, p.1.

13. Reynolds, J.O., 'Deep Sea Mining and the Regime of theNew Convention', Address to a Seminar on the Law ofthe Sea, Australian branch of the International LawAssociation. Sydney, 19 June 1982. mimeo, p. 15.

14. Bergin, A., 'Australia and Deep Seabed Mining', Austra-lian Outlook. Vol, 36, No 2. August 1982, p.47.

15. A review of the Australian mining industry's position withregard to seabed mining may be found in Reynolds, op.erf.

16. The proclamation by President Reagan of an exclusiveeconomic zone within 200 nautical miles of America'scoasts has been seen to seriously undermine the futureof the Law of the Sea Convention. Whilst the creation ofthe zone is in accordance with the Convention, theprovisions of the proclamation ignores the obligations forcountries to share fishing with landlocked or developingnations, to preserve the environment and to allowfreedom of research. The Australian. 14 March 1983


(This article has been extracted from the August 1983 edition of the Dept of Transport Reporting Manual)

COASTWATCHBackground

In 1978, the Commonwealth Governmentdecided to upgrade Australia's civil coastalsurveillance program. The principal objectives ofthe revised program were to maximise protectionof national quarantine interests and deterbreaches of customs, immigration, fisheries andother relevant Commonwealth laws. The Gov-ernment did not commit capital resources assuch to the scheme, but identified additionalexpenditure for the charter of civil aircraft anddirected greater use be made of Defence Forceresources. Arrangements were to remain flexibleto meet changing circumstances and to facilitatecontinuous review.

The Government also called for a reassess-ment of requirements to be undertaken withintwo years; this period was later extended toOctober 1981 and the review was competed byDecember 1981. Administrative aspects of therevised arrangements which were introduced in1978 and are relevant today include:• the Minister for Transport acting as the

Government spokesman on the nature andadequacy of civil coastal surveillance

• responsibility for law enforcement vested inindividual departments in accordance withadministrative arrangements

• civil coastal surveillance policy to be im-plemented by the Standing Inter-Departmental Committee on Civil CoastalSurveillance (SIDC)

• administrative support to the SIDC and itssubsidiary Operations and Programs Commit-tee (OPC) to be provided by the Departmentof Transport

• The Australian Coastal Surveillance Centre(ACSC — short title: COASTWATCH Centre)located in Canberra, to manage the programand provide day to day co-ordination ofoperations.The civil coastal surveillance effort has been

largely (but by no means exclusively) concen-trated on the northern half of Australia.

Current Program Arrangements

The COASTWATCH program, co-ordinatedby the Department of Transport, combinescivilian and Defence air and surface resources inroutine and response civil coastal surveillanceoperations. The main elements of the COAST-WATCH program include:

• aerial patrols of the 200 nautical mile Austra-lian Fishing Zone by RAAF P3 Orion longrange maritime patrol aircraft

• RAN patrol boats for surveillance and en-forcement supplemented by chartered civilianvessels when necessary

• daily visual air searches of northern littoralareas by chartered aircraft, primarily forquarantine purposes

• radar and visual aerial patrols of the GreatBarrier Reef by chartered aircraft in dailystages

• an extensive public awareness programfocussed in northern areas.

Program Management

The SIDC on Civil Coastal Surveillanceimplements policy and maintains an oversightrole. It reviews achievements against objectivesand introduces any necessary variation ormodification to improve effectiveness withinapproved policy guidelines. The SIDC reports tothe Minister for Transport. Its membershipincludes Departments with a direct interest insurveillance and, responsibilities in the followingareas.

Australian Federal Police (AFP) are reci-pients of surveillance information in respect ofsuspected illegal drug trafficking. If requested,AFP provide protection for fisheries inspectorswhen civil chartered vessels are used for theapprehension of foreign fishing vessels.

Defence provides long range maritime patrolaircraft of the RAAF for surveillance of the AFZ,and RAN patrol boats for surface surveillanceand enforcement purposes.

Health is concerned with the detection ofquarantine breaches which may endanger Au-stralia's agricultural and pastoral industries.Daily surveillance in northern littoral areas isprimarily aimed at meeting this requirement. Thistask is undertaken by chartered civil aircraft,operating under the direction of the ACSC, withcrews specially trained in surveillance techni-ques and requirements by ACSC field officers.The quarantine effect is supplemented byperiodic surface patrols using RAN patrol boats,Transport's navigation aid servicing vessels, orcivil chartered vessels.

Home Affairs and Environment has a broadresponsibility for the preservation of the naturalenvironment. Through its oversight of the GreatBarrier Reef Marine Park Authority, it has a


particular interest in surveillance of the GreatBarrier Reef (GBR), particularly in monitoringpollution threats, human activities likely to causedamage and compliance with access restric-tions. A dedicated chartered Nomad aircraftfitted with radar is used for GBR surveillance.

Immigration and Ethnic Affairs is responsiblefor preventing illegal immigration into Australia.Littoral search crews, patrolling primarily forquarantine purposes, are also briefed to reportany activities of immigration significance, suchas unexpected vessel or aircraft movements.

Industry and Commerce (Australian Cus-toms Service) is responsible for the prevention ofsmuggling of both legal and illegal goods. Anyinformation on such activities derived fromsurveillance patrols is passed by ACSC toCustoms. Customs operates its own vessels andchartered Nomad aircraft for Customs enforce-ment activities.

Primary Industry (fisheries) is responsible formanaging the AFZ and is principally interested inmonitoring the activities of foreign fishing ves-sels. RAAF long range maritime patrol aircraftare used for this purpose and RAN patrol boatsor chartered civil vessels are employed forenforcement purposes.

Transport, in addition to its program manage-ment and co-ordination role, acts on surveillancereports concerning marine pollution, marinenavigation aids, infringements of oil platformsafety zones and restricted areas and wrecks orsalvage operations.

veillance effectiveness and operational safetymargins

• the identification of COASTWATCH aircraftby a green and gold colour scheme; wearingof uniforms by crews; the upgrading ofsurveillance training and formalisation ofobserver qualifications.

Regular surveil lance of the oceanapproaches to Darwin for refugee boats wassuspended on 31 March 1983 following acomprehensive review of the refugee situationand the cost-effectiveness of the operation;however, a capacity to re-introduce thesepatrols, if the need arises, has been maintained.

Review of Civil Coastal Surveillance

The Government on assuming office inMarch 1983 announced a further review of civilcoastal surveillance arrangements. The purposeof the review is to propose a system of nationalcoastal surveillance most appropriate to nationalrequirements and the management, legislativeand resource arrangements necessary to fulfilthe requirements.

The review is being conducted by the HonKim Beazley, Minister for Aviation, in his capacityas Minister assisting the Minister for Defence, atthe joint request of the Hon Gordon Scholes,Minister for Defence and the Hon Peter Morris,Minister for Transport.

Recent Initiatives

Following the 1981 Review, a number ofimprovements were made in operational andmanagement systems. These have beenprogressively implemented and include:• the introduction of an annual program budget

process in which program costs are sharedamong major user departments

• an increase in Transport's staff of field officersfrom two to six, to improve regional liaison innorthern areas, provide supervision and train-ing assistance to contractors and to promotepublic involvement in surveillance reporting

• the attachment of a Defence Force officer tothe ACSC to provide direct liaison withDefence operational command

• the upgrading of COASTWATCH charteraircraft by the fitting of weather radar withsurface mapping mode; VLF/Omega naviga-tion systems, cabin air conditioning and radiocommunications covering the full range ofHF/VHF/UHF frequencies in use with trans-mission modes covering both aviation andmarine requirements, thereby improving sur-


WRECK OF THE BARQUEZANONI

by Commander R.J. Pennock RAN

Until recent years, the loss of a sailing vesselor primitive steam-ship was not considered anunusual occurrence. In fact shipwreck, drowningand starvation were occupational hazards of theseafarer. Vessels were lost through a variety ofreasons, many being overwhelmed by wind andsea. If a vessel foundered near land, it wasflotsam or worse that alerted the local populaceto the fact that yet another victim had beenclaimed by the unforgiving sea. At times,innocent passengers and supernumeraries wereamongst the victims.

In his most recent book on the subject, AnAtlas History of Australian Shipwrecks, maritimehistorian Jack Loney lists a total of 45 vesselslost in South Australian waters. Unfortunately, hehas overlooked what could be the most signifi-cant wreck discovered off the Australian coast.This is the wreck of the barque ZANONI, lost in1867 in the waters of St. Vincent's Gulf.Reported as having sunk on Monday 11February 1867, ZANONI was the subject of asearch that lasted 116 years. What has madethis search so different to many others is that thisvessel sank in the shallow headwaters of theGulf, in about 10 fathoms, within 10 miles of land(in both directions) and only 30 miles from thebusy centre of Port Adelaide.

Built by Potter and Co. of Liverpool inNovember 1865 for Royden and Company,ZANONI was a 3 masted composite built barqueof 338 tons gross. Not a large vessel, herdimensions were 139ft x 23ft x 14ft 6in, butaccording to a report in the South AustralianAdvertiser of 13 February 1867 she was 'a veryfine barque with many good qualities'.

Still on her maiden voyage, ZANONI hadloaded sugar at Port Louis (Mauritius) for PortAdelaide, arriving in late 1866 after a fast 30 daypassage. Her cargo was quickly unloaded andher alleged fine sailing qualities enabled a wheatcharter to the United Kingdom to be quicklyfinalised. Mr. J. Darwent, the charterer, required25 tons of wheat to be loaded in Port Adelaidewith the remainder being embarked at thenorthern gulf port of Port Wakefield. ZANONI leftPort Adelaide on 2 January 1867 for her shorttrip north.

Loading of cargo completed on 10 January1867. With 15 tons of bark and 4025 bags of

wheat securely stowed she sailed for the PortAdelaide lightship at 7 a.m. on Monday 11thJanuary. The weather was fine with a lighteasterly breeze. By 1.30 p.m. the wind had gonearound to the west, and freshened with threaten-ing squalls. Ever vigilant, Captain Summers hadshortened sail but a squall, described by acontemporary report as a cyclone, struck ZANO-NI whilst she was shortened down to twotopsails, foresail and jib. Before sheets could belet fly, the barque was overwhelmed by the wind,thrown on her beam-ends and capsized. CaptainSummers (Master), Mr. Thomas Lancaster(Mate), the ten crew members and two PortAdelaide stevedores managed to scramble tothe sides of ZANONI and after much effortsucceeded in reaching the lifeboat which hadbroken free and drifted clear. The elapsed timebetween the squall striking and the sinking of thebarque was between 5 and 10 minutes. Fortunehad smiled to some extent as no lives were lost.

The cyclone had by this time settled into awesterly gale and against these odds thesurvivors managed to right the lifeboat, bale itout and make for the Long Spit Buoy some fivemiles distant. They reached the buoy by 11 p.m.that evening and immediately came in contactwith the barques FIVE BROTHERS andFOWLES. Taken on board by the latter, all thesurvivors were landed at Port Adelaide by 6.30p.m. on Tuesday 12 January 1867.

Captain Summers immediately reported theloss of his vessel to his agents Messrs. J.Newmann and Son, giving the last position as 5miles WNW of Long Spit Buoy and about 25miles from Port Wakefield. As soon as theweather abated, the Harbour Master set sail inthe BLANCHE in an endeavour to locate andbuoy the wreck. Although his search lasted 5days it was unsuccessful.

A Marine Board enquiry was convened toenquire into the circumstances of the loss ofZANONI, commencing its sitting on 19 February.Evidence taken at the time revealed a conten-tious point regarding the ballasting of the barque.One of the stevedores, Mr. Henry Daulby, statedthat he had advised Captain Summers to retainhis stone ballast onboard. The other stevedore,Mr. J. Stone, when questioned on that point


Position ofZANONI offArdrossan S.A. (part of Chart AUS 781)


admitted that the advice to keep the ballastonboard was purely to save the trouble ofremoving it. In his evidence, the Mate stated thatin his opinion ZANONI was properly stowed, buta little tender. The Board of Enquiry completedits work on 26 February and was reported in theSouth Australian Advertiser in the followingterms:

The Board did not consider any furtherinvestigation necessary, the evidence notshowing cause of the vessel's loss'.A further search of the northern gulf was

carried out by a steam paddle-tug YOUNGAUSTRALIA. Apart from sighting a quarter-gigthat had broken adrift from the wreck, this searchwas also unsuccessful. In an attempt to establisha position, a reward notice was published in theS.A. Advertiser on 22 March 1867:

'£100 Reward — the above will be paid toany person first pointing and within ten daysfrom the date, March 18, to the undersigned,or whoever he may appoint, the wreck of thebarque Zanoni foundered in St. Vincent'sGulf.

H. SimpsonQueens Wharf

Naturally the reward was not claimed andthat should have been the end of the story.

However, the Society for Underwater Histor-ical Research Inc., was founded in 1974 in SouthAustralia by experienced divers and othershaving a particular interest in underwaterarchaeology. Working in close co-operation withthe Heritage Conservation Branch of the Depart-ment of Environment and Planning they havebeen and are engaged in a number and varietyof projects concerned with local shipwrecks,construction and destruction of local jetties, etc.

In 1981, the wreck of ZANONI was declaredunder the Historic Shipwrecks Act, but as thewreck had not been located, no protective zonecould be published to prevent the accidental (orotherwise) damage to the remains. About thesame time, a $2000 reward was offered fordiscovery of the wreck.

On 17 April 1983 two divers, guided by alocal fisherman, located a wreck near Ardrossanwhich has since been identified as ZANONI.Lying on her port side at an angle of 45°, she is in18 metres of water. The bow and stern completewith rudder are, according to latest reports,clearly defined and in sufficiently good conditionto be recovered. The midship section, althoughpartially collapsed on the wheat and bark cargo,appear to be in reasonable condition. A marinearchaeologist from Environment and Planningregards the ZANONI wreck as one of the bestpreserved on the Australian coast. Her compo-site construction (timber planks on iron frames)

makes this wrecked vessel even more significantfor preservation.

With an accurate position established, a 550metre protective zone has been declared,making it one of only six such zones in Australia.Fines for entering such zones are heavy ($1000or imprisonment for one year, or both) andpenalties for interfering with or damaging awreck are even heavier ($5000 or imprisonmentfor five years, or both).

But what of the future of ZANONI? It isplanned to survey the site thoroughly, which onpresent finances could take up to five years,before any of the relics are recovered. Other longrange plans include recovery of the bow andstern sections for display in a proposed SouthAustralian Marine Park.

Whatever the outcome, time must be runningout for ZANONI. The lack of significant currentsaround her present position have helped keepher in such a good state of preservation. Willman himself be so considerate? An injection offunds from Commonwealth, State and privatesources could reduce the time taken to surveythe wreck and start the recovery process. ThisVictorian time capsule could well be ready forpublic display in the significant years of 1986 and1988 if action were taken now.


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WASHINGTONNOTES

by Tom Friedmann

The major naval defeat recently suffered byAustralia and the West in the loss of HMASMELBOURNE at the hands of those mosttenacious of enemies, the naval budget cutters,has been met with dismay in the United States.At a time when our carrier fleet is being stretchedto the limit, the only carrier operated by anAmerican ally in the Pacific has been eradicated.We stand alone.

It is not an exaggeration to say the MEL-BOURNE'S demise is a greater disaster toAustralia and her allies than the losses ofSYDNEY, PERTH, and CANBERRA — namesthat shine as beacons of heroism throughout thepages of history — because money was noobject in securing the replacement of thesevessels in wartime. What is needed is an equalcommitment in peacetime to provide theweapons necessary to keep war away fromAustralia and to protect her and her allies if itdoes not.

The rationale of the Australian Governmentin eradicating its carrier force is hard tounderstand. At a time when the Soviet Union isbuilding ever larger and more capable carriers,and Italy enters the foray for the first time, theRoyal Australian Navy is being forced to breakup a naval air service with over one-third of acentury of splendid achievement to its credit.

The MELBOURNE'S loss and the not yetirreversible dispersion of the Fleet Air Armshould be studied as carefully as any defeat atsea. Anaylsis of the 'Battle of Canberra' must beas vigorous as that of the changed defensecircumstances the RAN and Australia face.

First and foremost, now is the time toencourage a national debate on Australia'sdefense requirements. Although this course isnot favoured by the Australian Defense Minister,no politician ever wants his department investi-gated. A massive change has taken place in thestrategic composition of Australia's forces, and

her people deserve to hear all sides of thedebate now, before the Fleet Air Arm totallydisappears.

Since serving officers in a democracy cannot— and should not — partake in partisan politicalfights, the RAN must rely on retired navalpersonnel and concerned citizens for repre-sentation. The Australian Naval Institute shouldbe in the forefront of this fight even if it becomesnecessary to have a civilian president for theduration.

However, what the Navy can do is present itsposition as often as it is requested to do so bycivic groups and encourage better public rela-tions with the media. Although Bruce Davis,writing in the Pacific Defense Reporter, notesthat Australia's major media groups tend toignore defense issues, there is nothing to stopthe Navy from giving more press briefings on itspositions on all matters and to insure that thepress has full and honest access to all but topsecret information. The press should be wel-come on naval bases and vessels at all timesand there should be no major deployment of HerMajesty's Australian ships without a full presscomplement aboard.

Second, the Navy must stop fighting theRoyal Australian Air Force. Similar battles,fought on a regular basis in many nations sincethe 1920s, are always debilitiating and arefrequently unsuccessful. A member of theCongressional defense committee staff hereonce told me the reason for this could be partiallydiscerned from listening to the difference instyles in the testimonies of the Services on theHill.

The Army and Navy, he said, approach theirsessions before the Armed Services committeessecure in the knowledge that their survival as aseparate fighting force is not threatened by theother. However, since the Army and Navy bothcontain air services and the Navy also has a


strategic missile capability, the Air Force gener-als feel it necessary to justify their Service'sexistence every time they testify. Furthermore,he continued, many people have flown onairliners, are familiar with aircraft and, therefore,can relate to the Air Force and flying. Mostpeople cannot relate to the concept of seapower. Air bases are strung throughout thecountry while the Navy is, naturally, tied toharbours and a handful of states.

To put it simply,' he said, 'it is hard to raisemuch support for a five billion dollar aircraftcarrier which will never be able to anchor offOklahoma City while the Tinker Air Force Base isone of the largest employers in the States.'

But in Australia, as in the United States, thepurposes of the Services are actually differentand the RAN should seek the conciliatoryposition that the Fleet Air Arm is a complement toand not a competitor of the RAAF. The Fleet AirArm must serve to protect the Fleet andmerchant shipping far from Australia's shores aswell as provide air cover for Australian forceswhen they are landed under combat conditionsuntil the RAAF can take over. The RAAF, on theother hand, is designed specifically for defendingthe continent, its immediate sea lanes, andAustralian forces overseas, but only after adequ-ate bases have been established. The overlap inmissions is, indeed, minimal and truly ends at thefurthest point a land-based aircraft can fly fromAustralia without refueling.

Third, the Naval Staff must recognize thatmoney for governmental expenditures, in view ofthe shaky world economy, is extremely tight andan investment of over 1.5 billion dollars in oneship and her equipment might not be best eitherfor the nation or for the RAN in view of amultitude of problems coming up on the horizon.

Although the Royal Australian Navy hasnever been a major naval power, it has alwaysbeen a first class naval power, as its ships andweapons systems have always been at leastequal to the best weapons then current in theworld's inventory. However, it is an inescapablefact that most of the major surface units of theRAN are rapidly aging. No ships are fitted withclose-in anti-missile defense systems at this timeand only the three FFGs carry surface-to-surfacemissiles. Mine warfare potential, both offensiveand defensive, is virtually non-existent. Facedwith these and other problems, one must besympathetic to the Treasury as it tries to expandthe total defense dollar in light of other require-ments of the Government.

From the view point of the naval planner, is itnot more important to properly arm and equipvessels now on hand, rather than acquire moreunderarmed vessels that may not be able todefend themselves should the need arise? How

will elderly destroyers and frigates be replaced ifvast sums are expended on one ship? These areonly two of many important questions thatAustralian (as well as American) planners mustface on a more reasonable basis in the futurethan they have in the past.

There are options open to the RAN inreplacing its carrier force other than the acquisi-tion of a foreign built aircraft carrier. The UnitedKingdom has already acquired the ARAPAHOconcept from the United States and certainly theplans for it could be acquired by Australia.Australia could and should investigate thepossibility of converting a fast merchant ship to acarrier, or for the construction of an aircraftcarrier in Australia, based on merchant ship linesor the lines of the new RAN supply ship. Thisconcept, when initially introduced in the UnitedStates during the Second World War, was avidlyopposed by then Chief of Naval Operations,Fleet Admiral Ernest J. King. However, AdmiralKing later conceded the importance of these'Woolworth' carriers. It has been over fourdecades since a merchant type carrier has beenconstructed or converted and Australia could seta trend. Even recent proposals to launchHarriers through the use of high speed cranesshould be investigated.

Undoubtedly, the alternative may not be asgood as a specially constructed carrier. But theRAN must be flexible enough to accept a lesscapable vessel constructed or converted athome to aid in developing local defenseindustries, in keeping defense dollars at home,and, most importantly, in keeping the Fleet AirArm alive.

Ministers, naval officers, and defense spe-cialists throughout the world are watching theAustralian Naval Staff to see how it handles thetremendous challenges it now faces, for they arefar from unique. They are also watching forrecognition, by all political parties in Australia, ofthe importance of sea power and naval air forcesto the defense of the Commonwealth and theeffective execution of Australia's treaty commit-ments. How Australian responds may determinethe world future status not merely of the RAN,but of the nation itself.


BOOKREVIEWS

INTERNATIONAL LAW OF THE SEA Volume I. ByD.P. O'Connell (Edited by I.A. Shearer). Oxford,Clarendon Press, 1982. $141.00.

Volume I of this two volume series (Volume II to beissued in late 1983) which has been publishedposthumously and edited by Captain I.A. Shearer,RANR, Professor of International Law at the Universityof NSW is a tribute to the profound erudition of the lateProfessor D.P. O'Connell in all matters pertaining tothe Law of the Sea. Both the author and editor of thisvolume have had long associations with the AustralianNavy in their capacity as Reserve officers. ProfessorO'Connell served as a commander in the RANR duringhis appointment as Professor of International Law atAdelaide University and regularly gave lectures on theLaw of the Sea at the Royal Australian Naval Collegeand at RAN Legal Conferences in the late 1960s andearly 1970s. Professor O'Connell maintained hisasociation with the Royal Navy on taking up hisappointment as Chichele professor of Public Interna-tional Law at All Souls College Oxford in 1972 until hisdeath in 1979. Professor Shearer is the Navy'sprincipal Reserve adviser on international law andregularly lectures on the Law of the Sea and the Lawsof Naval Warfare at the Tactical School at HMASWATSON

This new volume reveals once again ProfessorO'Connell's ability to analyse the implications ininternational law of actual naval events. Extensivereference is made to naval incidents in the text toillustrate international law principles.

Volume I deals with the various divisions ofmaritime space and the customary and conventionalinternational law regimes applying within these areas.A historical exposition is given of the development ofinternational law concepts such as the high seas, theterritorial sea, straits used for international navigation,the continental shelf and archipelagic waters.

The present and future impact of the Third UnitedNations Conference on the Law of the Sea oncustomary international law principles relating to theuse of maritime space is fully explored with consider-able emphasis being placed on the content of passagerights for naval and commercial vessels. At theconclusion of each chapter, Professor O'Connellevaluates the status of new developments in the Lawof the Sea such as the comprehensive navigationalregimes which apply to straits used for internationalnavigation and archipelagic waters in the 1982Convention on the Law of the Sea.

This volume is a particularly useful reference workto supplement basic materials such as the Manual ofthe Law of the Sea, for naval officers concerned withthe navigation of HMA ships. Since the operations of

naval vessels have always played a significant role inthe maintenance of passage rights on vital maritimeroutes, a thorough knowledge of the current state ofthe Law of the Sea is essential for those in command ofHMA ships. Professor O'Connell's volume, togetherwith his earlier book The Influence of Law UponSeapower' are important adjuncts in gaining thisknowledge. The preview at the beginning of Volume Iof the subject matter contained in Volume II ofO'Connell's work indicates that it will concentrate onaspects of international law such as the Law ofBelligerency at Sea which are equally relevant to navalofficers.

R Grant

SEA JARGON, A Dictionary of the UnwrittenLanguage of the Sea. By Lew Lind. Sydney,Kangaroo Press, 1983.160 pp. $14.95.

Language is never static. Words acquire newmeanings over time (gay, sophisticated); new wordsare often coined (tri-polarity, infanticipate); differentwords are used to describe the same object oroperation (lift and elevator, discussion and dialogue);and, words are coined which are peculiar to a particulartrade, industry or occupation, (jargon).

Nowhere is this jargon more conspicuous andcolourful than among those who go down to the sea inships. From the mariners, and those associated withthe sea, comes a language all of its own.

Lew Lind's Sea Jargon is a dictionary of nauticalterms and phrases, many of which have long since losttheir bond with the mariners, and have becomeaccepted into 'normal' English. As Lind says in hisIntroduction: 'Sea Jargon is colloquial... Its meaningsare flexible and derivations in most cases were lostsoon after the word or expression was coined.'

Entries are arranged alphabetically and providebrief definitions — often illustrated with photographs orsketches and with verse or ditties if appropriate — andtheir origin categorized as aboriginal (Tingira), Fleet AirArm (Goofers), Merchant Service (Kamels), Naval(Captain's mast) or Waterfront (Shanghai Brown).Care has obviously been taken to use Australiananecdotes or references where possible.

Those wishing to find the meaning of some of themore quaint words and phrases to be found in the FleetAir Arm Song Book may be disappointed with this'dictionary'; but, for the rest of us, it would provide amost useful and informative addition to our book-shelves. Particularly recommended to those who haveresponsibility for acquisition of books for ship or navalestablishment libraries.

D.J.Woodward



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COUNCIL

OFFICEBEARERS

PresidentCommodore I.B. James AM

Senior Vice PresidentCommodore J.S. DicksonMBE

Junior Vice PresidentCaptain P.G.V. Dechaineux

SecretaryLieutenant M.D. Fitzpatrick

TreasurerCommander P.K. Goulson

Journal EditorCommander G. Cutts

COUNCILLORS

Commander D.J. CampbellLieutenant Commander B.D.H. ClarkeLieutenant E.J. Coles RANNSLieutenant S.D. Coulson WRANSCommodore A.R. CumminsSub-Lieutenant P.M. Davis WRANSLieutenant Commander I.R. GulliverLieutenant Commander R.M. JemesenCommander M.B. TaylorLieutenant Commander R.J. Willis

PAST PRESIDENTS

1975-77 Commodore V.A. Parker1977-78 Commodore J.A. Robertson

1978-83 Rear Admiral R.C. Swan AO CBE

HONORARY LIFE MEMBERS

Admiral Sir Victor Smith AC KBE CB DSCVice Admiral Sir David Stevenson AC KBE

Commodore V.A. ParkerAdmiral Sir Anthony Synnot KBE AO

Commodore J.A. RobertsonRt Hon Sir Zelman Cowen AK, GCMG, GCVO, KStJ, QC

Rear Admiral R.C. Swan AO CBE

Public Officer: Commander D.R. Patterson RANEM

The Bofors Naval Gunfor the 80s and 90s

Modern vessels with their limited space and weight, requirecompact lightweight guns with a high firepower endurance.57 mm is the largest calibre combining superior anti-aircraft capability with exceptional performanceagainst naval targets. The optimized target-adaptedammunition — combined with instant dualammunition selection — makes the 57 mmMk 2 gun highly comparable to purelyanti-aircraft weapons and more efficientin naval engagements thanconsiderably larger calibre guns.The Mk 2 version of the well-proven 57 mm gun system isfully automatic and housed in alow radar-signature cupola.Incorporating an improvedservo system, which ensuressuperior accuracy in roughseas, this gun is speciallydesigned for use with allmodern fire controls.

AB BOFORS Ordnance DivisionBo» 500. S-691 80 BOFORS, SwedenTelephone: (0)586-810 00«C4bles: BoforBofors* Telex 73210 bofors 8

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