Heena GajjarDepartment of Landscape ArchitectureUniversity of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, USA

Journeys in the Cultural Landscapes of Okhamandal, Gujarat, India

Reclaiming Krishna Consciousness

Contents List of Illustrations

Summary............................................................................Okhamandal.....................................................................Dwarka: Issues and Goals................................................Myths and Krishna Consciousness...................................Chaar Dham......................................................................Pilgrimage..........................................................................Sea level rise......................................................................Archeology........................................................................Natural features................................................................Environmental disturbances & Conservation Practices...................................................Settlements.......................................................................Remediation Strategies ..................................................Projections.........................................................................Eco- Cultural Heritage trail..............................................Dwarka..............................................................................Sponge..............................................................................Stepwell.............................................................................Gopi Talav.........................................................................Bird Sanctuary................................................................... Reclaimed Okhamandal................................................References........................................................................Acknowledgement..........................................................

1 - Site Location................................................................2 - Images of Okhamandal.............................................3 - Dwarka city plan.........................................................4 - Montage of Krishna’s life events...............................5 - Cycle of life.................................................................6 - Hindu Triad...................................................................7 - Map with places related to Krishna..........................8 - Timeline of Chaar Dham............................................9 - Chaar Dham, India.....................................................10 - Okhamandal and its existing pilgrim route............11 - Gujarat State and the sea level rise.......................12 - Section of sea level rise............................................13 - Mythic and Historic timelines ..................................14 - Archeological findings suggesting seven Dwarkas......................................................................15 - Mythic islands of Dwarka.........................................16 - Self similarity concept..............................................17 - Underwater archeological excavation sites.........18 - Geology, Topography and Soils.............................19 - Salt Intrusion, Marshland and Scrubland, Fragile Ecosystems................................................................20 - Settlements in the Okhamandal region................21 - Coastal and Inland Strategies................................22 - Projections for environmental reclamation..........23 - Eco Cultural heritage trail........................................24 - Proposed sea edge design, Dwarka......................25 - Proposed riverfront, Dwarka....................................26 - Proposed coastal edge with soaking sponge......27 - Proposed stepwell to recharge groundwater.......28 - Proposal of pond in the reclaimed grove..............29 - Proposed wetland and bird sanctuary...................30 - View of reclaimed Okhamandal.............................

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Summary

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Heritage and sacred sites have their deep rooted stories of culture and faith to convey. Visitors to these sites are primarily interested in experiencing and understanding the religious and cultural aspects. However, this seems to have taken a back seat in Gujarat where growth is more oriented towards vigor-ous commercial development. This may lead to fading of and ultimately losing the significant inherent values of natural and cultural heritage of sacred landscapes. In this project, I study Okhamandal region in Gujarat, India. The region is losing the very essence of the place and its values due to an ‘entertain-ment theme park’ like new development.

Okhamandal region is a sacred landscape significant to Hin-dus as a pilgrimage destination. The landscape has evolved as an interaction between nature and culture in a dynamic pro-cess since 1500 BCE. The region faces drastic pressures of cli-mate change- rising sea levels, salt ingress, desertification and unproductive land, scarcity of water for drinking and irrigation, and threat to the sacred sites by modern-day development. In the reclamation process guided by ancient cultural wisdom, coastal and inland strategies are proposed to address shore-line erosion and ground water salinity on the eco-cultural her-itage trail, designed for pilgrims and tourists. The project out-lines a sustainable approach towards ecological restoration and cultural heritage conservation, which will be a catalyst for empowerment of local communities in Okhamandal.

1 mi

2 km

Ecological reclamationCultural reclamation

Figure 1 - Site Location Figure 2 - Images of Okhamandal

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Okhamandal

Levee edge and depressions

Saltpan interface

Highway through saltpan

Okhamandal was formerly an island and is now a peninsula connected with the mainland by a narrow isthmus, which lies between the Rann (desert) and the sea. The name ‘Okhaman-dal’ derives from ‘Okha’- the only and ‘Mandal’ - an island. The low lying area is locally known as the Okhamandal Rann. It is an arm of the Gulf of Kutch, the bed of which has been slightly raised, probably by recent upheaval of the land. The Rann is nearly dry during the greater part of the year, but in rainy season it is covered with water. This is partially rain water, along with sea water collected in the gulf by the wind pres-sure of the south west monsoon wind which blows for several months with steady force (p. 78, Foote 1938).

The region attracts pilgrims as it houses number of religious sites. The cultural importance of Okhamandal is mainly due to Dwarka which is one of the four sacred sites in India that ev-ery Hindu must visit in his/ her lifetime. The region is considered Lord Krishna’s territory and has many archeological sites that corroborate the legend of Dwarka being swallowed by the sea. Okhamandal is a palimpsest of cultural history, under pres-sure by the increasing population of pilgrims, uninspired urban growth and the naturally rising sea level. The ongoing devel-opment does not reflect any attempt towards interpretation of the cultural heritage encompassed in myths and history of the landscape for the future generations. Landscapes reveal the relationship between nature and culture (Hays, 2014). The traces of such interaction are embedded in layers of past that should be explored to plan our future. The need to understand origins is what drives us towards exploring the relics of history that are buried in the landscape. Moreover, natural forces are always dynamic; the cycle of natural processes is one of the driving forces that shape the landscape.

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4Figure 3 - Dwarka city plan

ResidentialPublicEducationalIndustrialReligiousUnderwater SitesInland WaterbodiesOpen Green SpacesFarmlandsSea

Dwarka: Issues and Goals

The edge of Dwarka city is concentrated with numerous tem-ples and shrines and is being rapidly developed. The main tem-ple is located along the river edge on the highest elevation point. The archetypal image of the mountain emerging from the water is visible here. It is said that this high point where the temple is located was actually an island. Looking at the larg-er landscape of the city, one can understand the foundation of this belief. The city is surrounded by various water bodies and marshlands which gives the feeling of an island especial-ly during monsoon. As one approaches the main temple in Dwarka, the sounds of chanting hymns, claps of the pilgrims, the smell of the incense sticks reminding the parijaat forests of Krishna gives a sense of being near to God. However, the new development in around the urban setting takes away from the sacred ambience. The site, an embodiment of the cultural her-itage is overtaken by growing population, rapid urbanization and the rising sea waters. The heritage here is facing econom-ic, social and cultural pressures and is environmentally fragile. The new infrastructure at the site is not communicating the her-itage as there is no interpretation of the significance of mythol-ogy and archeology. The integrity of the site is at stake if such development continues.

The goal is to revive an environmental ethic based upon Krish-na consciousness that emphasizes an adaptive and innova-tive approach towards re-establishing the ecological balance where culture and nature are in harmony. Dwarka comes un-der the National Heritage Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY) programme initiated by Urban Development Ministry, Government of India. The goal of HRIDAY is to pro-mote an integrated, inclusive and sustainable development of heritage sites, focusing not just on maintenance of monuments but on conservation of the entire ecosystem including its res-idential communities and tourists while promoting sustainable urban development.

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Sea edge looking towards Varuna temple 2008 - Natural condition

Sea edge looking towards light-house 2008 - Natural condition

Sea edge looking towards light-house 2015 - Highly engineered approach

Sea edge looking towards Varuna temple 2015 - Highly engineered approach

6Figure 4 - Montage of Krishna’s life eventsSource - http://btg.krishna.com, http://iyadav.com, http://media.radiosai.org, Harivamsa- Freer Gallery of Art, http://www.hinduhumanrights.info)

“Earth, water, fire, air, ether, mind, reason and also ego; these constitute my nature eightfold divided. This indeed is my material nature; the other than this, by which the whole universe is sustained, know it to be my spiritual nature in the form of the life principle.” _ The Bhagvad Gita, 1996, p.71

Myths and Krishna Consciousness

Hinduism is an ever evolving philosophy that is based on the belief of the cyclical nature of life. The agents of this process are the divine Triad, Brahma represents creation, Vishnu rep-resents sustenance and Shiva represents destruction. Vishnu’s eighth incarnation, Krishna was born to Devaki and Vasudeva in Mathura. He spent his playful childhood and youth in Braj, played a significant role in the epic Mahabharata and dis-course in Bhagvata Gita. He later comes to Dwarka and es-tablishes his own kingdom, and finally departs the earth upon which Dwarka is submerged, also marking the start of Kali Yuga.

Krishna lifted Govardhan hill in Braj on his finger to protect the herdsmen from the rains sent by god Indra. He urged the people of Braj to venerate the groves and water bodies of the hill instead of the gods. Krishna subdued the serpent Ka-liya who was poisoning the waters of the river Yamuna. These acts may be interpreted as veneration of nature and purifying her through divine intervention in the form of human Krishna. Lord Krishna represents the paradigm of godliness, being a divine entity in the form of a common man who is more ap-proachable and human (Birkenholtz, 2014). Krishna’s ideology to modern Hindu India is a great source of inspiration. Krish-na consciousness can help in re-establishing the cosmic order that is balance between human and nature. Interpreting the philosophy enunciated by Lord Krishna helps in developing solutions to contemporary environmental and social prob-lems. Krishna consciousness forms the foundation for the ex-istence and growth of Okhamandal region that was flooded, submerged and reclaimed many times in the historical past. Okhamandal is home to Krishna as well as Shiva where the pil-grimage is carried out through circumambulating visit defining the sacred landscape.

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Figure 5 - Cycle of life

Figure 6 - Hindu Triad

Figure 7 - Map with places related to Krishna legend

8Figure 8 - Timeline of Chaar Dham Figure 9 - Chaar Dham, India

Chaar Dham

‘Char dham’ are the four sacred sites in the four cardinal di-rections in India where incarnations of Gods descended. It is a religious law for every Hindu to visit char-dham once in life. The act of circumambulation encompassing the four directions, defines the sacred geography of India. This fourfold pilgrimage is widely duplicated in various regional pilgrimages at various scales (Eck 2012). The city of Dwarka in Okhamandal region, is significant in Hindu culture as it is one of the char-dham as well as saptapuri meaning one of the sacred cities. Indic religions have preserved human interdependency with nature to an extraordinary extent, clearly manifest in the shape of the built environment and the myriad patterns of human interaction with it (Sinha 2013, p.176). The purpose of pilgrimage by visiting the site is to get rid of all the sins and free oneself from the cy-cle of birth and rebirth. Spiritual, moral and physical cleansing is considered to occur on this sacred site. Water is always pres-ent either in form of river or sacred tanks called kunds where the rituals occur and shape the cultural landscape.

Pilgrims coming to the site and performing various rituals have a profound religious belief. Their ritual acts and the hymns they recite from the religious scripts are part of intangible heritage that has passed on from one generation to the other. One can also interpret it as a living history of traditions enacted by pil-grims. Myths represent the historic past of a culture in a coded language. It is culture that people practice as a part of their daily life in form of their beliefs, perspectives, ephemeral per-formances and events (Kurin 2004). This intangible heritage is vital as it defines the living past embedded in daily life.

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Badrinath, North IndiaSource - http://www.travel.india.com

Puri, East IndiaSource - http://www.travel.india.com

Rameshwaram, South IndiaSource - http://www.travel.india.com

Dwarka, West India

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Figure 10 - Okhamandal and its existing pilgrim route

Dwarka Okha Bet Dwarka

Gopi Talav

Nageshwar

Okhamadhi

Pilgrimage

I closely observed new development when I visited Dwarka in 2013, with the state tourism department executing its future plans of developing it for attracting global tourists. My first visit was in 2008, when it was still undeveloped and not yet under the pressure of tourism development. The stark difference from 2008 to 2013 is very evident. It is not appropriate to forget the inherent values of the place in pursuing tourism as a mega-busi-ness. Developing theme parks, toy trains, laser light fountains, commercial kiosks do not help strengthen the core values of the landscape and culture with a history of more than five thousand years. It may be seen as a leisure facility for inviting more visitors but the question that arises is: does this approach address the real purpose of tourist coming to this place?

The total number of tourist arrived in Dwarka in 2011-2012 was 1,436,488 which increased to 1,770,438 in 2012-2013. This shows a total growth rate of 23.25% in the total number of tourist ar-riving in Dwarka in just one year (http://www.gujarattourism.com). The new development is of course playing a significant role in attracting the tourists, however it is difficult to say how much the sites convey in terms of their cultural aspects. Pilgrims number increases twice during Janmashtami as it is the main festival in August/September for celebrating the joyful birth of Lord Krishna. Dwarka is the point of arrival and focus of cele-brations where all the pilgrims come. They then travel to oth-er pilgrim destinations from here and prefer to come back to Dwarka at the end of the day. Dwarka has good infrastructure with facilities for pilgrims to stay. Other pilgrim destinations lack such infrastructure and thus the overall landscape is left unex-plored. The modern day pilgrim mode is through automobile and thus one can go around various destinations in a day and come back to Dwarka. There is need to revive the traditional mode of pilgrim on foot with rest spots at certain intervals thus encouraging close interaction with nature.

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Camel ride

Boat ride

Auto rickshaw ride

On foot

Present day Dwarka

Remains of submerged Dwarka under water

Present day sea level

Land above water 6000 years ago

Okhamandal

Gujarat state

12Figure 12 - Section of sea level rise

Figure 11 - Gujarat State and the sea level rise

The Vishnu Purana confirms the legend: “On the same day that Krishna departed from the earth the powerful dark-bodied Kali Age descended. The oceans rose and submerged the whole of Dwarka.”

Remains of submerged Dwarka under water

Sea level during ancient Dwarka

Sea level Rise

For ninety percent of human existence, sea levels have been lower than the present by as much as 130 m. The current sea level was only established about 6,000 years ago. As humans mainly lived close to the water, a large majority of humanity’s development took place on areas that are now submerged. (www.unesco.org) Studying the change in the pattern of shoreline of Dwarka, we can interpret that the mythic city as described in the Mahabharata would have then existed on the land that is under water now. To test the credibility of the contested myths, a team of archaeologists and Indian Navy divers undertook the excavation process around the city as well as under the sea in 1980’s. Extensive work has been pub-lished by various archeologists in the field. The on-land and un-derwater excavations conducted by an Indian archeologist Professor SR Rao and his team between 1979 and 1995 claim to discover the remains of mythical city of Dwarka (Rao 1999).The landscape is not only a testimony of historic rise and fall of civilizations, but has been an integral part of a cultures evolu-tion and continued existence.

In relating the mythic and historic dates, we start understanding the overlap between them. This also paves the way for placing the events described in myths such as sea swallowing Dwar-ka and the mythic islands described in Mahabharata. Towards the end of Pleistocene epoch (part of Quaternary Period) sea level began rising rapidly as the massive continental glaciers melted. Sea level was more than 100 m below present during the last glacial low stand. Sea level rose rapidly until some-where between 8000 and 6500 B.P. Thus, the sea level change has been the major reason for flooding and reclamation of land. According to mythology at the end of each yuga (ep-och) there is some kind of destruction in form of earthquake, flood, rise in sea level, etc. It strengthens the idea of cyclical nature of life where destruction is important for new creation to occur.

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Figure 13 - Timeline showing parallel between myth and history

Mythic Historic

Township Date Archeological Findings

First Dwarka 15th - 14th Century BC Lustrous Red Ware eroded by sea

Second Dwarka 900 - 500 BC House Floors, thin black on red pained pottery

Third Dwarka 2nd Century BC - 6th Century AD Temple I and red polish ware Fourth Dwarka 7th - 8th Century AD Temple II

Fifth Dwarka 7th - 8th Century AD Temple III

Sixth Dwarka 12th - 13th Century AD Temple IV

Seventh Dwarka 13 th - 15th Century AD Inner and outer portions of Temple V Eighth Dwarka Post - 16th Century AD Late medieval and Modern Townships

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Figure 14 - Archeological findings suggesting seven Dwarkas(Source - Rao 2001, p. 53)

Figure 15- Mythic islands of Dwarka(Redrawn based on Rao 1999)

Figure 16 - Self similarity concept

Archeology in Okhamandal

The sites excavated in the Okhamandal region show that the whole region worked as a system rather than individual isolat-ed sites. Dwarka was a major sea port, Bet Dwarka was the administrative capital city, Aranda, Pindara, and Nageshwar were art centers dealing with shell work, pottery and pearl fish-ing. The edge of Okhamandal is dispersed with underwater archeological findings. These findings now remain submerged under the sediments carried away by the sea. They need con-servation measures to be made approachable for the pilgrims. These archeological sites are also testimony of ancient shore-lines and thus help to understand the phenomenon of historic sea level rise. There are a couple of on-land sites of excava-tions as well that need to be made accessible for the pilgrims. The valuable artifacts found in the excavation are at National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) in Goa as there is no proper infrastructure on site for their exhibition and care. Infrastructure along with expertise is needed on site to bring back the arti-facts and make them available to pilgrims for display.

From the study of archeological findings, archeologist S.R. Rao recreated the epic Okhamandal with its seven islands that are described in the Mahabharata. These ancient islands referred to in later texts are now interspersed by Rann and sea. They are visualized based on the low and high points in the region to un-derstand how these places would be perceived as islands due to rise in water level. The present city sits on rock bed which appears to be the land reclaimed from the sea. The arche-typal image of land emerging from the waters is manifested in the landscape and is symbol of cosmogony. The landscape is imagined and shaped at many scales, as large as the Indian subcontinent to much smaller sites such as Okhamandal and its constituent parts, illustrating the concept of self-similarity (Sinha, 2006).

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Harbour of ancient Dvaraka(Source - Rao 1999, p.143)

Artist’s view of ancient Dvaraka (Source - Rao 1999, p. 140)

Artist’s view of ancient fortified Dvaraka(Source - Rao 1999, p. 141)

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Hemispherical door-socket (Source - Rao 1999, p.122)

A disturbed wall (Source - Rao 1999, p.123)

A long wall (Source - Rao 1999, p.128)

Copper ‘lota’ (vessel)(Source- Rao 2001, p.144)

Dwarka headland and bay from the south(Source - Hornell 1909)

Bronze bell(Source- Rao 2001, p.144)

Two courses of wall & cluster of blocks of wall(Source- Rao 1999, p.129)

Figure 17 - Underwater archeological excavation sites

Archeology in Dwarka

The cultural landscape of Dwarka is not only a testimony to myths; it demonstrates the historic fall of the societies due to environmental impacts as well as their evolution and contin-ued existence. We can trace here the human existence dat-ing back to 5000 years from present. The underwater excava-tions-ancient port, temples and settlements in the region are the submerged ruins of the first human existence in this area preceding the Indus Valley civilization. The occurrence of pro-tohistoric pottery inland, where ground water is in plenty, sug-gests that there were small towns between Dwarka and Bet Dwarka in ancient times (Rao 1999, p. 104). Protohistoric sites in Bet Dwarka, now an island bring to light the large quantity of artifacts like pottery including perforated jar, sharp carinated dish, dish on stand and bowls, etc. that enable us to date the settlements back to the beginning of 2nd millennium BC (Gaur and Vora 2007). The underwater excavation findings suggest that the settlement was a well-planned town with six distinct fortified sectors. This represents the ancient knowledge about city planning. The evidence testifies oversea trade. During the Harrapan time period the region had trade links with Mesopo-tamia and other Gulf regions. There is also description of this place found in the Mesopotamian texts which date back to 3rd millennium BC (Rao 2001).

From the onshore and offshore excavations carried out in Dwarka, interesting topographical features are discovered which help in understanding history of landscape. The arche-ology report shows a possible sea water channel around the ancient mound on which the present town stands (Ansari and Mate 1966). Moreover, there is evidence of rock cut channel extending over some 200 m into the sea westwards, indicat-ing the extension of the Gomati river flow. The array of findings help to build the history of ancient submerged Dwarka where Krishna lived. These archeological findings need to be made accessible to the younger generations so that they understand that myths are not mere stories but have a historic grounding.

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Two earlier temples below Vishnu Temple(Source- Rao 1999, plate 79)

Vishnu Temple hailing to 9th Century AD(Source- Rao 1999, plate 75)

Stone structure of 13th - 14th Century AD(Source- Rao 1999, plate 82)

Mythic Islands (based on archeological interpretation)

The landscape of islands, when the sea level was higher

Watershed

fresh water 8%, salt pans 17%salt ingress is the biggest threat to the resourcesit is increasing at rate of 30 ha/yearpresently more than 25% of area is affected

Farming and settlements

farming and settlement 20%highgrounds utilized for farming & settlemts

Ecologically sensitive areas

coral reefs 2%, mangroves 6%, mudflats 10%potential to extend such areas

Scrubland and Marshland

scrubland 25%, marshland 15%base for ecological diversity

Geology

Fault lines showing the formation of landscape

Topography

Higher and lower grounds

Soils

Potentials for reclaiming the ecology (sustainable solutions - Krishna Consciousness)

loamy soil, very shallow,well drained,calcareous,moderate erosion, gentle slope,slight salinity & sodicity

fine soil, very deep,imperfectly drained,calcareous,slight erosion, less slope,slight salinity & sodicity

boundary mark showing the marine national park protection zone

edge coral reef

coral reef

fringe mangrove edge

fringe mangrove edge

salt pans

mudflats

submerged coral reef

submerged mudflats

fine soil, deep,poorly drained,calcareous,mudflat,severe salinity & moderate sodicity

sandy soil, deep,excessively drained,calcareous,beach, moderate erosion

loamy soil, very shallow,well drained,calcareous,moderate erosion, gentle slope,slight salinity & sodicitywith hummock

Reading the Landscape

Mythic Islands (based on archeological interpretation)

The landscape of islands, when the sea level was higher

Watershed

fresh water 8%, salt pans 17%salt ingress is the biggest threat to the resourcesit is increasing at rate of 30 ha/yearpresently more than 25% of area is affected

Farming and settlements

farming and settlement 20%highgrounds utilized for farming & settlemts

Ecologically sensitive areas

coral reefs 2%, mangroves 6%, mudflats 10%potential to extend such areas

Scrubland and Marshland

scrubland 25%, marshland 15%base for ecological diversity

Geology

Fault lines showing the formation of landscape

Topography

Higher and lower grounds

Soils

Potentials for reclaiming the ecology (sustainable solutions - Krishna Consciousness)

loamy soil, very shallow,well drained,calcareous,moderate erosion, gentle slope,slight salinity & sodicity

fine soil, very deep,imperfectly drained,calcareous,slight erosion, less slope,slight salinity & sodicity

boundary mark showing the marine national park protection zone

edge coral reef

coral reef

fringe mangrove edge

fringe mangrove edge

salt pans

mudflats

submerged coral reef

submerged mudflats

fine soil, deep,poorly drained,calcareous,mudflat,severe salinity & moderate sodicity

sandy soil, deep,excessively drained,calcareous,beach, moderate erosion

loamy soil, very shallow,well drained,calcareous,moderate erosion, gentle slope,slight salinity & sodicitywith hummock

Reading the Landscape

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5

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1 - Shallow, loamy, slightly saline soil

2 - Very deep, fine, slightly saline soil

3 - Very shallow, loamy, slightly saline with hummock

4 - Deep, fine, extremely saline soil

5 - Deep, sandy, extremely saline soil

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Figure 18 - Geology, Topography and Soils

Faultlines Highpoints Soils

Mapping the Natural Features

The highest elevation in Okhamandal is 45.75 meters above sea level while few points in landscape even attain 15 to 30 meters above the general surface. The region is pretty much flat topped forming a small scarped plateau. The majority of soil in this region has calcareous content which is deposited near the shallow water since the carbonate is precipitated by marine organisms that need land-derived nutrients. The pres-ence of salt content in the soil is observed largely due to its proximity to the sea. The whole of region sits over three major fault lines. One of the fault line forms a depression which is now converted into major salt manufacturing field. Other two fault lines have relative depressions that accommodate marshlands and wetlands. Natural processes in the region are visible in the landscape.

The shoreline of this region has constantly been changing due to its proximity to the sea. The islands and promontories along the edge are diverse in shape due to wave action. The bright orange, buff yellow and brown color describe the visual quality of the landscape. The underlying layers of soil craft the visible landscape. Loamy soil is considered ideal for agricultural use as it retains nutrients and water while still allowing excess water to drain away. However, in this region there are various levels of salinity in the soil making certain areas nonproductive. Such areas are ecologically significant as they contain mangroves and marshes. Even the salt pans attract number of migratory birds due to the appropriate height of water for their breed-ing. These resources need to be understood and conserved to increase the biodiversity of the region so as to re-establish the nature culture balance which eventually effects human survival.

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Marshes

Higway cutting through the hillock

Salt pans

water and wetlands (0.5%)reservoir (1.8%)salt intrusion (4.7%)

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Figure 19 - Salt Intrustion, Marshland and Scrubland, Fragile EcosystemsPercentage based on report - Geographic Information System for Gulf of Kachchh, May 2002.

scrubland (18% )marshland (15% )fallow land (10% )

vegetation (4.5% )settlements (1.5% )coral reefs (2% )mangroves (1.7% )mudflats (1.6% )

Environmental disturbances & Conservation Practices

Environmental disturbances created by climate change and human actions pose challenges to the conservation of produc-tive and inhabited landscape. One of the major issues in the Okhamandal region is of salt ingress which is increasing at the rate of 30 hectare per year. This intrusion in the ground water is affecting the farming and livelihood of the inhabitants. Land brought under salt production pans is also affecting the rate of ingress. There are various marshlands and scrublands which form an ecosystem of their own. They increase the biodiversity while forming a threshold to the highpoints. Marshlands form a transition between the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems in the mainland. These marshlands are dominated by various species of grasses and reeds. The scrublands are dominated by variety of plants adapted for dry climate which have small leaves to prevent water loss, thorns to protect from grazing an-imals, long taproots to reach groundwater. Many of the grass-lands in the region have been run over by Prosopis Juliflora, an invasive species, spreading at the cost of the indigenous flora (TCSRD Annual report, 2009-2010). It has adapted to the saline and arid conditions of the region, and has become a major source of firewood for the locals.

Part of the long sea coast of Okhamandal under the Marine National Park and Sanctuary is a conservation zone. There is a body called Coastal Salinity Prevention Cell (CSPC) for the state of Gujarat that focuses on Okhamandal to work with lo-cals and fight the salinity. Another group called Tata Chemicals Society for Rural Development (TCSRD) focuses on empower-ing locals through improving the quality of life and fostering sustainable and integrated development in these communi-ties. With support of state and central government and other NGO’s, there is incentive to reclaim the ecology and culture of this region as a whole.

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Dead Corals

Marshes

Farms

Scrubland

Settlement sizeBelow 100100 - 500500 - 10001000 - 15001500 - 20002000 - 3500

Above 3500

22Figure 20 - Settlements in the Okhamandal region

(Census 2011)

Settlements

The region is home to communities that claim to be descen-dants of Lord Krishna and thus never leave this sacred home to move to larger cities. According to 2011 census, the total pop-ulation of Okhamandal is 162,828. The record mentions 50% of population living in urban cities while other half live in rural villages. Dwarka which is amongst the highly dense has popu-lation of 38,873 (2011 census). Urban cities have 8000 to 12000 houses while the villages range from 45 to 1000 units. There are also number of temporary settlements of tribal communities living in 5 to 25 units who migrate twice a year. Urban cities are settled with enough work opportunities and required infra-structure for their population. Villages have variety of housing made from permanent and temporary materials. The residents either find work nearby or end up with fishing industry. The mi-gratory tribal communities generally make their houses with various temporary materials. They place their settlements near-by available resources. They prefer living in fertile lands with source of accessible water for farming and drinking along with wood available for fire. The region is connected through other part of the state through a highway and railroad. The region is also interconnected through network of roads.

The communities that house pilgrim sites majorly make their living through tourism. The region is home to Tata Chemicals which have their salt manufacturing plant in Mithapur. They are major principal promoter and the founder corporate mem-ber for TCSRD which works on numerous projects. Some of the major ecological projects include plantation of mangroves in wastelands, managing the watershed and building dams, en-couraging agro- forestry, diversifying the farming and encour-aging farmers to grow variety of crops and many more. These projects not only help the environment but also the locals.

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High density settlement

Medium density settlement

Temporary settlement

Figure 21 - Coastal and Inland Strategies

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Floating islands, green terraces to increase infilteration and prevent coastal erosion

Green edge and fresh water holding to fight salt intrusion

Groundwater recharge to suppress salt intrusion

Preserving the ghats and groves around the pond

Increasing infilterations, managing the watersheds

Managing the catchments and increasing the biodiversity

Reclamation Strategies

There are two typical conditions to be observed within the re-gion- coastal and inland. Various strategies are formulated for these conditions that are applicable as prototype designs to reclaim the Okhamandal region.

Various steps are taken by the locals along with CSPC to fight the salinity. Some of the local steps include rainwater harvest-ing, ground water recharging and educating the locals. These local strategies are appropriate and thus need to be applied at large scale with other additional strategies that can strengthen their effectiveness. Government is also working on large scale steps on building levees and dams to prevent the rain water from draining away into sea. MNP is working on bringing more coastal areas under mangroves.

To deal with coastal erosion, floating islands are proposed as green buffers to assist in mitigating the erosion. A shift from hardscape to softscape edges will help in infiltrations and in-crease the biodiversity. The edge is a critical landscape and proposed to be transformed into a soaking sponge system that holds the fresh water and recharges the water table hence suppressing the salt ingress. Along the coastal edge wherever the conditions are favorable, mangroves should be planted.

In various watersheds, opportunity to reclaim the natural water bodies is identified. Sacred water bodies in the forest groves are proposed to be restored. These are in the image of arche-typal landscapes where in the performances occur and sa-cred rituals are enacted. Seasonal wetlands are planned to hold the water and increase the infiltration, recharge the wa-ter table as well as house various migratory birds.

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Levee to hold rainwater

Wetlands

Water holding patterns

1960 2015 2060

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Figure 22 - Projections for environmental reclamation

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Prosopis Juliflora was introduced in India in 1877. Although the initial plantations in India were mainly established for the pur-pose of conservation, prosopis has become the main source of fuel in rural areas today (Walter 2011). It is now considered an invasive species that is encroaching and resulting into the decline of forest land. This has led to increase in fallow land due to lack of nutrients. The increase in salinity which is due to increase in salt pans as well as groundwater depletion is also resulting in increase of fallow land. With increasing population there will always be pressure on the natural resources. With in-creased demand of farming, the groundwater resource is ex-ploited thus adding to salt intrusion effect. The relationship be-tween above mentioned factors along with the environmental disturbances from1960 - 2015 is the basis for projective plan-ning and reclaiming the ecology of the region through pro-posed strategies.

It is important to keep check on P. Juliflora to help the forests and farms to revive. With increase in vegetation, the fallow land would decrease and increase the precipitation. In projec-tive planning for 2060, forest cover and farmland will increase and groundwater will be recharged. With various rainwater harvesting and ground water recharging measures, the salt in-gress could be suppressed. By bringing more coastal edge un-der plantation, coastal erosion can be prevented and rainwa-ter can recharge the groundwater. Improving the soil nutrients and fresh water availability will naturally result in increase of vegetation and thus attracting more precipitation. Hence, the cycle continues. The locals need to be educated about the relationships and the strategies to reclaim their landscape. The intention here is to empower the locals who now rely on exter-nal help by encouraging them to manage their own resources.

Projections

1 - OkhamadhiThreshold to Okhamandal region

2 - Energy FieldsEnergyscape of solar and windmill farms

3 - DwarkaInterface between nature and culture

4 - Reclaimed landscapeBlue green sponge

5 - Rejuvenated landscapeAbandoned stone quarry as stepwell

6 - OkhaProcession to an island

7 - Bet DwarkaArrival Haat

8 - Gopi TalavRestoring kunds in the van

9 - NageshwarReclaiming festival Spaces

10 - Regenerative landscapeWetlands as bird sanctuary

Landscape typology

Eco- Cultural Trail

Farms Mangroves

Forests Mudflats

Productive soil Coral Reefs

Marine National ParkConservation Area

28Figure 23 - Eco Cultural heritage trail

Water bodies

Eco- Cultural Heritage Trail

The proposed eco-cultural heritage trail encompasses the existing cultural sites along with the selected ecological sites in proximity to archeological excavations. The trail takes the pilgrims through cultural sites where they can learn about life of Lord Krishna while the consciousness is cultivated by visit-ing the ecological sites and understanding natural processes and land reclamation. Grounded speculations on how Okha-mandal can be culturally and environmentally sustainable are based upon scientific research in marine archaeology, multi-ple site visits and review of myths and legends associated with the place.

Okhamadhi forms the arrival point for the island. It is designed to reconstruct the historic image described in epic text as go-ing through the grove and entering an island. The stone icons representing Krishna invites the pilgrims to interact with the landscape and make towers of stones and making a wish to the lord. Energy fields allow the larger understanding of re-newable options of energy for future generations. Dwarka has coastal protection and ghats revival plans along with trail that educated pilgrims about the archeological findings. The green sponge pattern created near the sea edge helps in holding the rain water and allows the salt tolerant crops to flourish. The adaptive reuse of the derelict stone quarry is envisioned as a cultural center where the local artists are involved to depict their interpretation of the stories of Lord Krishna on the sand stone surfaces. Also, the quarry has potential to hold the rain-water and create traditional form of water architecture that will help in recharging the ground water and eventually help in suppressing salt ingress. Okha and Bet Dwarka become the procession to continue the journey. The cultural sites like Gopi TAlav and Nageshwar are strengthened ecologically by reviv-ing the sacred water catchments and increasing the area of the sacred groves of trees for cultural performances. The larger catchment areas are planned to hold the surface water, re-charge the ground water and to transform into a wetland eco-system as the region attracts many local and migratory birds.

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Okhamadhi

Bet Dwarka

Energy fields

Nageshwar

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NTS

Site Plan

Dwarkadhish Temple

Gomati Ghat e

dgeCoastal edge

Key Plan

Figure 24 - Proposed sea edge design

DwarkaInterface between nature and culture

Sea Edge

Archeological findings reveal the existence of the city of Dwar-ka dating back to 5000 BC and, the myths tell the stories of Dwarka being washed away seven times. The present day is-sues of Dwarka are not likely much different from as they were in the past. The major issue is the coastal erosion. The present coastal edge has been built up with highly engineered ap-proach to prevent the erosion. Moreover, the edge is convert-ed into an urban space for the pilgrims to enjoy the raging sea. Due to the concrete edge, there is algae formation at the coast hence preventing the pilgrim’s interaction with wa-ter. The urban edge facilities entertainment however it misses on the opportunities to create interpretive spaces. The goal of redesign is to educate the pilgrims and tourists about its rich his-tory and culture. The underwater excavations that sit few miles from this place needs to be exposed to visitors.

To overcome the issue of coastal erosion as well the constant rising sea levels, transforming the hard impervious edge into a softscape edge condition is proposed. At Gomati river meet-ing the sea, mangrove plantations are increased creating the soft edge. Mangroves will help in preventing coastal erosion along with other numerous benefits. The floating islands act as buffer for the coastal edge and create opportunities for bio-diversity. Green terraces allow the rising sea level to mitigate. Floating deck with periscope allow visitors to view the under-water excavations of ancient Dwarka. There are various inter-pretive zones that depict the myths and history of this place and create awareness amongst the visitors. The coastal edge is transformed into an urban space that bridges the gap be-tween nature and culture.

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Algae formation at the sea edge

Tetrapod edge forming the coastal edge

Spaces for pilgrim recreation

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Site Plan

High Tide

Low Tide

Interpretation area

Paanch Kuaa

Exisitng river edge condition

Figure 25 - Proposed riverfront

Key Plan

NTS

Ghats along the river edge

The intersection of river and sea is worshipped as sangam a moment of celebration in Hindu culture. Traditionally the Go-mati river named locally use to flow into the sea. Thus, the ar-chetypal ghats were built to allow the interaction of pilgrims with the river. Due to the urban landform changes, the wa-tershed of the area was disturbed resulting in the drying up of the river. At present, twice a day when there is high tide, the sea water fills up this space and the pilgrims carry out their ritu-als. This is a challenge for pilgrims to cross the river to reach to the island which has the five kunds. These kunds – sweet wa-ter wells known as ‘Paanch Kuaa’ are in dilapidated condition and were described in epic Mahabharata as the tanks dug by five Pandavas when they visited the island on their journey to meet Krishna. Such historic and sacred landscape feature needs to be preserved. However, the island is seen as a spot to home five start hotels for the tourists, which will take away the essence of this landscape. The edge that is seen for recreation potential is used for rituals like aarti, bathing, worshipping, and cremation.

The larger planning of watershed of the region will help to re-vive the Gomati River and will allow the pilgrims to carry out the rituals with ease and not rely on low tides. The ghat edge has become very dense due to the new buildings, thus the idea is of constructive surgery to carve out the spaces for ven-dors and allow some spaces for green infrastructure. The pro-posed pontoon bridge will allow the pilgrims to cross the river and reach the island despite rising and falling water levels. The sweet water wells are preserved with traditional chhatri ele-ments while creating interpretive trail around to communicate the significance of this place to the visitors.

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Paanch Kuaa

Gomati Ghat with temples and shrinesSource - www.panoramio.com

Gomati River

Paanch Kuaa - five sacred sweet water wells

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Key Plan

Site Plan

Green blue sponge

Figure 26 - Proposed coastal edge with soaking sponge

NTS

Reclaimed landscapeGreen-blue sponge for freshwater retention

The biggest problem Okhamandal region is facing is the salt intrusion. This has led to increase in derelict land. The produc-tivity of the farms has gone down. The condition has worsened with the salt intrusion into the ground water, leading to scarcity of fresh water for drinking as well as farming. Being a coast-al edge, this has become a major concern. If no preventive steps are taken, the region will face a major famine. Being a hot dry climate zone, there is already limited amount of rain-fall. Last few years change in the trend of rainfall suggests, few wet days but with intense rainfall. This rain water ends up being drained into the sea as there are no proper ways to hold and retain it. There are few local measures taken by creating a tex-ture of small depressions. This needs to be implemented at a much larger scale.

To deal with the issue of salt intrusion, one major step is to cre-ate fresh water holding sponge all along the edge wherev-er the condition persists. This would help in not only holding the freshwater but also recharging the ground water and thus suppressing the saltwater intrusion at the edge. The local tex-ture pattern of creating depression can be transformed into a green and blue sponge which will hold water as well as allow opportunities for salt tolerant crops to survive. These crops are majorly source of biofuel thus helping the region with alterna-tives for energy. Government of India is working on develop-ment of salt tolerant crops all along the coastal edge of Indian subcontinent. The major strength of this proposal is its idea of using existing strategy and the local communities can be in-volved in farming. Thus they can be empowered to shape their own landscape.

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Exisitng technique to hold rainwater

Tilled farmland

Existing technique to hold rain water

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Key Plan

Site Plan

Stone Quarry

Figure 27 - Proposed stepwell to recharge groundwater

NTS

Rejuvenative landscapeAbandoned stone quarry as stepwell

This abandoned stone quarry is located near by a small settle-ment community. It provided the locals with some work oppor-tunities but as the quarry was abandoned about six years ago the locals have to go to distant places in search of work. The quarry is proposed to be transformed into a rest spot on the eco cultural heritage trail. With management it could become a space to hold fresh water and encourage artists and locals to interact and create source of income for the locals. Being very near to the coastal edge, it will also help to fight the salt intrusion. Salinity is spread due to the groundwater depletion and thus the saline water has a chance to intrude. With the recharging strategies applied along the coastal edge would not only suppress the intrusion but also increase biodiversity. Along with measures for groundwater recharge, marshlands and mangrove plantations should be planned as they also help in creating buffer and prevent the salinity intrusion.

The major idea is to transform the quarry into a traditional step well system that would harvest water, recharge the ground-water, suppress the salt intrusion, increase biodiversity and en-courage the artists to come to carve out Krishna’s myths on the sandstone surfaces. The sandstone surface also acts as a filtering layer to the groundwater recharge thus improving the quality of water. The proposed development will bring more tourists to explore this place and thus creating work oppor-tunities for the locals, relating to the principles of eco-tourism development. A walk through this waterscape of sandstone quarry will educate the visitors about the geology of this region as well as create new cultural spaces for artists display. It will bridge the gap between culture and nature and cultivate the consciousness about nature and its process.

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Existing site condition

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Site Plan

Gopi Talav

Figure 28 - Proposal of pond in the reclaimed grove

Key Plan

NTS

Gopi TalavRestoring Kund in the Van

Gopi Talav is sacred to the Hindus because it is believed that Lord Krishna bathed in this pond. Hence, the soil of this sacred place is ingested as part of pilgrimage ritual. Over time the grove around the site was replaced by the urban growth of the settlement and farming activities. As part of ritual, pilgrims circumambulate around the pond and temples on its banks. The condition of the pond is dilapidated. The pond also dries out in summer which can be restored through watershed man-agement and planning. Presently, farmers mostly grow ground-nut as it gives good economic returns. The reclamation strat-egies need to be applied to restore the van and the kunds. The transformation of wilderness into the habitable landscape requires the site to be conceived as a receptacle for divinity embodied in architectural forms of temples and present within them (Sinha 2013)

The proposal is to restore the pond and the forest grove through site planning and management. The forest grove will help to reclaim the sacred landscape as well as create spaces for cultural performances. Traditionally the clearings within the grove were used as cultural spaces. These spaces are signifi-cant as they are the Dham or abode where the divine dwells. This concept is very much similar to the Greek concept of do-mus. The clearings are also mentioned in the epic stories where Krishna performs raas garba - dance performance along with gopis. Such archetypal spaces can be reclaimed for the rituals to be enacted as well as become performative spaces. The improved infrastructure around the pond will allow pilgrims to interact with clean water. Other ponds can be reclaimed to in-crease the forest coverage, biodiversity, harvest rainwater and thus restore the ecology and promote culture. The locals are majorly dependent on tourism for their economy. With proper planning other modes of economic activities can be generat-ed. Various kinds of cultivations need to be encouraged.

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Vermillion and soil rolls, used in rituals

Street leading to the pond

Gopi Talav

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Site Plan

Bird Sanctuary

Figure 29 - Proposed wetland and bird sanctuary

Key Plan

NTS

Regenerative landscapeWetlands and bird sanctuary

The region at present does not have any watershed manage-ment strategies. It has a hot humid arid climate and receives annual rainfall of around 10.5 inch per year. With the recent up heal of global warming and erratic seasons, in 2013 Dwarka received 4.5 inches of rain in 48 hours which is far beyond the amount of rain per month. Due to such unexpected rainfall, major flood conditions arose. With the ongoing conditions of rainfall the situation is going to worsen. Even though there is water everywhere, there is no water for drinking and farming for the locals. Thus, watershed of the region needs to be built and various wetlands need to be planned that would help ad-dress issues at many levels.

The proposal is to plan to larger watershed and create wet-lands that would act as water holding sponge in case of flood-ing, while releasing water when the water level is low. They also help in filtering the water and increase the biodiversity. The re-gion is already home to many migratory birds. The planned wetlands will cultivate required conditions for the migratory birds to breed. The relation between wetlands and birds is guid-ed by numerous factors. These include the availability, depth, and quality of water; the availability of food and shelter; and the presence or absence of predators. Birds that use wetlands for breeding depend on the physical and biological attributes of the wetland. With well provided opportunities, the biodiver-sity could be increased. With increased vegetation around the wetland, precipitation can be increased and thus the natural cycle will continue.

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Fertile basins where small communities live

Water bodies

Water catchments

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Figure 30- View of reclaimed Okhamandal

Okhamadhi

Energy Fields

Dwarka

Reclaimed Landscape

Rejuvenative Landscape

Okha Bet Dwarka

Gopi Talav

Nageshwar

Regenerative Landscape

Okhamandal Reclaimed

With the predicted global warming the sea level is supposed to rise. Coastal settlements are also facing major issues of coast-al erosion and salinity ingress. These threats are true for all the coastal cities around the globe. The proposed landscape and ecological planning strategies will help Okhamandal to thrive along with its culture and history. Floating green islands are proposed to reduce the impact of sea waves and to prevent coastal erosion; and mangrove edge as a permeable layer to mitigate the rising sea level. Design solutions are rooted in the local cultural and ecological practices. The main intention is to educate, encourage and empower the local communities.

The proposed trail encourages the pilgrims to visit the sites beyond the temples and engage them with the landscape through movement. The traditional method of pilgrimage on foot should be revived to encourage immersive experience and cultivate appreciation for nature and Krishna conscious-ness. Archeological sites on the proposed trail would build the connection between myth and history for the visitors. The goal of site design is to restore the balance between culture and nature. The consciousness that is cultivated by understanding Krishna’s philosophy profoundly forms the very foundation for the existence and growth of Okhamandal as a region that was lost and reclaimed many a times. The proposed reclamation project is a sustainable approach for a holistic, sensitive and purposeful development.

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Okhamadhi

References

Ansari Z, Mate M. 1966. Excavations at Dwarka, Poona : Deccan College Postgraduate & Research Institute.Annual Progress Report. 2012 - 2014. Coastal Salinity Prevention Cell, IndiaAnnual Report. 2009 - 10- 11- 12. Tata Chemicals Society for Rural Development, IndiaBhagvad Gita. Thirty Fifth Edition. Gita press, Gorakhpur.Birkenholtz J. 2014. Lecture on October 7 in Asian Mythology class at UIUCChandrasekharam D. 2007. Geo-mythology of India, Geological Society, London. (Online publication)Eck D. 2012. India- A sacred geography, Harmony books, New York.Foote Bruce. 1938. The Geology of Baroda State, Baroda State press, India.Gaur S, Vora K H and Sundaresh. 2007. Shoreline changes during the last 2000 years on the Saurashtra coast of India: Study based on archaeological evidences, Current Science,110 Vol. 92, No. 1.Gaur S,et.al. 2004. An ancient harbour at Dwarka: Study based on the recent underwater explorations,Current Science,Vol. 86, No.9.Gaur S, et.al. 2005. Ancient shell industry at Bet Dwarka Island, Current Science, Vol. 89, No.6.Geographical Information System for Gulf of Kachchh. 2002. Department of Ocean development, Government of India.Hays D. 2014. Lecture on Nov 6 in the Ph.D colloquim, UIUCHornell J. 1901. Marine Zoology Of Okhamandal in Kattiawar, Published by Williams and Norgate, London.Kurin Richard. 2004. Safeguarding Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2003 UNESCO Convention: a critical appraisal, (International Journal of Intangible Heritage, Vol 56.Nora P. 1989. Between Memory and History, JSTOR, University of California Press.Rao SR. 1999. The Lost City of Dvaraka, Aditya Prakashan, Delhi.Rao SR. 2001. Marine Archeology in India, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.Sinha A. 2006. Landscapes in India: Forms and Meanings. University of Colorado Press. Reprinted by Asia Educa-tional Sources, 2011.Sinha A. “Cultural heritage and Sacred Landscapes of South Asia: Reclamation of Govardhan in Braj, India”, Ka-pila D. Silva and Neel Kamal Chapagain (eds.) Asian Heritage Management: Contexts, Concerns, and Prospects. (New York: Routledge, 2013) pp. 176-188.Walter K. 2011. Prosopis, an Alien among the Sacred Trees of South India. University of Helsinki, Viikki Tropical Re-sources Institute, Vitri.Wilson, H. H. 1961. The Vishnu Purana: a system of Hindu mythology and tradition. Calcutta: Punthi Pustak.

Note - I have found the descriptions of Dwarka destruction widely cited under Mahabharata and Vishnu Purana. I could not find excatly the quotes though.

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Acknowledgement

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Text, Drawings, Images and Graphic Design by MLA Candidate Heena Gajjar, Department of Landscape Architecture, UIUCThe report is based upon MLA Thesis work, 2014- 2015

Special Thanks to:

MLA Thesis CommitteeAmita Sinha, Department of Landscape Architecture, UIUCDavid Hays, Department of Landscape Architecture, UIUCJessica Birkenholtz, Department of Religion, UIUC

Christopher Fennel, Department of Anthropology, UIUCHelaine Silverman, Department of Anthrolopogy, UIUCA S Gaur, National Institute of Oceanography, Goa- IndiaAkshay Bhargava, edc- IndiaShishir Raval, MS University, IndiaJaved Waris, Tourism Corporation of Gujarat, IndiaTata Chemicals Society for Rural Development (TCSRD)- IndiaRajiv Kadam, CEPT University, IndiaHarsh Kanjaria, CEPT University, IndiaCEPT University Library.

The Department of Landscape Architecture, faculty and students for their constructive comments on this project.

I gratefully acknowledge the support of my parents- Dr. Ashok. Gajjar and Mrs. Lata Gajjar and my brother Ujjawal Gajjar.

c 2015 by the Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois, USA