jurnal pembangunan sosial 9 (jun) 2006:...

Socialization and Parenting in Chinese Cultural Context

JO-PEITANANNBUCHANANZAHYAHHANAFI

ABSTRACT

This paper describes the parenting characteristics and behaviour among Chinese families. Specifically it explores some alternative parenting concepts which may be culturally more accurate in describing the non-western parenting behaviour among Chinese parents and children. It outlines key research literature on Chinese parenting in relations to 1) parenting goals and beliefs among Chinese parents and, 2) the notion of Guan and ‘training’ as a parenting dimension in Chinese families. This paper concludes that a further exploration on non-western parenting is warranted for future family research and thus its findings are deemed to be resourceful for multicultural societies.

ABSTRAK

Artikel inimenghuraikan karakter dan tingkahlaku keibubapaan keluargaCina.Secarakhususnyaartikel inimenerokabeberapakonsepkeibubapaandalammenggambarkantingkahlakubukankebaratandikalanganibubapadankanak-kanakCina.ArtikelinimengemukakanpenyelidikanliteraturtentangkeibubapaanCinadarisegihubungan1)matlamatdankepercayaankeibubapaandikalanganibubapaCina,dan2)fahamanGuandanlatihansebagaidimensikeibubapaan di dalamkeluargaCina.Artikel inimerumuskan penerokaanselanjutnyamengenaikeibubapaanbukankebaratanperludijalankandalampenyelidikankeluarga pada masa depandandari itu penemuannya adalahdianggapbolehdijadikansumberkepadamasyarakatpelbagaibudaya.

INTRODUCTION

Parentingisoftenacquiredthroughasocialandculturalbeliefsystem(Lerner,Castellino,Terry,Villarruel,&Mckinney,2002),whichmeansthathowparentstreatorsocializetheirchildrenisdeliberatelylearnedandshapedbytheirculturalcontext.Inessence,parentingpracticeislinkedtothevalues,beliefs,motivesandskillswhicharedeemedasculturallyappropriateandacceptablewithinthesocietyand,thelargerecologicalcontext.Therefore,itisimperativefor

Jurnal Pembangunan Sosial 9 (Jun) 2006: 165-180

166 Jurnal Pembangunan Sosial 9

Distinctive culture heritage is oftenmanifested through parental ideasconcerningtheneedsofchildren,socializationgoals,relationshipswithinthefamilyand theobligationsofparents (Goodnow&Collins,1990). In fact,these distinctions aremore apparent in parent’s behaviour and approachesinchild-rearingsuchasparentalemphasis,thepurposeandmethodofchildsocialization. ComparativestudiesonChineseandWesternparentinghaverevealeddistinctivedifferencesintheirparentingbehaviour(Chao,1994,2001;Stewartetal.,1998).Forexample,Chao(1994;1995;2000;2001)whohasconductedaseriesofstudiesusingChinese-AmericanandWhite-AmericansamplesfoundthattheparentsofChineseandWhite-Americanbackgroundexhibiteddifferentparentingbehaviour.Generally,theChineseparentsfocuson a relationship-oriented parenting approach; they emphasize harmoniousrelationshipswith other individuals, and the child is trained to recognize aparent’swishesasaformofobligation.Ontheotherhand,White-Americanparentshaveamoredevelopmental-orientedparentingapproach,whichplaceemphasisonthechild’spsychologicaldevelopment(Chao,1994;Greenfield,1994). White-Americanparentswhencompared toAsianparents stressoncreatinganenvironmentwhichenrichesthechild’slearning,explorationandcreativityratherthanexertingcontroloverthechild’senvironment.Inaddition,White-Americanparentsvalueindividualismandthusaimtopromotethechild’sconfidence,assertivenessandself-actualization.ThisfurtherdistinguishesthemfromChineseparentswhobelieveinharmoniousinterrelatednessbetweenthechildandotherindividuals,especiallythosewhoarefamilymembers.

Looking at the socialization goals among parents, LeVine (1988) hasidentifiedalistof‘universalparentalgoalsvis-a-vischildren’’whichmotivatesandguides theparent’sbehaviour towards the childdevelopmentoutcome.Previousstudieshavefoundthateventhough,theChineseandWhite-Americanparents share similar universal parentinggoals, they tend to havedifferentmethodsofattainmentandservedifferentpurposeinparent-childrelationship(Chao,1995).Forinstance,bothparentsstressthatthechild’semotionalneeds(i.e.provisionoflove)isthemostprominentgoalinsocialization.However,theChineseparentsbelievethatlovingthechildrequireshighinvestment,sacrificeanddevotiontothechild.Thisincludeshighinvolvementinthechild’slife,theprovisionofgoodeducationandconstantmonitoringofthechild’sbehaviour.White-Americanparents,however,believeintheimportanceofprovidingthechildwith love,consistencyandsecureenvironmentfor theirdevelopment.BasedonChao’s study (1995), for theWhite-Americanparents, loving thechild isdemonstrated indifferentwaysuchasmaking thechild feel loved,beingthereforhim/herandlettingthechildknowsthathe/sheis importantin parent’s lives.’ In addition, theWhite-Americanmothers emphasizedonprovidingconsistencyinthechild’slifeintermofparentalcare,disciplineand

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researcherstoseriouslytakeintoconsiderationtheculturalcontextofspecificparentingbehaviours.Withthegrowingculturaldiversityinworldpopulation,anunderstandingofdifferentculturalnormshasthereforebecameincreasinglyimportant.

EvidencefromtheFourthNationalSurveyofEthnicMinoritiesinBritainhasshowedthatethnicminoritygroupshavedifferentnorms,practicesandvalueswhichguide their family lifewhen compared to themajorityWhiteBritishpopulation(Modood,Beishon,&Virdee,1994).Specifically,therearedifferencesinvariousfamilyaspectssuchastheformsofrelationships,familynetworking,parenthood/motherhoodandhomemaking.Inaddition,itisnotablethattherearedistinctdifferencesinrelationstopeople’sattitudes,’thewayoflifeandthewayofbehaviourinthefamilyofthosewithAsianbackgrounds.ThismayimplythatalthoughmanyBritishbornAsianshaveacculturatedtothedominantWesternculture,asLeVine(1988)notes,traditionalvaluesandpracticeinfamilysocializationoftenpersistwithinafamily.Furthermore,parentsinChinesefamiliesoftenattempttopreservetraditionalandstrongvalueswithinthefamily(Wu,1996).Thus,itisimportanttoidentifythedistinctiveculturalandfamilyvaluesamongChinesefamiliesandalsotoexaminethecontrastingconceptswhich tend tobe indigenous forChinese family socialization andparenting,whichmaybedifferentfromtheWesternsociety.Furthermore,thisnotionisstronglysupportedbypreviousstudieswhichexaminetheparentinginaspecificculturalcontextandacknowledgetheimportanceofrecognizingtheculturalmeaningofcertainparentingdimension(Chao,1994;Stewart&Bond,2002a;Super&Harkness,1986).

Ingeneral,theliteratureonfamilyresearchhasconcentratedonWesterncultural practices.Family socialization and child development amongnon-Western families, specifically theChinese, are relatively less explored.However,familyscholarsstudyingChinesefamilysocializationhasshowedthatChinesefamilieshaveseveralcharacteristicsthatdistinguishedthemfromWesternculture(Chao,1994;Chao&Tzeng,2002;Gorman,1998;Ho,1989).Thus,thequestionis“WhatarethevaluesandgoalswhichguideparentingamongChineseparents and towhat extent are theydifferent from those inthemainstream literature?”This paper highlights some available literatureonChinesefamilysocialization.Specifically,theobjectivesofthepaperaretoexplore:1)ParentalbeliefsandgoalsintheparentingofChineseparentsand2) theNotionof ‘Guan’’and ‘Training’asaparentingdimension. ThepaperbeginswithadiscussionofparentalgoalsandbeliefsamongChineseparents.Inthefollowingpart,thepaperpresentsanexplanationofthenotionof‘Guan’andfollowsbyadiscussionoftheconceptof‘training’asaspecificdimension’ofparentingamongChinesefamilies.Finally,thepaperconcludesbysummarizingtheissuesrelatedtoChineseparentingandsuggestingareasforfutureresearchdirection.

PARENTAL GOALS AND BELIEFS AMONG CHINESE FAMILIES


Inparticular,Wuandcolleagues(2002)haveconductedacomparativestudyto examine theChinese culturally-derived parenting constructs (modesty,directiveness,protection,shaming/lovewithdrawal,maternalinvolvement)inconjunctiontotheWesternliterature-derivedparentingstylistics(authoritativeandauthoritative).Ithasbeenconcludedthateventhoughalltheseconceptsare applicable for parents in bothChinese andWhite samples nonetheless,significantculturaldifferencesexistedbetween the twoculturalgroups. Inaddition,therearecertainparentingbehaviourwhichreceivesmoreemphasisbecause of differing cultural norms and the goals towardwhich childrenaresocialized. For instance,Chineseparentswere found to focusmoreonmodestyandcooperationamongyoungchildren,exhibitmoredirectivenessandprotectiveparentingbehaviourcomparedtoWhiteparents.Thesefindingsarecoherentwithseveralotherstudieswhichconcludedthatparentalbehaviourtowardsthechilddoesnotnecessarily‘mean’thesamethingacrossdifferentcultural groups’(Chao,1994;Chiu, 1987;Gorman,1998; Jose et al., 2000;Supple,Peterson,&Bush,2004).Forexample,Joseandcolleagues(2000)revealthateventhoughChineseparentsaremorecontrollingovertheirchildren,they are also equally aswarm to their childrenwhen compared toWhite-Americanparents.TheliteraturealsoshowsthatAsianparentshavedifferentconnotationsforparentalcontroloverchild’sbehaviour(Chao,1994;Fowler,2002;Gorman,1998;Suppleetal.,2004;Wu,1996).RohnerandPettengill(1985),forexample,foundthatAsianadolescentswhoexperiencedhigherlevelofparentalcontrolalsoperceivedhigherlevelofparentalacceptanceandlowerlevelofparentalnegligence.Thus,asarguedbyWu(1996),theparentalcontrolamongChinesefamilieshasverypositiveconnotationforachild’sbehaviourand isnotmerelyapunitiveanddomineering featureasoftendescribed in‘authoritarian’parenting.

In general, comparative studies onparentingbehaviour amongChineseandWesternparentsdemonstratesignificantdifferencesonparentalemphasis,purposesandmethodofparenting.IthasbeenshownthatChineseparentsaremotivatedtowardsrelationalgoalswhichfocusonaharmoniousrelationshipwith other individuals (i.e. especially parents)whileWestern parents aremotivatedtowardsindividualgoalswhichemphasizeself-development(Chao,1995;Chao&Tzeng,2002,Bornsteinetal.,1990).Asforparentingapproach,Chineseparentsaremore‘directive’towardsachild’sbehaviour,whileWesternparentsaremore‘facilitative’wheniscomestoparenting(Chao,1996a).Inaddition,ChineseandWesternparentstendtohavedifferentideasforparentalbehaviour,especiallywithregardstoparentalcontrolandwarmth. Thus, itcanbeconcludedthatChineseandWesternparentingareshapedbydifferentculturalemphases;thishasconsiderablyinfluencedtheunderlyingmotivationsofchildsocializationandparenting.

NOTION OF ‘GUAN’ IN CHINESE FAMILIES


expectationsonchildbehaviour.

Followingfromthat,theparentalbehaviourofChineseandWhite-Americanparents tends to support different purposes; theChinese parents aimed atfosteringacloseparent-childrelationship,whiletheultimatepurposeofWhite-Americanparentsisbuildingthechild’sself-esteem.Asforskill-buildingforthechild’ssuccess,theChineseparentfeelsthatgoodeducationistheessentialkeytosuccessandofteneducationachievementisthemeasurementofsuccess.However,theWhite-Americanparentsbelieveintheimportanceofself-esteemasthe‘foundation’toachild’ssuccessandplacemoreemphasisonsocialskillsmorethanonacademicperformance(Chao,1994,1996a).

Theparental role is another important determining aspect of parenting;howaparentperceivedits roleandresponsibility inchilddevelopmenthasconsiderableinfluenceonhowtheparenttreattheirchild.Chao(1994;1995)indicatesthatChineseandWhite-Americanparentshavedistinctperspectivesregardingtheirroleasparents.Ingeneral,Asianparentsassumetheroleof‘protector’and’‘caretaker’whoareresponsibleforthechild’sneeds,ensuringasafeenvironmentandfosteringchild’sdependencyonadultsfortheirneeds(Gorman,1998).ThisbehaviourreflectstheChineseculturalbeliefsthatyoungchildrenare‘incapableofunderstandingandmakingdecisionthatareintheirbestinterest’’(Ho&Kang,1984).Thus,parentsareobligedtoprovidedirectionandguidanceforthechild’sconduct.

Inaddition,’previousstudiesalsorevealthatChineseparentstendtopracticeamore ‘directive’ approach in’parenting (Chao, 1995; Jose,Huntsinger,&Liaw,2000),especiallywithregardstotheregulationofchild’sbehaviourandacademicperformance’(Wuetal.,2002).ThisdirectiveapproachreflectsthevalueplacedbyChineseparentsonobedience,andtheytendtoparentwithacodeofconductforregulatingachild’sbehaviourandaremoredirectiveinparent-childinteraction.AsfortheparentalroleamongWesternfamilies,Westernparentstendtoassumethe‘facilitative’roleinparenting,whichincludesproviding a stimulating environment and, helping the child to experiencetheirfeelingsandarticulatetheirneedstoothers(Chao,1994).TheWesternparentsalsotendtoviewthechildasanindividual,thustheypromoteachild’sindependenceandseparatenessfromtheparents,bothinactionandthoughts.Inparticular,theWesternparentingbehaviouraimtopromotemorechildautonomyandtohelpthechildtopursuetheirownideasbyprovidinganenvironmentconduciveforchilddevelopmentandconfidencebuilding(Chao,1994,2000).

The investigation of culturemeaning for parenting acrossChinese andWesternfamiliesisalsoextendedinseveralotherstudieswhichhavesupportedthenotionthatChineseandWesternfamilieshavedistinctiveculturalnormsandemphasesinparentingtheirchildren(Lin&Fu,1990;Wuetal.,2002).


amanifestationofprotectivenessandphysicalcaring(Ho,1986).Inaddition,parents’continuousmonitoringandguidancealsoservestorestrictexposuretoundesirablebehaviourandpreventpotentialmisbehaviourfrombecomingserious(Chao,2000;Tobinetal.,1987).InJoseandcolleagues’’(2000)study,theparentingapproachamongAsianparentsisperceivedasanintegrationoffirm-controlandhighlevelsofparentalwarmth.Inaddition,theoverlappingnatureofparentalcontrolandwarmthamongtheAsiansampleisalsosupportedbyfindingsinnumerousstudies(Joseetal.,2000;Rohner&Kim,2002;Rohner&Pettengill,1985;Stewartetal.,1999;1998).Inaddition,researchhasshowedthatChineseparentstendtochanneltheircareandconcernthroughdifferentparenting dimensions (i.e. parental control andmonitoring) (Chao, 1994;Nomura,Noguichi,Saito,&Tezuka,1995;Stewartetal.,1998)ratherthanopenlyexpressingtheiraffection(i.e.praising,hugging,kissingandphysicaldemonstrativeness)(Gray&Steinberg,1999;Lin&Fu,1990).Inadditiontothat,parentalcontrolamongChineseparentshasafunctionalaspect;itisaimedfortheorder-maintenanceandcoordinationofchildreninfamily,ratherthanatrestrictivecontrolorinterferingwiththechildren’sbehaviour(Lau&Cheung,1987).Forexample,eventhoughthe‘training’dimensionencompassesasetofconducts,themotivationbehindthisconceptisnottodominatethechildbutrathertoassure‘familialgoalsofharmoniousrelationshipswithothersandtheintegrityof thefamilyunit’’(Chao,1995;Lau&Cheung,1987). Thus,thetrainingimpliesafunctionalaspectofparentalcontrolandcontributestohealthyfamilyinteractions(Cheung&Lau,1985;Forman&Forman,1981).

Followingfromtheelucidationofthenotionof‘Guan’,researchonChinese

familyhas utilized ‘training’ as an alternativedimension to assessChineseparenting (Chao,1994;Wu,1996). This ‘training’dimension inparenting,as suggestedbyStewart and colleagues (2002a; 2002b),may represent theauthoritativeparenting in aChinese context.These arguments are not onlysupportedbythedistinctivecharacteristicsofparentaltraining(Chao,1994;1996a;2000;Lau&Cheung,1987)butalsobyempiricalfindings(Chao,1994;Lau&Cheung,1987;Stewartetal.,1999;1998).Inreviewingthedifferencesbetweentheconceptof‘training’andtheBaumrind’stypologyofparenting,Chao(2000)hasnotedthedistinctconceptualizationsofthetwomainconstructs,namelythe‘control’and’‘warmth’,whichcharacterized’‘training’,authoritativeandauthoritarianparenting.AsassertedbyChao(1994),parentalcontrolinthe‘training’dimensioninvolvesparent’sclosemonitoringandprovisionofguidancewhichisintendedtopreventanyundesirablebehaviourofthechildfromworsening.However,Baumrind’s(1971)definitionofparentalcontrolinvolves restrictiveness or domination of the childwhich aims for child’scompliance.’Asforthewarmthdimension,theprevioussectionhasshownthatthedemonstrationoflove/concerninChinesecultureismoresubtleandlacksexpressivenesscomparedtoWesternculture;andmoreimportantlytheaffection


Numerous studies have supported the culturally based argument that theparentingconceptsfoundintheWesternliteraturemaynotaccuratelyreflecttheunderlyingparentingideologiesofChineseparents(Chao&Tzeng,2002;Chen,Liu,&Li,2000;Rohner&Kim,2002;1999;Stewartetal.,1998;Trommsdorff&Iwawaki,1989).Thus,thishighlightsthequestionontheuniversalityoftheexistingparentingconceptsforotherethnicgroups.Inresponsetothis,Chao(1994)proposesthenotionofGuanfordescribingAsianparentinginitsculturalspecificity.ThenotionofGuancanbetranslatedliterallyas‘training’andinChineseitalsomeans‘tocarefor’,‘togovern’and’‘toinvolve’.Itisnotablethatguan/trainingisoftenusedsynonymouslywithchild-rearingamongChinesefamilies.Forexample,thenotionofGuaninChinesesocio-culturalcontextcontainstheideaofeducatingthechildinanexpectedmodeofbehaviour(Ho&Kang,1984)assoonasthechildbeginstounderstand(Wu,1996).Itisnotedthatparentsarethefirstteachersofthechildand,thustheyhavetheprimaryresponsibilitytotraintheyoungchild(Beishon,Modood,&Virdee,1998;Luo,1987).Furthermore,thecontrolandgovernanceofthechild’sbehaviourareregardedasbeingtheobligationof‘good’and’‘responsible’parents’(Ho,1986;Tobin,Wu,&Davidson,1987).

It is found that the ‘training’ ofChinese children tends to start at early

agethroughparentalguidance(Ho,1986;Wu,1996).IntheChineseculturalcontext,itisbelievedthata‘youngchildislikeawhitepieceofpaper’andhe/sheisdeemedtobenaturallygood(Chao&Tzeng,2002).Thus,itistheparent’sroletostartthechildoffinthe’‘correct’directionandtofosterthechild’sdevelopmentwhenthechildisstillyoung(Chen,1996).Itisassumedthatwhenachildistrainedtorecognizetheadult’scommandsandtodifferentiatebetweenacceptableandunacceptablebehaviouratayoungage,thencorporalpunishmentwillnotbenecessarywhenthechildgrowsolder(Ho,1996).Inadditiontoparentalguidance,childtrainingpracticesmayincludeexposingthechildtoexplicitexamplesofproperbehaviour,whereyoungchildrenareexpectedtoparticipateinthefamily,socialandceremonialfunctionsinordertobeexposedandlearntheculturallyacceptablebehaviour(Hsu,1981).

Inaddition,‘training’parentingbehaviouralsoincorporatescloseparentalinvolvement and continuousmonitoring of the child’s behaviour (Chao,1994).Thisisadistinguishingfeatureoftraining/GuanfordescribingChineseparenting,which incorporates the immense involvement of parental careand concern for children, in addition to parental control and directiveness(Chao,1994;Joseetal.,2000;Stewartetal.,1998).Forexample,Gorman(1998) found thatChinese parents placed emphasis on constant guidanceandgovernanceofchild’sconductwhichweregroundedingenuinecareandconcernfortheirchildren’sfuture.Inaddition,Chinesemotherstendtokeepthechildphysicallycloseandtoconstantlyobservethechild’swhereaboutsas


In addition, a series of studies has examined the contrasting effects ofparental ‘training’ in different cultural group (mostly betweenChinese andWhite-Americans)inordertotestitsvalidityandcoherenceinWesternculture(Chao,1994,1995;Stewartetal.,2000;Stewartetal.,2002b).FindingsonChinese andWhite-American samples show significant differences in theirperceptionofparental‘training’whichinturnrelatetodifferenteffectsonchilddevelopment.Specifically, Chao(1994)hasfoundthat evenafteraccountingfor parental control, authoritative parenting and educational level,Chineseparentsstillhaveasignificantlyhigherscoreonparental‘training’measurewhencomparedtoWhite-Americanparents.Asaresultofculturalvariation,boththeChineseandWhite-Americanparentsmayhavedifferentdefinitionsfortheconceptof‘training’.White-Americanparentstendtorelatetrainingwithamoreregimentedconnotation,whileChineseparentsrelate’‘training’withtheideaof‘love,caringandgoverning’(Chao,1994).Inaddition,otherstudiesrevealthatparental‘training’issignificantlycorrelatedwithadolescent’sadjustmentforChinesesamplebutweaklycorrelatedinWesternsample(Stewartetal.,2002b;Stewartetal.,1998).Thismaybeexplainedbythefactthat‘parentaltraining’’evolves from a socio-cultural tradition that is shaped byChinesechild-rearingideologieswhichmaynotnecessarilybesharedbyparentsfromaWesternculturalbackground.Thisfurthersupportsthenotionthat‘training’as the alternative parenting dimension is deemed to be culturally sensitiveandaimedatmeasuringthedistinctivenessinChineseparentingideologies.Therefore,theliteratureindicatesthatthe‘training’parentingdimensionoffersan‘indigenous’conceptwhichismoresuitableforassessingparentingamongChineseparents.

Insummary,thesefindingsimplythatparentinginChineseculturalcontexttendstobequalitativelydifferentfromthosedescribedinWesternculture;itsculturally-specificfeaturesappeartobemorerelevanttothenotionofGuan.Generally,Chineseparentswhohavedistinctivesocial,culturalandhistoricalperspectivesexpressdifferentconceptionoffamilysocialization,especiallyinrelationtothepurposeandmethodofparenting.Thus,itappearsthatthenotionofGuanreflectstheChineseparentingprincipleswhereconstantsupervisionofthechild,directivenessandorderformaintainingcontrolinthefamilyisequatedtoparentalcareandconcernforthechild(Chao,1994;Wuetal.,2002).In otherwords, themore indigenous notion ofGuan has provided amoreaccuratedescriptionofChineseparentingandprovidesplausibleelaborationon the relationshipsbetweenparentingbehaviourandchilddevelopment inChinesefamilies.

CONCLUSION

Basedontheavailableliterature,itcanbeconcludedthatencouragingprogress


ofChineseparentsisdemonstratedthroughmeanswhicharedifferenttothosecharacterizedinWesternliterature(Chao,1994;Ho,1986;1996;Wu&Tseng,1985).Forexample,inthe‘training’dimension,parentalwarmthisreflectedinitemsmorerelevanttoChineseparentingpracticesuchasinvolvementinchild’seducation,constantmonitoringofchild’sbehaviourandemphasisonhardworkandself-discipline(Chao,1994;Chao&Sue,1996a).Whileintheclassificationofauthoritativeandauthoritarianparenting,Baumrind(1967)andRohner(1985)definedparentalwarmthbasedontheemotionalandphysicaldemonstrativenessofaffection.Itisassumedthatparentswhodisplayalackofwarmthtendtoexpresshostilityandaggressionand,neglecttheneedsofthechild. In thissense,Chao(1994)argues thatdemonstrationofaffectionusingemotionalandphysicalexpressivenessasdescribedinWesternliteraturemaynotcapturethefeaturesofparentalwarmthamongChineseparents.Thisimpliesthattherearequalitativedistinctionsbetweenhowparentalcontrolandwarmtharedefinedintheseparentingconcepts.Thus,thedistinctiveculturalmeaningsforparentalcontrolandwarmthhaveshedlightsontheexistentofdifferingculturalnormsandemphasesonparentingandchilddevelopmentforChineseandWesternparents.

Asfortheimplicationonchilddevelopment,ithasbeensuggestedthatthe

conceptof‘training’ismorerelevantnotonlytotheunderstandingofparentingbut also child adjustments amongChinese families (Stewart et al., 2002b).In addition, studies also show thatChinese children perceive their parents’controlasbeingverypositiveandnecessary,whichleadtopositivechildrens’psychologicaladjustment(Lau&Cheung,1987;Ong,2000;Trommsdorff&Iwawaki,1989).Forinstance,Trommdroff(1989)notedthatAsianadolescentsmayfeel‘rejected’bytheirparents if theyexperiencea lackofcontrolandgreaterautonomyfromtheirparents.’Inparticular,previous’studiesrevealthattheconceptof‘training’ispredictiveofpositivepsychologicaldevelopmentamongAsianchildren(Stewart,Bond,Abdullah,&Ma,2000;Stewartetal.,1999;1998).Forinstance,Stewartandcolleagues(1998)foundthatChineseadolescentswhoexperiencedahigherlevelofparental‘training’tendtobewell-adjustedinseveralaspectsofpsychosocialdevelopmentsuchasperceivedhealthandlifesatisfaction.Thesepositiveimplicationsonchilddevelopmentmaybeexplainedbythepositiverelationshipbetweentheconceptof‘training’andparentalwarmth’(Chao,2000;Stewart&Bond,2002a;2002b;1999;1998).Previousstudyhasdocumentedthatthe‘training’characteristicsinparentingaresignificantlyrelatedtoparentalwarmthforbothChinesefathersandmothersbutthat,nosignificantrelationshipwasfoundbetweentheconceptof‘training’and’‘restrictivecontrol’’(Stewartetal.,1998).Inotherwords,the‘training’dimensionofparentingisperceivedpositivelybyChineseparentsandtheirchildren;ittendstoreflectthewarmthandaffectionaparenthastowardsthechildrenwithinaChinesecontext.


In summary, this literature reviewonChinese family socialization andparentinghassomeimplicationsonthecurrentresearchmilieu.Theparentingconstructs emphasized and derived fromWestern culturemay not haveaccuratelycharacterizeChineseparenting,becauseparentingandsocializationdonottakeplaceinaculturalvacuumbutratheritiscontextuallycircumscribed.In addition, researchwhich imposedWesterns constructs and frameworksintonon-westernsamplemaybetheat-riskofmissingthekeyrelationshipsinnon-Westerncultures (Stewartetal.,2000;Wuetal.,2002). Thus, it isimportanttonotethatparentingbehaviourandchildsocializationisguidedbyculturalcontext,andrecognitionofculturallyvaluedgoalsareimportantwhenexaminingsocializationprocesseswithinspecificcultures.Therefore,utilizingthe constructs, derived fromChinese cultural notions, couldbe empiricallyand contextuallymore relevantwhen analyzingChinese parenting. Giventhissituation,moresignificantdevelopmentonChineseparentingandfamilysocializationresearchcanbeexpectedinthefollowingdecades.

SUGGESTION FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

ByreviewingtheavailablestudiesonChineseparenting,thereviewerattemptstosuggestapossiblecourseforfutureresearchinAsianculturalcontext.TheemergingthemeontheappreciationofChinese/non-Westernparentalbeliefsandgoals,andtheculturallyspecificparentingconceptswarrantfurtherexploration.Futurestudiesshouldtakeintoaccountthespecificculturevalueswhendefiningdifferentaspectsofparentingbehaviour(i.e.parentalinvolvement,parent-childinteraction,parent-childrelationship)andexplorewaysofconceptualizingandmeasuringthesevalueswhichareembeddedinparenting.Wuandcolleagues(2002)notethatbystudyingspecificparentingpracticesandexisting‘stylisticdimension’,culture-specificpatternsmayemerge.Thus,itshouldbeinformativeforfuturestudytoexaminethecomparisonbetweentheconceptof‘training’,authoritative and authoritarian parentingwith different parenting aspectsemphasizedinNon-WesternandWesternculture.Thiswillfurtherelaboratetheunderlyingchildsocializationphilosophiesthatmaydifferentiatewaysthatparentingconstructsareendorsedindiverseculturalsettings(Berry,Poortinga,Segall,&Dasen,2002).

Inaddition,futurestudiesshouldinvestigatefurtherhowthenotionofGuanrelatestospecificchilddevelopmentaloutcomesandbuilduponworksthathasalreadybeenconductedregardingthe‘training’parentingdimension’(Chao,1994;2000;Stewartetal.,2000;1999;1998).InadditiontotheChinesesample,futurestudiesshouldexpandtheendorsementof‘training’parentingdimensiontootherAsiansamplesuchasSouthAsiansandSouthEastAsians.Thiswillenablethegeneralizationof‘training’parentingdimensiontoincludelarger


hasbeenmadeontheresearchofChinesefamilysocializationandparentingpractice.Itisnotablethatscholarsoffamilyresearchareincreasinglyconcernedwith the implicationof cultural contexts and also aremore attentive to theculturallydistinctiveideologies/parentingdimensionswhichdifferfromthosedescribed in theWestern literature. Ingeneral, the literaturehas raised thequestionoftheuniversalityoftheexistingparentingconceptsandhighlightedtheimportanceofculturalimplicationsonchild-rearing.Inthissense,theemergingthemeistheimportanceofconsideringparentingconstructswhichmayhavedifferentrelevancetodifferentcultures.Inparticular,thedifferentemphasisplacedbyChinesefamiliesinresponsetoculturalgoalsandbeliefsimpliesadifferentparentingapproach(i.e.directivevs.facilitative)andpromotesadifferentmethodofparentingwhencomparedtoWesternfamilies.Inaddition,theirdifferentculturalrootsalsoinculcatedifferentconnotationsfortheconceptof‘control’and’‘warmth’inparentingandthustheirconsequencesforchilddevelopmentareunlikelytobesimilarforparentsandchildrenofotherculturalbackgrounds(i.e.White-Americanfamilies).Thus,thisimpliesthatparentingconceptsanditsimplicationsareindeeddependentontheculturaldefinitionandsocialbehaviourvaluedbythespecificcommunity.

ForChinesechild-rearingideology,animportantthemeemergingfromtheliteratureisthenotionofGuan,whichendorseshighparentalcontrolintegratedwithhighlyinvolvedparentalcaring(Chao,1994;Ho&Kang,1984).ThisnotionassumesthatparentalcontrolamongChineseparentsistypically‘equatedwithparentalcaring,concernandinvolvement’’(Chao,1994,1995;Gorman,1998;Stewart et al., 1998). Thus, the notionofGuan has a very positiveconnotationamongChinesefamilies:itservesasamanifestationofacaringparentalroleinChinesechild-rearingideologiesandimpliesafunctionalaspectoforder-maintenanceinthefamily.ItisalsonotedtobequalitativelydifferentfromtheparentingconceptsdescribedinWesternliterature.Inaddition,anewculturally-constructedparentingdimensionhasemerged from the literature,namelythetrainingdimension.ThisalternativedimensionincludesthedifferentemphasisinparentingamongChineseparentssuchasaparent’sprimaryconcernaboutchild’sneeds,emphasisonchild’seducation,earlytraining,self-disciplineand’organization.Theliteratureshowsthattheconceptof‘training’tendstobemorerelevanttoChineseparentingattitudesandmorepredictiveofthechild’sadjustmentamongthoseofChineseculturalbackgroundswhencomparedtothegeneraldimensions(i.e.authoritarianandauthoritative)whicharemorecongruentwithWesternphenomenon.Availableliteraturealsoindicatesthedistinct conceptualization for parental control andwarmth in the ‘training’dimensionanditscontrastingeffectamongWesternculturalgroup.Thus,the‘training’ dimension,whichderives specifically fromChinese child-rearingbeliefs, has been proven to capture the cultural distinctiveness ofChineseparentingandendorsestheparentingattitudeswhicharemoreappreciatedinaChinesecontext.


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Jo-PeiTanFakultiEkologi,UniversitiPutraMalaysia,Serdang,SelangorDarulEhsan@UniversityofOxfordEngland

AnnBuchanan,Ph.DProfesorUniversityofOxfordEngland

ZahyahHanafi,Ph.DFakultiSainsKognitifdanPendidikan06010UniversitiUtaraMalaysiaSintok,KedahDarulAman,Malaysia

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