jurnal produktiviti -...
TRANSCRIPT
jurnalPRODUKTIVITI
BIL. 12, JUN'92 PERBADANAN PRODUKTIVITI NEGARA ISSN 0127-8223
WORK CULTURE AND WORK ETHOSBy
Dr. Rajen Mehrotra(Page 5)
PLANNING FOR PRODUCTIVITY:DISCUSSION ON A CASE EXAMPLE
ByProfessor R.P. Mohanty
(Page 18)
THE DETERMINANTS AND ALLOCATIVEEFFICIENCY OF COCOA PRODUCTION
IN WEST MALAYSIA(Page 37)
KE ARAH MENINGKATKAN PRODUKTIVITIUSAHAWAN WANITA SELARAS DENGAN
MATLAMAT WAWASAN 2020:KES KAJIAN UTARA MALAYSIA
OlehSabitha Marie an
(Page 52)
KESAN-KESAN KUMPULAN DAN PERSEKITARANKE ATAS KEBERKESANAN PERLAKUANKUMPULAN KERJA DI LEMBAH KLANG,
SEMENANJUNG MALAYSIABy
Guok Eng Chai(Pago 66)
0000053835Jurnal Produktiviti - [Journal].
jurnatPRODUKTIVITI
jurnalPRODUKTIVITI
Penasihat/AdviserIr. Haji Arshad Haji Marsidi
(Ketua Pengarah)
Ketua PengarangHalimah All(Pengarah)
Tim. Ketua PengarangMohd. Zaki Hamzah
(Tim. Pengarah)
PengarangSujaidi Dasuki
Sidang PengarangIsa Abu Bakar
Muhamad Saufi AhmadDr. Abd. Wahab Muhamad
Joseph PaulAnnie Thomas
Jurina Abd. HamidNoorunsah Jakkaria
Lilian Monica Kam Swee Lian
Penerbit/PublisherPerbadanan Produktiviti Negara
(National Productivity Corporation)Peti Surat 64
Jalan Sultan 46904Petaling Jay a, Malaysia
Tel: 7557266
Kami mengalu-alukan sumbangan rencana untuk dimuatkan di dalam jurnalini. 'Jurnal Produktiviti' diterbitkan enam bulan sekali, menampung semuaaspek ekonomi dan pengurusan serta lain-lain bidang yang ada hubungannyadengan konsep produktiviti. Rencana-rencana yang tersiar akan diberihonorarium dan tidak semestinya raerupakan pendapat NPC.
RflPCE'Jurnal Produktiviti' diterbitkan oleh Perbadanan Produktiviti Negara(Kementerian Perdagangan Antarabangsa dan Industri) Peti Surat 64,
Jalan Sultan, 46904 Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia.Telefon: 7557266(15 talian),
Teleks:MA 36312PDPN. Telegram: Dayapeng.
NAFAS BAKU
Respon yang menggalakkan dari para ilmuan untuk 'JP'ini tidak cukup sekadar diberi ucapan terima kasih.Semuanya yang sampai di unit penerbitan NPC menjadi'bank ilmu' yang tidak ternilai harganya dari aspek
pembangunan pengurusan dan pembangunan tenagamanusia khasnya. Justeru kami juga menerbitkanbanyak lagi majalah yang menangani isu-isu produktivitidan kualiti, adalah lebih bermanfaat seJdranya rencana-rencana yang tujuan asal penulisnya ditujukan kepada'JP'kami siarkan di dalam majalah terbitan NPC yanglain tanpa menjatuhkan nilai dan martabat penulis-nya.
Mulai tahun 1993, tiga penerbitan NPC iaitu Produktiviti,Spektrum QCC dan TQC akan disatukan menjadi satupenerbitan sahaja dengan nama bant 'Produktiviti &Kualiti'yang sekaligus memperluaskan lagi ruang danfokusnya, di mana rencana-rencana ilmiah dan beratdimuatkan bagi memberikan kekuatan kepadapenerbitan berkenaan. Dengan gagasan ini kitamemohon prihatin para ilmuan menyumbangkanrencana-rencana ilmiah dan separuh ilmiah yang adahubungkaitnya dengan produktiviti dan kualiti,pembangunan usahawan dan IKS bagi memberikannafas baru pada penerbitan itu.
Kami juga merasa sama-sama dukacita kerana terpaksamenyimpan rencana-rencana yang anda kirimkanuntuk 'JP'ini dengan penantian yang agak lama.
Sekali lagi jutaan terima kasih dan ribuan maaf - SD.
Biodata
Name : Rajendra Nath Mehrotra
Date of birth : 26 January, 1945
Academic Qualification:B.E. (Elect.) (Hons), University of Bombay,1966B.E. (Mech.) (Hons), University of Bombay,1967 Master of Management Studies, Universityof Bombay, 1970. Post graduate Diploma inIndustrial Management, University of Delft, TheNetherlands, 1979. Ph.D (Mgmt.) University ofBombay, 1982.
Present Position General Manager (Works),Sandoz (India) Ltd., Thane and Hon. Professor,Jamnalal Bajaj Institute of Management Studies,University of Bombay, India.
WORK CULTURE AND WORK ETHOSDr. Rajen Mehrotra*
Background:
"Work Culture" and "Work Ethos" is an area which of late, has com-menced receiving increasing attention. Work is part of our life andthe only way to derive benefit from nature's resources, is by alteringor processing which finally leads to working on or with them. Workis surrounded by an array of attitudes, beliefs, norms, values, formsand customs which have differed with the passage of time. Work hashad two sides which are paradoxical in character. On the one handwork is painful and difficult and on the other it is need fulfillmentand enjoyment of life. People have experienced joy in work and haverealised that work itself is a reward.
Barry Z. Posner, W. Alan Randolph and Max S. Wortman in "ANew Ethic For Work; The Work Ethic" have shown how feelings andattitudes of work have changed, over time and a diagramatic represen-tation is attached.
Work ethos is culture specific. Traditionally we as Indians havebeen people who looked upon work with respect and dignity and didnot work for reward. However, with rapid industrialisation, we seemto have lost these precious traditional values and are now left withvery little love for one's work, or pride in our own work.
In our present day environment we do not hesitate to "stop" or"slow down" work so as to achieve our own desired objective. Duringthe pre-1947 era this approach was adopted for achieving the country'sindependence. Today the same approach with higher intensity andcoupled with violence is adopted by either side (i.e. management andtrade unions or ruling political party and opposition political party)but the objective has changed. This approach has led to an absence oftrust and faith on both sides with attitudes getting hardened and thefinal impact is that the common man suffers by paying a higher pricefor goods and services and the pace of economic hampering of thedevelopment of the country. Every country inherits a culture alongwith history and arising out of this inheritance flows a work ethos.Similarly, every organisation in a country with the passage of time andbased on its own history builds a work ethos in its work environment.
Loyalthy, declining commitment and falling work ethos aremaking Indian companies look out for Indian models to improve
work ethos. While management principles are universal, manage-ment practices are culture specific and one can learn from successstories of companies in our country wherein the managements havemade a conscious effort at improving the working climate andachieving higher work ethics. Mr. D.M. Silvera in his book "HumanResource Development - The Indian Experience" has identified themanagement practices from various angles at improving work ethicsin the following seventeen companies (M/s. Hindustan Lever Ltd.,Steel Authority of India Ltd., Indian Hotels Company, Bharat HeavyElectricals Ltd., National Therman Power Corporation, PetrofilsCooperative Ltd., International Airport Authority of India, SteelTubes of India Ltd., Maruti Udyong Ltd., The Malayala ManoramaGroup, Neyveli Lignite Corporation Ltd., Crompton Greaves Ltd.,Hindustan Development Finance Corporation, Voltas Ltd., Larsen &Toubro Ltd., The Tata Iron & Steel Co., Ltd., I.T.C. Ltd). This docu-mentation helps one to explore the feasibility of visualising the appli-cation of some of these practices in ones own environment. Theremay be many more companies in India that have high work ethics;but because they are not documented, it does not mean that they donot exist. In the small scale sector work ethics is high though in mostcases this attitude amongst labour stems from fear of the loss ofemployment while in management because management is noneother than the owner. Work ethos in each organisation will dependon how we design work and its relationships. In today's organisa-tion, work is economically compensated on a time-rated relationshipand not a piece-rated relationship. Incentive schemes is a superimposition of the latter on the former.
This paper deals with "Work Culture & Work Ethos" only in thecontext of the large-scale organised manufacturing sector. This paperdoes not deal with the service sector, agricultural sector nor the smallscale manufacturing sector. The paper mainly concentrates onProductivity which is the need of the hour for our country.
Concept of Work
Work consists of the proper application of brain and body; workavailable is of two types (i.e. innovative and routine). With continuityof service in an organisation or profession work develops a futureexpectation which is called career. Changing technology also changesthe character of work, however revolutionary technological changesbrings in rapid and extensive change in skills required for work.
Most of us are daily present for eight hours at our place of workbut do we really work for the time we are present, what is our ratingas per industr ia l engineering concept when we work. PanditJawaharlal Nehru said, "Work is Worship", when we look at our coun-
try we find this has just remained a slogan and in some cases the slo-gan has also got transformed to "Worship is Work".
Do we really have an environment for work in our country? Acomparative study made by the Government of India revealed that nocountry has so large a number of holidays as ours. We have recentlyjoined the band wagon of the industrialised countries by having 5work days per week without cutting down on our festival holidays. Inour environment a certain number of employees tend to enjoy sickleave as an annual entitlement of their service condition and notwhen they are really sick. If every holiday fell on a day other thanSaturdays and Sundays and if the leave entitlement taken byGovernment of India employees in a year was taken into considerationthen they would not be present for more than 174 days in a year. Itmeans that they would take leave every alternate day. Can we reallyafford this luxury? Or are these decisions political in nature so as tokeep the employees happy? While one recognises the need to cele-brate festivals, have a weekly rest and an annual vacation, one cannotlose sight of affordability of these benefits by organisations and thedevelopment of the country by keeping resources idle.
Work has two components i.e. the prescriptive and the discre-tionary; it is easy to define the prescriptive component, it is the dis-cretionary component that lies in the grey area. Increased automationhelps in reducing if not eliminating the discretionary component.The concept of "Go Slow" / "Work to Rule" is the reflection of theattitude and behaviour pattern of labour in using the discretionarycomponent of work for projecting their point of view. Similarly, allo-cating "Lower Grade/Skill Work" though "Similar Grade/Skill Work"is available is reflection of the attitude and behaviour pattern of man-agement in using the discretionary component of work for projectingtheir point of view.
The importance of work to the employee is to earn a livelihoodand also obtain a role identity within the organisation and the com-munity. Work thus leads to an economic as well as an emotional rela-tionship between the employee and the organisation. Organisationsthat have built up strong emotional relationship with their employeehave had lesser problems on work ethos as well as productivity. Alsoincreasing affluence of society arising out of either a higher remunera-tion or because husband and wife both are working has brought abouta change in attitude towards extra work. This behaviour can be seenwhen employees today refuse to work extra hours or on weekly/festi-val holidays even though they are paid extra remuneration for theextra hours of work. At the same time one can see some employeesworking extra hours not only on normal days but also on weekly/festi-val holidays without any additional remuneration. This differential
behaviour pattern is because of a personal satisfaction in work com-mitment towards the organisation/profession and at times expectationof career growth so as to achieve something in life and excell.
Business Ethics:
When we talk about "Work Culture" & "Work Ethos" there isgoing to be a reawakening of "Business Ethics" and not only labourbut also Government, shareholders and consumers are going to ques-tion the practices of corporate sector. It is true that major industriali-sation in our country only took place after the sixties but I have noreason to believe that managements in industry today are any moreethical or unethical than their fore-fathers in business 50 or 100 yearsback. But one thing is clear that "Business Ethics" will be talkedabout more openly and will also be questioned by labour in organisa-tions.
Managements will not only have to learn to distinguish betweenbut also learn to answer questions to the satisfaction of labour withreference to the operations being healthy or sick; buying being com-petitive or incompetitive; executives being capable or incapable; pay-ing taxes or evading taxes; sales being white or black. The grey anddark areas of management will get questioned by labour, because ofincreasing literacy, rising aspirations, soft corner by Government, lib-eral interpretation of laws by courts and easy availability of informa-tion regarding occurance of dark and grey areas of operations in otherorganisations.
Recently I had opportunity to read Philips Employees' Union's"White Paper On Proposed Sales of Assets and On Prevalent PracticesIn The Name of Housing In Peico Electronics & Electricals Ltd. Logicof Interest" dated 10th. April, 1989. The same union had earlier alsomade a presentation to the Company Management on "FiscalDiscipline" and on 29th. May, 1989 the same union did another pre-sentation on "Analysis of Publicity Expenses And AdvertisingReaching People Economically". Peico Electronics & Electricals Ltd'sprofitability has drastically fallen and one can see the changing trendswherein the Union today is not only questioning but also offeringsome suggestions on what is normally construed as "ManagementPrerogative".
I see a changing trend for the future wherein Unions are going toquestion managements for their performance, more so when organisa-tions become sick. Also organisations will find it uncomfortableavoiding answering questions and one hopes that the practices of themanagements are ethical and not in grey areas. Organisations cannotexpect labour to observe cost reduction when managements them-
selves indulge in extravagant spending. We cannot ask for high workethos from labour if the managements itself indulges in visible unethi-cal practices. I do firmly believe that it is a managerial failure if anorganisation becomes sick. One of the main job's of management is tosee that the organisation not only lives but grows. Michael Josephsonof Josephen Institute For the Advancement of Ethics, Los Angeles,USA, writes "Ethical looseness is partly inspired by the deregulatory,anything goes mood of the people convince themselves that a newnorm of acceptability applies because of the general atmosphere ofcorruption".
Productivity:
Quite often productivity is confused with profitability.Manufacturing organisations that are highly profitable are not neces-sarily having high productivity, however, organisations having,highproductivity are likely to be profitable. The various areas for produc-tivity improvement in an organisation are capital, raw material, land,plant and machinery, product, process, technology, market, labourand management.
Improving plant and machinery availability by reducing breakdowns and having periodic preventive maintenance is part of manu-facturing management's work ethics. Ensuring availability of rawmaterial at competitive prices and selling the products profitably ispart of commercial management's work ethics. Maintaining fiscal dis-cipline is part of financial management's work ethics. Improving pro-duct and process technology is part of R & D management's workethics. Ensuring productive quantity and quality output of work is ajoint act of line management and labour work ethics. Unfortunately,this area gets debated heavily and solutions take a very long time toemerge. Quite often people argue that labour cost varies from 4% to15% depending upon the industry and the concentration of produc-tivity improvement must be in other areas. The relevant question isnot labour cost, but productivity, of labour, if productivity of labour islow it clearly results in lower capacity utilisation of plant andmachinery and hence lowering the productivity by an underutilisa-tion of an asset which in most cases is purchased out of borrowed cap-ital from the nationalised banks.
Activity sampling studies in the large size manufacturing sectorindicate that productivity is low. Our culture on work ethics is poorand presently there is hardly any legislation in the- country that helpsin improving productivity of bargainable employees. While we havelegislation in terms of maximum working hours per week and mini-mum paid holidays and leave, the practice varies from one industry toanother depending upon historical reasons and the bargaining powers
of the unions and management. Also legislation will not be able tosolve the problem of work ethics.
A tabulation of comparative Study of Productivity of Labourbased on studies conducted by Bombay Productivity Council in 25organisations in Western India as part of the consultancy assignmentis given in Annexure I. These studies are over a five year period andare only a reflection of the present state of affairs in Industry. It iseasy for everybody to continue status quo rather than bring aboutchange. The impact of continuing to live in the wonderland of lowproductivity is that the cost of production goes up and if there is com-petition the survival of the manufacturing unit itself is threatened.Quite a few manufacturing units that enjoyed a sheltered market anddid not concentrate on labour productivity because the consumer paida higher price for shielding and safeguarding low productivity are inproblem today. With the development of technology and also entry ofnew manufacturing units the consumer is not only getting a choicebut is able to buy goods at a competitive price. Organisations thathave low labour productivity are bound to become sick in the future.
Factors That Hinder Productivity
Inadequate/poor infrastructure such as power cuts, delays intravel/transport, poor communication systems, delays in governmen-tal approvals, poor quality of education, inadequate medical facilitiesat ESIS/Civil hospitals, shortage of raw materials are factors which dohinder productivity. In spite of these, the Indian Manager has learntto live and grow in this environment because change/improvement inthese factors will take time.
Absence of a stable growing market will hinder productivity. Ifirmly believe that this is a challenge to the managerial personnel inmarketing and companies must ensure that they have a continuity ofdemand for their products if they want labour product ivi ty toimprove.
An inefficient and outdated technology coupled with poor main-tenance of plant and machinery and use of poor quality raw materialwill affect productivity badly.
Uncontrolled high overtime and built in restrictive work prac-tices by the workmen will hinder any productivity improvement.
Low morale, absence of team spirit, among the employees of anorganisation will only result in a bad industrial relations environmentwhich will finally affect productivity. Also, absence of a value systemfor work ethics at all levels will hamper productivity.
10
Over protection of bargainable employees because of the sympa-thetic attitude of the government, legislation and judiciary. In the nameof social justice, maximum damage to productivity has been achieved.This has resulted presently in bargainable employees having very poorwork ethics and no fear for perpetuating poor productivity norms.
Non-Conventional Approach
Behavioural scientists strongly believe that the building of a posi-tive work climate can result in improvement in productivity. A manu-facturing man's problem is to ensure that the positive work climate isreally positive and not an approach of avoiding to recognise the pres-ence of low productivity of labour, The presence of shop floor prob-lems such as refusal, delay in working on modified/new equipment,process, products by labour is an indication that management needs toinvest time and effort to change the work climate and make it positive.
Some of the approaches that could be adopted are listed below.However, this is not an exhaustive check list. A continuous monitor-ing and evaluation of these need to be done to ensure that they areachieving the desired result. Also the involvement of top manage-ment is essential for their success.
i) Quality Circles/Productivity Circles/Small Group Activityii) Suggestion Scheme
iii) Shop Committeesiv) Sports/Drama Clubv) Credit Society
vi) Committees for Religious Celebrationvii) Canteen Committee
viii) Contestix) Open Forumsx) Workmen Development Programme
In order to make non-conventional approach successful alsomanagerial personnel need training so that they are cost and produc-tivity conscious. They also need to develop skills for ushering inchange in a planned manner. They have to develop a desire to retraintheir workmen and interact with them, at the same time they need toset a self example on high work ethics. Also managerial personnelneed to question deviations, and build a culture of management bywalking around (mbwa). Managerial personnel need to develop biasfor action in time frame by a good follow up and also have speedycommunication (upward and downward).
The bargainable employees at the workmen level once recruitedcannot be easily retrenched in today's environment even if their per-
il
formance is below par. At least selfish interest forces a major respon-sibility on management to continuously upgrade the knowledge andskill of the workmen. The development of the bargainable employeeswill be incomplete until we are able to build them into effective teammembers for the organisation and understand their responsibilitytowards their family. The bargainable employee's central focus inmost cases is on regularly getting monthly salary so as to combat infla-tion and look after the family while the central focus of the organisa-tion is on surviving and then growing in today's competitive businessenvironment. The approach in training the bargainable employees isto make them visualise that the central focus of the organisation is notin contradiction of the bargainable employees focus. Unfortunately,the task becomes tough because a large number of trade unions in ourcountry have tried to tarnish the image of managements by brandingthem as exploiters in the economy. Trade Unions in order to build upsolidarity and team spirit amongst the union members have over sev-eral years built up a negative attitude of the workers towards theirmanagement. This attitude can partially be changed by class roomtraining and a face to face dialogue with the bargainable employees.Also a visible genuine concern for bargainable employees by the man-agement would reduce if not eliminate the problems towards improv-ing plant availability and productivity of labour.
Conclusion
Individual large size manufacturing units will have to find theirown solutions of improving work culture and productivity by use oftechnology, systems and behavioural science. The benefits of apply-ing some non-conventional approaches to productivity improvementis that a positive work climate can be developed and the employeesvisualise themselves as members of a team and put in honest efforts toachieve the desired goal. A challenging task ahead is not only tomake bargainable employees members of the team, but also to ensurethat managerial personnel continue to work as a team. Quite oftenexecutives in their enthusiasm to excel start competing with eachother for the up-man-ship and forget that they are all members of ateam supposed to work for achieving the organisational goal. The pro-cess of organisational change for improving work ethos is never asneat and tidy as it appears on paper, it involves overcoming hurdlesand obstacles which may come from Union Leaders, workmen and attimes from managers.
Bibliography
Jeffrey Gandz, "Ethics Comes Out of The Closet", Business Quarterly,School of Business Admn., Univ. of Ontario, Canada, Autumn 1988,Vol. 53, No. 2.
12
Mali Paul, "Improving Total Productivity", John Wiley and Sons, NewYork, 1978.
Me Farland D.E, "Management & Society - An InstructionalFramework". Prentice Hall, 1982.
Mehrotra Rajen, "Improving Productivity and Work Commitment",ILO/CIE National Conference on Improving Productivity & WorkCommitment, lOa and 11 Sept. 1987, Bombay.
Mehrotra Rajen, "Work Ethics and Productivity", Conference On WorkEthics, Cffi, 20 and 21 Jan. 1989, Bombay.
Mundel Marvin E, "Improving Productivity and Effectiveness", PrenticeHall Inc., New Jersey, 1983.
Naydamma Y, "Factors which Hinder or Help Product ivi tyImprovement In the Asian Region", APO, Tokyo, 1980.
Ovid P.J., "New Cultures For Managers And Workers", ACHIEVE,Journal of Bombay Productivity Council, April-June, 89.
Smith I.G., "The Measurement of Productivity".Gower Press, U.K. 1973.
Sumanth D.J., "Productivity Engineering and Management", McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1985.
Singh B.K. "Improving Productivity and Work Commitment - ThemePaper", ILO/CIE National Conference on Improving Productivity & WorkCommitment, 10 & 11 Sept. 1987, Bombay.
Silvera D.M. "Human Resource Development, The Indian Experience",Newsindia Publications, New Delhi, 1988.
13
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF PRODUCTIVITY OF LABOUR
ANNEXURE1
(All figures in %)
Type of Company
1. Petroleum Co.
2. Ship Yard
3. Steel Mfg. Unit
4. AutomobileBattery Unit
5. Material HandlingEqpt. Co.
6. Carbon BlackMfg. Unit
7. Rayon Mfg. Unit
8. Civil Engg.Structural
Dept. 1
Name Eff.
Bulk DeliverySection
Ship Building
Furnace
Plates Mfg
Machine Shop
Operations
Viscose
Machine Shop
73
26
48
36
48
43
38
41
Dept 2
Name Eff.
Operation
Ship Repair
Rolling Mill
Assembly
Assembly
Packing
Spinning
Welding
42
21
85
42
45
58
30
36
Dept. 3
Name Eff.
Maintenance
Maintenance
Maintenance
Charging
Testing
Maintenance
Textile
Assembly
62
24
60
28
32
47
68
51
Dept. 4
Name Eff.
Stores
Paint Shop
DeliverySection
Testing
Packing
MaterialHandling
Packing
Paint Shop
31
35
55
31
60
51
54
29
Overall
Eff.
46
27
52
34
42
48
39
40
Type of Company
9 PharmaceuticalUnit
10 GumManufacturing Co
11 CableManufacturing Co
12 LightEngineering Co
13 MachineryMfg Co
14 Pipe Mfg Co(Engg Unit)
15 Engg Co
16 PharmaceuticalUnit
17 Electronic Unit
18 ContainerMfg Unit
Dept 1
Name Eff
Basic Mfg
Manufacturing
Coiling
Machine Shop
Pre-fabn cation
Machining
Machine Shop
Manufacturing
PCB
Machine Shop
40
32
52
46
38
48
47
49
68
46
Dept 2
Name Eff
Tableting
Packing
Winding
InspectionTesting
Fabrication
Welding
Assembly
Packing
Machine Shop
Assembly
33
49
46
46
40
38
41
58
53
13
Dept 3
Name Eff
Maintenance
-
Packing
Painting
Glass Lining
Inspection
-
-
Fabrication
Shot blasting
36
-
51
33
41
69
-
-
36
62
Dept 4
Name Eff
Packing
-
-
Assembly
Assembly
Testing
-
-
Assembly
Painting
52
-
-
37
44
64
-
-
54
58
Overall
Eff
37
35
49
39
42
61
42
52
56
48
Type of Company
19. Pharmaceutical Unit
20. Cosmetics Co.
21. Textile Mill
22. Tubes Mfg Unit
23. Hoists Mfg. Unit
24. Engg Unit
25. Car Repairing Unit
Dept. 1
Name Eff
Chemicals
Shampoo
Dyeing
Production
Machine
Machine Shop
Servicing
48
63
38
59
64
50
68
Dept 2
Name Eff.
TabletsMaking
Lipsticks
Printing
Maintenance
Assembly
Assembly
Repairs
62
78
41
41
52
46
43
Dept. 3
Name Eff.
Packing
Creme
Finishing
Inspection
Painting
Testing
Painting
53
69
43
56
56
41
51
Dept 4
Name Eff
-
Powder
Packing
-
Packing 46
-
Testing 56
-
73
40
-
46
-
56
Overall
Eff
54
70
53
58
46
49
Biodata
Dr. R.P. Mohanty is currently a Professor atNational Industitute for Training in IndustrialEngineering (N1TIE), Bombay, India. Previouslyhe was a visiting Professor in the Division ofIndustrial Engineering and Management at AsianInstitute of Technology, Bangkok.
He was Head of Production Management Department as well as Dean ofResearch Programmes at National Institute for Training in Industrial Engineering(NITIE). He was also the National Chairman of Indian Institution of IndustrialEngineering. He has very wide ranging experiences in education, managementdevelopment, research, consultancies in both government and industries. He haspublished more than 120 papers in various reputed international journals and hasalso completed some national level research projects. He has received 'NationalAwards' for his outstanding constribution in the field of industrial engineering andmanagement. He has also chaired in several international connferences.
PLANNING FOR PRODUCTIVITY:DISCUSSION ON A CASE EXAMPLE
ByProfessor B.R Mohanty
INTRODUCTION
The case study presented in Appendix-1 is a real-life situation experi-enced by the author during his study of an organisation in India. Thecompany is a Private limited organisation manufacturing a variety ofengineering products, medium in scale of operations and cateringmostly to the domestic markets. The company started off very well,but in mid 80's, it began experiencing problems which are describedin a summary form in the case example.
The author has used this case study in some of his managementdevelopment programmes, and recently, in a 'LONG PRODUCTIVITYCOURSE' for the India Oil Corporation. This large corporation is oneof the excellently managed organisation in the Public Sector and has amarket share of 70% or more. The company has a highly profession-alised management cadre and a very dedicated technostructure.
The participants involved in the discussion of the case studyinclude executives with engineering background and having 5 to 10years of experience in various functional areas of management. Theobjective of the exercise was to develop simulated experience andlearn the complex dynamics of productivity management. The dis-cussions were very participative, interactive and stimulating.Therefore, the author has made an attempt here to present the synop-sis of their findings for the benefits of management professionals.Some of the references used for making this discussion are presentedin reference section. However, the author provided the followingbasic guidelines for discussion in the class room;-
- Description of the situation and constructing a rich picture.
- Assessment of the situation by stretching the imaginationand developing a conceptual style to embrace intricacies ofthe situation.
18
- Casual analysis of the situation and explanation by elimi-nating unrealistic experiences.
- Projecting the future by developing a flexible organisationstructure and integration instruments.
SITUATION ANALYSIS
The Chairman of ABC Co. Ltd., appointed Mr. Venkatraman toevolve and implement productivity improvement programmes in thecompany. Mr, Venkatraman could not muster enough support fromthe line managers in implementing the ideas and procedures evolvedby him in direct consultation with the Chairman. The productivity ofthe company had steadily decreased over the last 3 years, withadverse implications on all the key parameters like profitability, pro-duction, employee-morale etc. At the insistence of the Plant Manager(Mr. Agarwal), the Chairman agreed to a meeting of Managers toevolve a suitable plan of actions for the future. The objective of themeeting was to provide an answer to a simple question: where to gofrom now?
In Table 1, a synoptic analysis of the situation is presented.Some key parameters are taken for assessment. Preferences and judg-ments are exercised to establish the trends based upon whatever factu-al information the case provides.
Some of the preliminary questions were raised in the case exam-ple. They are presented as follows:-
Sr.No. Question
1. Is the Chairman right ininvolving Mr. Venkatramanin formulating theProductivity improvementprogrammes?
2. Is Mr. Venkatramancompetent to handle theproductivity affairs?
3. What are the basic
Answer
The Chairman is right inselecting Mr. Venkatramanin view of his wide experienceand expertise in the fieldof Plant Engineering functions.
Mr. Venkatraman is competentto handle the productivityaffairs, because he possessesthe requisite personalattributes i.e. persuassiveness,willingness to work hard andthe necessary technical skills.
The bottlenecks to
19
bottlenecks toproductivity drive?
4. How do you suggest toorganise for drivingup Productivity?
CAUSE - EFFECT ANALYSIS
productivity drives are:-
(i) Improper management ofchange.
(ii) Lack of involvement ofmanagers in the process.
(iii) Absence of communicationchannels between thevarious managementlevels.
(iv) Low morale of theworkforce,
(v) Absence of a system toshare the gains ofproductivity.
The suggestions are presentedin the subsequent sections.
The cause-effect relationship of various attributes are presentedin Table 2.
In an ideal organisation, the sub-systems represented in Fig. 1should aim at functioning in perfect harmony for attainment of corpo-rate objectives such as profit, growth and survival. Line activities arenormally performed by the techno-structure and operating-core.Support-structure carries out staff functions to assist the line manage-ment. The diverse pulls and pushed from various sub-systems andfrom environments give rise to conflicts and discords, which ifmoulded properly, may lead to the healthy growth of an organization.Free flow of communication among the various sub-systems is animportant pre-requisite for successful attainment of corporate objec-tives. In the present case, there is no free flow of communicationbetween support structure and other sub-systems. The strategic apex,carries out policy formulation tasks and direct down below. The tech-no-structure and operating core are not engaged jointly to implementthe productivity plans. Rather, it has been assigned to MR. VENKA-TRAMAN, who is a manager in the support structure. The variousnatural pulls among the sub-systems are therefore leading to conflictswhich are barriers to productivity drives. In summary, it can be said
20
that Mr. Venkatrdman through the Chairman of the company has notbeen able to eventuate a rythm, a tone and above all a harmony in thetotal productivity management set-up.
SOLUTIONS ENVISAGED
The solution strategies have been conceptualised as per the fol-lowing guidelines:
(i) Global manner of perceiving as opposed to the micro-levelanalytic approaches,
(ii) In Corpprating new ideas with experiential memories byholding on to the factual premises of the case.
A. DEFINE - OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGIESFOR THE ORGANISATION
(i) OBJECTIVES
TO INCREASE PRODUCTIVITY through the developmentand formulation of a five year productivity improvementprogramme.
(ii) STRATEGIES
Long Terms strategies
a) Scientific forecast of demands.
b) Evolution of a scientific pricing policy for the prod-ucts.
c) Identification of technological requirements in linewith the market requirements.
d) Introduction of human resource development pro-grammes.
e) Modernisation of plant and equipment,
Medium Term strategies
a) Introduction of incentive schemes by designingthrough productivi ty measurement systems foremployees at all levels.
21
b) Improvement in working environment by creating aculture conductive to change through management byexamples or management by ideologies.
c) Standardisation of systems and procedures to discardadhocracy in decision making.
Short Term strategies
a) Development of a proper communication channelbetween various levels of management and workgroups.
b) Introduction of productivity improvement techniquesby educating the workers and supervisors.
B) ORGANISATION STRUCTURE
The organisation structure presented in Fig. 2 is suggested toachieve the above objective and implement the strategies:
C) ROLE OF THE RESPONSIBILITY CENTRES:
The role of each responsibility centre is briefly mentioned inTable 3.
D) COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
A proper communication system has to be designed during thefollowing three phases:
(a) Productivity Formulation Phase(b) Productivity Implementation Phase(c) Productivity review and Maintenance Phase
The communication requirements during the above three phasescould be categorised in terms of various channels as given inTable 4.
E) CONSTITUTION OF COMMITTEES
As suggested in the organisation structure. Constitution of thevarious committees for implementation of the Productivity pro-grammes is described in Table 5.
22
F) IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES
A detailed schedule for the implementation of the action Plansmaybe as follows:-
[i) While long term strategies will be formulated by work con-sultative committee, the translation of strategies to detailedaction plans and their implementation will rest upon pro-ductivity working team.
(ii) Detailed action plans for the strategies formulated are pre-sented in Table 6.
CONCLUSION
Success or failure of any system largely depends on the initiativesand enthusiasm of the human elements constituting the organisation.However, to manage the complex process of productivity affairs of anorganisation, one needs to develop a concept of management by ideolo-gy rather than the styles such as, management by objectives or manage-ment by information. Such styles are necessary but may not be suffi-cient. These are only instruments for organisation. Management byideology is workable provided the following premises are built:
- Superordinate organisational missions- Long term strategic objectives- A two-way communication system- Consultative decision making culture
The case study has been analysed with these motives in mind todevelop and perpetuate a culture of management by ideology.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author gratefully acknowledge the Indian Oil Corporation,particularly to Mr. Bakshi, Director of Marketing, Mr. MGK Masud,Deputy General Manager of Management Services Dept. and others inthe Training Department of the company. Deep sense of appreciation isexpressed to those beloved participants of Indian Oil Corporation whodeliberated and spent some fruitful time to discuss the case example.
APPENDIX-1
Planning for Productivity: A Case Example
Three years ago, the Chairman cum Managing Director of ABCLtd. began implementation of a five-year productivity improvement
23
plan. As part of the productivity improvement programme, theChairman recruited Mr. Venkatraman as a Special Assistant and posi-tioned him in the plant operations department under Plant ManagerMr. Agrawal, but reporting directly to Chairman. Venkatraman had avery wide range of operating experiences in many plant engineeringfunctions; though not diplomatic, he was very persuasive and hardworking.
By now things were moving, but not everyone agreed on thedirection. Mr. Venkatraman and the Chairman cum M.D. seemed tobe spending most of their time convincing each other that the organi-sation was on the verge of a great era and that the current economicand political situations demand that the business and organisationalconditions should be stabilised before further take-off. In contrastother managers in the organisations were sceptical about such com-ments and were considering productivity improvement plans as thedesigns of those two persons namely, the M.D. and Venkatraman.
The past three years have been characterised in the followingway:
Three years ago: Production output was high, demand was verystrong, prices were low, profits were marginal. Employment level wasat 250, receiving average wages and reasonably content; no jobdescriptions or standards were in use; employees were nonunionised.
Two years ago: production output, prices, profits were all higherthan the previous year.
Employment level increased up to 350; some junior managersleft the company and some new ones were recruited. Work standardswere formulated in some departments, but not implemented.
One year ago: Production outputs began to level off, but pricesclimbed higher and profits held up fairly well. Some portions of theplant were modernised. Employment level was 350; but employeescomplained of being bored with their work, and others began to resistthe pressures for more output. Unionised efforts were under fullactivity, labour standards were difficult to implement.
To-day Production outputs have fallen down. Input costs havegrow higher, prices of the products are stable. Demands stills contin-ues to rise. Profit figures have fallen. Employment level hasremained at 350. Complaints about the work methods, safety pro-grammes, fringe benefits were gradually mounting up.
At the request of the Plant Manager Mr. Agrawal, the M.D. agreed
24
to conduct a senior-level meeting to review the situations.
How do you organise the discussion? Answer the followingquestions?
1. Was the Chairman right in involving Mr. Venkatraman informulating the productivity improvement programme?
2. Was Mr. Venkatraman competent to handle the productivi-ty affairs.
3. What are the basic bottlenecks to productivity drive?
4. How would you suggest organising the drive for productivi-ty improvement?
REFERENCES
1. Mohanty, R.P.; Lecture Notes on Productivity Management.
2. Mohanty, R.P.; Primary Tasks and Root Definitions for Action Researchin Productivity - This paper was presented at the InternationalProductivity Congress, Bombay, Feb. 1983.
3. Mohanty, R.P.; Consensus and Conflicts in Conceiving Productivity,Malaysian Productivity Journal, Vol. 3, Jan., 1987.
4. Riggs, J.L.; Productivity by Objectives, Prentice Hall, New York, 1986.
25
Table 1: SITUATION ANALYSIS
ATTRIBUTES
YEAR
a
3 YEARSBACK
2 YEARSBACK
1 YEARBACK
PRESENTPOSITION
PRODUCTIONOUTPUT
HIGH
HIGHER
REDUCED
FURTHERREDUCED
DEMAND
STRONG
_
_
INCREA-SING
PRICE
LOW
HIGHER
HIGHER
STABLE
PROFITS
MARGINAL
HIGHER
HIGHER
LOWER
EMPLOY-MENT
250
350
350
350
WAGES
AVERAGE
_
_
PRESSUREFOR MOREWAGES
STANDARD-ISATION
NOTEXISTING
STANDINGDEFINEDIN SO MEDEPTS.
DIFFICULTYFACED INIMPLEMEN-TATION
-
EMPLOYEE
_
INCRESED
_
-
MODERN
_
-
SOMERETURNOF PLANTMODERN-
-
UNION
NOTEXISTING
-
ACTIVE
-
(-) DENOTES UNFAVOURABLE TREND
(+) DENOTES FA VOURABLE TREND
TABLE 2 : CAUSE - EFFECT ANALYSIS
Effect Cause
1. Reduction in Output
Demand increment
Price stability(although demandis increasing)
4. * Declining Profits
5. Increase of Manpower
(i) Discontentment among theManagers and workers due tocomplaints on wages, workingmethods, safety programs etc.
(ii) Lack of experience and skillson the part of the work force.
(iii) Unionised activities aregrowing and resulting inmaking the organisation moregrievance-oriented.
(iv) Increasing employee turnover.
(v) Lack of involvement of peoplein the process of management.
Due to external factors relating toeconomic conditions and marketmechanisms.
(i) Lack of a rational pricingpolicy of the company.
(ii) Price increase may not besustained by the market.
(iii) Manpower Strength hasincreased by 40%.
(iv) Capital cost has increased dueto modernisation.
(v) Reduction in output withprices remaining stable.
Input costs have gone up particularlyin the form of material cost.
(i) Over-optimism of theChairman regarding expensionprogrammes.
27
Table 2 (Contd.)
Effect Cause
6. Pressure for increasein salaries and wages
7. Failure to introduce
8. Employee-turnover
9. Modernisation
10. Unionised Activity
(ii) Lack of a rational assessmentfor the requirements ofmanpower.
(i) Principle of work justice hasnot been applied in evolvingwage structure. Further, profitsharing plans or incentiveschemes do not exist.
(ii) Evolution of the union haslead to forceful collectivebargaining power.
(i) Lack of systematic work studyjob standard sprogrammes andtheir implementation.
(i) Lack of motivation
(ii) Lack of involvement of theemployees in the decisionmaking process.
(iii) Inadequate job-contentment
(i) Need and potential for growth
(ii) To increase productivity
(i) Need for collective bargaining
(ii) Culminating effect of changes,feeling of indifference betweenworkers and the management.
28
Table 3 : ROLE OF RESPONSIBILITY CENTRE
RESPONSIBILITY CENTRE FUNCTIONS ANDRESPONSIBILITIES
1. Shop Councils
2. Supervisors
3. ProductivityCo-ordinal or
4. ProductivityCo-ordinatingCommittee
5. Works Consultative
(a) To act as intermediary amongthe workers, productive co-ordinator, productivity co-ordinating committee.
(b) To synthesise the activities ofwork with the corporatepolicies enunciated byproductivity coordinationcommittee,
(a) To act as a vital link betweenworkers and the linemanagement in the process ofimplementation ofproductivity improvementtechniques by motivating theworkforce, and by trackingproductivity programmes.
(a) To collect data andinformation relevant toproductivity improvementprogrammes, analyse them andformulate action plans for theuse of the productivity co-ordination committee andwork consultative council.
(a) To make frequent interactionswith the work consultativecommittee, productivity co-ordinator, shop councils toevaluate the productivityimprovement proposals duringthe phase of formulation.
(b) To act as an effective agency toevolve the workable plans soas to percolate them to alllevels.
(a) To examine productivity
29
Table 3 (Contd.)
RESPONSIBILITY CENTRE FUNCTIONS ANDRESPONSIBILITIES
Committee management policies and creata conducive climate to bringabout quantum jumps inproductivity through aninteractive process based onmutual-trust and on theprinciples of work justice forall.
6. Productivity (a) To act as the custodian ofproductivity managementprocess and to be instrumentalin active implementation andmonitoring of the productivityimprovement programmes.
Table 4 : COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Sr.No. Phase
Co minimic ationRequirement Communication Channel
1. Formulation Feed-forward (F/F)and feed-within(F/W)
2. Implementation Feed-Within
F/F - Information inputsfrom outside environment,economic, technological,social and political.
F/W - Information relatingto the influences ofproposed changes withinthe organisation from thetechno-structure, operatingcore and the supportstructure.
F/W - (i) The nucletts ofthe information channelwill be the ProductivityCo-ordination Committee.
30
Table 4 (Contd.)
Sr.No. Phase
Communic ationRequirement Communication Channel
3. Maintenance& Review
Feed-Back(F/B)
(ii) Actual impact ofchanges within theorganisation at all levelsand resultantcommunication to correctnegative effects. Thecommunication shouldmainly centre around themiddle level line-management.
F/B - Feed backs onimpact of final changesintroduced fromsupervisors and workers toproductivity co-ordinationcommittee and to the apexbody for review andrewards.
Table 5 : CONSTITUTION OF COMMITTEES
Committee MembersFrequencyofMeetings
Work ConsultativeCommittee
ProductivityCo-ordination
ProductivityWorking Team
Headed by CMD. Members Quarterlyare Senior Level Managersand the representatives ofthe shop councils.
Headed by the General MonthlyManager (Operation).Members are all the lineManagers. ProductivityCo-ordinator as theSecretary of this Committee.
Headed by CMD with Monthlyall Senior Managers as
31
members
4. Shop Council Represented by electedmembers of the trade Unionand supervisors as opinionleaders.
Weekly
DownlineManagement
Constitutes like managersresponsible for on-the-jobimplementation.
Weekly
Table 6: ACTION PLANS
Strategy Action Plan Functional Teamresponsible
[i) LONG TERM
ScientificDemandforecast
PricingPolicyevolution
TechnologicalRequirementsin line withthe marketrequirements
Introductionof humanresourcedevelopmentprogrammes
ModernisationandStandardisation
Evolve a computerisedforecasting system
Study sensitivity ofPricing to demand anddevelop a pricing model
Technological scanning,feasibility analysis,cost-benefit analysis.
Job enrichment,redeployment, jobrotation. Improvementin working environment,training, counselling,design of reward systems
(a) Replacement of old,obsolete equipmentswith automated systems.
(b) Work standards bemade by work studytechniques.Manualisation ofdetailed jobdescriptions
Marketing/Production
Production/Marketing/Finance
Production/Finance
Personnel/Production
Production/ManagementServices
Production/Personnel/Management services
32
Table 6 (Contd.)
Strategyresponsible
Action Plan Functional Team
ii) MEDIUM TERM
Productivitylinkedincentivepolicy
Improvementin workenvironment
Productivity parametersrelated to labour shouldbe identified and adetailed weightage basedformula can be evolved.
Work environment shouldbe designed in principlewith human engineering
Management services/Production/Personnel
Production/ManagementServices
(iii) SHORT TERM
Developmentproperchannel ofcommunication
Crystalisethe organisa-tionalstructure
Introductionof modernproductivityimprovementtechniques
Formal communicationchannels should be developedin line with those suggestedin communication systems.
Informal communicationsshould be encouragedthrough participativeapproach.
Role analysis and Goalsetting, and Management ofProductivity by objectives.
Different contemporaryproductivity techniques beevaluated and appliedbased on their stability.
Management Services
Production/Personnel
Personnel/ManagementServices/Production
Management services/Production
33
STRATEGIC APEX
TECHNOSTRUCTURE SUPPORTSTRUCTURE
OPERATINGCORE
FIG. 1 AN ORGANISATION STRUCTURE
34
PRODUCTIVITYWORKING TEAM
DOWNLINEMANAGEMENT
CONSULTATIVECOMMITTEE
PRODUCTIVITYCOORDINATIONGROUP
PRODUCTIVITYCO ORDINATOR
ACTION PLANS, PROGRAMMES FOR IMPLEMENTATION
WORKGROUPS nnnnnnn nnnn
FIG. 2 SUGGESTED ORGANISATIONS STRUCTURE
35
BiodataName : Dr. Nasuddin b. OthmanDate of Birth : 19.2.1951
Place of Birth : Muar, Johore
Education:
1. Muar High School
2. Diploma In Planting Industry andManagement (ITM) - 1972
3. M. Sc. (Agriculture Development) - Ghent,Belgium (1983)
4. Ph.D. - University of Stirling, Scotland(1987 - 1990)
Occupation:
Senior Lecturer and Principal of ITM CawanganPahang
THE DETERMINANTS AND ALLOCATIVEEFFICIENCY OF COCOA PRODUCTION
IN WEST MALAYSIABy
DE. NASUDDINB. OTHMAN
ABSTRACT
The principal objectives of this study are to identify the productionfactors that determine cocoa production and to evaluate the efficiencyof Malaysian cocoa smallholders in allocating the resources availableto them. Cross-sectional data collected from 260 cocoa smallholderswere used for the study. The average production function estimatedby the Ordinary Least Squares techniques was employed in the analy-sis. The results indicated that farmer's age, land size, labour, fertilis-ers, farm implements, extension contact, living capital, farmer's edu-cation and farm records and accounts were the main determinants ofcocoa production. The study also established the fact that the cocoasmallholders were highly inefficient allocatively.
INTRODUCTION
In spite of the dominant role agriculture plays in the overall eco-nomic development of the country mainly through its contribution tothe Gross Domestic Product, employment and foreign exchange earn-ings, this sector is still beset with the problem of low agricultural pro-ductivity in the production of major export crops (rubber, oil palmand cocoa) at the smallholder's level (Information Malaysia Yearbook,1989). As for cocoa although this crop is the third major export cropin the country, at the farm level production per hectare from thesmallholders is relatively low averaging about 400 to 600 kg of driedbeans per hectare as compared to the about 1000 to 2500 kg from theplantation sector (Economic Report, 1988/1989).
It has been observed that in spite of all the various efforts under-taken by the government in recent years such as the provision ofextension and credit facilities, there seems to have been not muchchange in the productivity status of this group of producers.
Persistent low productivity would be detrimental to the govern-ment's objective of eradicating poverty and achieving an equitable dis-
37
tribution of wealth among its population. Thus if agriculture was toplay a more important role in the development programmes inMalaysia, increasing attention should also be given to the strategy ofincreasing cocoa productivity.
There are actually several factors which lead to the farmers toproduce below their potential. Among them is the presence of eitherallocative inefficiency and or technical inefficiencies.
This study however, concentrates on the question of allocativeefficiency and at the same time attempts to identify the productionfactors that determine cocoa productivity at the farm level. It is hopedthat the new information generated could be utilised to improve theproductive capacity of the existing farms as well as the new cocoaareas which the government wish to develop at the rate of 20000hectares annually.
PRODUCTION FUNCTION USED IN THE ANALYSIS
Average production functions are used in this analysis. TheCobb-Douglas form of production function was chosen as the basis ofthe analysis in this study mainly on a priori grounds connected withthe logic of production, its attractive economic theory properties andits statistical manageability.
The estimated farm production function used in its logarithmicform is written as:
log Y = log a0 + aj log Xt +.....+ a8 log X8 + b^+.....+ b1QD10 + u
Where
log Y = log of expected income from cocoa and coconut(measured in terms of Malaysian $)
log Xj = log of age of farmers (in years)logX2 = log of land size (acres)log X3 = log of labour (man-days)log X4 = log of services from farm implements
(Malaysian $)log X5 = log of extension contact (number of contacts per year)log X6 = log of chemical cost comprising cost of weedicide
and pesticide (Malaysian $)log X7 = log of fertiliser cost (Malaysian $)log X8 = log of living capital comprising cocoa and coconuts
(Malaysian $)
38
D-i = Region Teluk BaruD2 = Region Bagan DatohD3 = Region RungkupD4 = Region Hutan MelintangD5 = Soil-Selangor SeriesD6 = Soil-Kangkong SeriesD7 = Educational Level of FarmersD8 = Educational Level of SpousesD9 = Educational level of ChildrenD10 = Farm Records and Accounts
Cross-sectional data collected from 260 cocoa smallholders fromthe region of Hilir Perak which is considered as one of the largestcocoa growing areas of the country were used for the study. The datagathered were confined to the calendar year 1988.
A number of regression models were estimated by using theOrdinary Least Squares regression technique and all the variablesexcept the dummies were transformed into the logarithmic form to thebase e. To obtain regression models that were meaningful and inter-pretable for the problem under investigation, a number of computerruns were undertaken. In each run, minor modifications were madeon the regression equations based on the inclusion of different sets ofindependent variables.
Initially, the following variables, namely; credit, farming experi-ence, maintenance and harvesting labour, pesticides and weedicideswere supposed to be incorporated into this analysis. Based on the datacollected, only three farmers were reported to take credit for the pro-duction of cocoa under coconut. Owing to their small number, thisinput was, therefore, not included in the analysis. Farming experienceis normally associated with the age of the farmers. Because of theinconsistencies in the results, farming experience was dropped fromthe main equation, Similarly, the splitting of labour into maintenanceand harvesting labour also produced inconsistencies in the resultsobtained. Thus, it was decided that these two types of labour shouldbe aggregated into one variable, that is, total labour. The same princi-ple also applies in the case of weedicides and pesticides, where theywere grouped into one input,' namely, chemicals, in this analysis.
As regard to the dummy variables that were included in the pro-duction function analysis, the rule which was applied was to dropone variable less than the number of values of the original variable.Otherwise, the Ordinary Least Squares technique would breakdownbecause of the perfect collinearity between the intercept and all thedummy groups. In this study, the regional dummy, Hutan Melintang(D4) was dropped from the analysis. This dropped dummy is mea-
39
sured as a norm and coefficients of other regional dummies measurethe shift from this normal level.
STATISTICAL RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION
From the results (see Table 1.1) the adjusted coefficient of multi-ple determination (that is the R square) obtained was 0.8680, whichmeans that approximately, 87 per cent of the variation in the depen-dent variable could be explained by the variation in the independentvariables included in the analysis. Thirteen per cent of the variationmight be due partly to input factors which were not being taken intoaccount such as climatic factors and quality differentials.
From the examination of the correlation coefficients it wasshown that land size was highly correlated with living capital (r =0.91) and labour (r = 0.85). Such a high value of the bivariate relation-ship according to Heady and Dillon (1966) indicated the presence ofmulticollinearity among the explanatory variables.
The pertinent question that arises is the extent or the 'degree' ofmulticollinearity that is acceptable in the analysis. Until now no con-sensus has been reached regarding this issue (Thomas, 1985).
TABLE l.l: OVERALL PRODUCTION FUNCTION STATISTICS FOR THE ENTIRESURVEY AREA
INPUTS PARAMETERS REGRESSION (R,)
ConstantFarmers' ageLand sizeLabourFarm ImplementsExtension contactChemicalsFertilisersLiving CapitalRegion Teluk BaruRegion Bagan DatohRegion RungkupSoil-Kangkong SeriesFarmer's EducationSpouse's EducationChildren's EducationFarm Records/Accounts
Adjusted R squareF - StatisticD - W StatisticNo. of Cases
aoaia2a384a536a?asbib2
b3
beb7
beb9bio0.8680105.39***1.95260
4.8918***-0.1190*0.5091*"*0.1481***0.0092*0.0057*0.00320.0167***0.2207***0.0029
-0.00430.03310.01200.1399*"
-0.0418-0.0087
0.1139**
(0.5300)*(0.0697)(0.0779)(0.0526)(0.0050)(0.0032)(0.0021)(0.0029)(0.0585)(0.0880)(0.0656)(0.0399)(0.0708)(0.0699)(0.0628)(0.0326)(0.0546)
# Figure in brackets are the standard errors.Level of significance: * 10 per cent, * * 5 per cent
*** 1 percent
40
Klein (1962) suggested that multicollinearity was not a problemfor prediction if
r i j < R
where R is the square root of the coefficient of multiple determi-nation and r,j is the correlation between Xj and Xj where i = 1 ....k.
Applying this method, the outcomes obtained showed that forland and living capital, R value of 0.8947 was less than the value ofthe sample correlation of 0,907, thus indicating that the degree of mul-ticollinearity was quite severe. On the other hand, for land and labour,the situation is reverse since the R value of 0.9022 was higher than thesample correlation of 0.849. The same also applies in the case oflabour and living capital where the R value (0.8958) was higher thanthe value of r (0.777).
To reduce the problem of multicollinearity in this study, it wastherefore, decided that living capital should be expressed on a peracre basis. From the correlation coefficients all the bivariate relation-ships were below 0.8 indicating the absence of multicollinearityamong the variables. Further, the results obtained in Table 1.2 aresimilar to Table 1.1 in terms of the level of significance of the run onexplanatory variables, as well as the value of the adjusted R square.Only the magnitude of land size differed.
From the result it was indicated that farmers' age had a signifi-cant and negative relationship with expected income. The plausibleexplanation is that older farmers in this area might find difficulties incoping with the latest technology in cocoa farming compared toyounger farmers who tend to make better decisions concerning theirfarming operations because of their access to knowledge about cocoaproduction through the various sources available.
Spouse's education did not contribute significantly towardsexpected income analysis. The plausible explanation is that since thehusbands were more dominant in the decision making process, itappeared that although the spouses might possess the necessary tech-nical knowledge, they were not able to influence their husbands to bemore innovative and receptive towards modern farm practices.
In this study, it seemed that formal education of the children didnot contribute significantly to expected income. From the survey, itwas found that the farmers rarely involved their children in theirfarming operations. This probably could be attributed either to a lackof interest on the part of the children to be involved in cocoa farmingor might be because of the positive attitude that farmers had towardstheir children's education that encouraged them to study and excell
41
TABLE 1.2: OVERALL PRODUCTION FUNCTION STATISTICS FOR THE ENTIRESURVEY AREA (AFTER REDUCING THE MULTICOLLINEARITYPROBLEM)
INPUTS PARAMETERS REGRESSION (R)
ConstantFarmer's ageLand sizeLabourFarm ImplementsExtension contactChemicalsFertilisersLiving CapitalRegion Teluk BaruRegion Bagan DatohRegion RungkupSoil-Kangkong SeriesFarmer's EducationSpouse's EducationChildren's EducationFarm Records/ Accounts
Adjusted R squareF - StatisticD - W StatisticNo. of Cases
aoai32as34as%a7
aebib2
b3beD7
beb9bio
0.8680105.39***1.95260
4.8918***-0.1190*
0.8779***0.1481***0.0092*0.0057*0.003Z0.0167***0.2207***0.0029
-0.00430.03310.01200.1399"
-0.0418-0.0087
0.1139*'
(0.5300)#(0.0697)(0.0299)(0.0526)(0.0050)(0.0032)(0.0021)(0.0029)(0.0585)(0.0880)(0.0656)(0.0399)(0.0708)(0.0699)(0.0628)(0.0326)(0.0546)
# Figure in brackets are the standard errors.Level of significance: * 10 percent, ** 5 percent
*** 1 percent
for the pursuit of other more lucrative professions. Under such cir-cumstances, it was logical to find that children's education did nothave a significant impact on cocoa production.
Regional influence did not contribute significantly to the incomeobtained as none of the regional dummies were significant in thisanalysis. Perhaps the underlying factor why there was no significantdifference among the regions was because of the fact that all theregions concerned produced the same type of crops and used similartechnology for crop production.
Soil type as an input was also found not to be significant in thisstudy. In this survey area, the two types of soil that were being exten-sively used for cocoa and coconut production were the Kangkong andSelangor series which were predominantly marine clay. According toKee (1967) this marine clay had been found to be the richest soil inthe country in terms of its nutrient status. However, exhaustive use ofthe soil due to long period of cultivation might deplete the nutrientcontents available.
42
From the correlation coefficient, it was found that D (KangkongSeries) had a positive significant association with fertiliser and thiswas probably one of the reasons why it did not contribute significant-ly to the production of cocoa since its influence has been 'blurred' byfertilisers which was statistically significant in the estimated func-tion.
During the reference period, there was no major insect infesta-tion and most of the farmers did not apply any insecticides for controlmeasures. Those who applied it used only a small amount. Such aquantum of course, would have a negligible effect on cocoa produc-tion. The same applies in the case of weedicides where, on the aver-age only about 1.5 litres were used for every acre annually. Hence thelow quantity of chemicals applied was too small to cause any varia-tion in the production of cocoa. Another possibility was that the lackof technical knowledge among older farmers might result in improperapplication techniques.
Thus from this analysis the inputs that were found to have sig-nificant influence on expected income were the farmer's age, landsize, labour, fertilisers, farm implements, extension contact, livingcapital, farmer's education and farm records and accounts.
COMPARISON WITH OTHER INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
Comparison with other cocoa production function studies whichhave been undertaken by other research workers at the internationallevel was hampered due to the differences in the specification of thevariables adopted. As such in this section concentration was givenonly to those variables which had been treated individually in thesestudies.
For land size as an input, the finding from the present study cor-responds to the outcomes with all the previous investigations thatwere conducted by De Souza Menezes et al (1974), Thirtle (1984) andBoateng (1982) except in the case that was carried out by Costa andReiss (1982), where this input was not statistically significant.
In the case of labour, the result from the present research is inaccord with the findings undertaken by Costa and Reiss (1982), DeSouza Menezes et al (1974) and Thirtle (1984).
Finally, as for farmer's age, only Boateng (1982), incorporatedthis input in his production function study. He, however, indicatedthat this production factor was not statistically significant in theanalysis conducted. This result, therefore, differs from the presentfinding.
43
ALLOCATIVE EFFICIENCY
In the analysis made, only the essential inputs comprising landsize, fertilisers, labour, living capital and farm implements whichwere significant in the model were chosen and non-significant inputswere left out as they had no impact on the expected income (Knenta,1971: Koutsoyiannis, 1977). These significant factors of productionwere then regressed onto the dependent variable and the new esti-mates obtained are shown in Table 1.3.
From the regression model as depicted in the table 1.3 all theelasticities as reflected by the values of the regression coefficients,were less than unity which gave an indication that diminishingmarginal returns to each of the input factor: holding each of the inputsconstant, the marginal return of each input will decrease the more thatfactor is used. This conclusion is vital in the economic analyses for itindicates the first condition for the optimum use of resources.
RETURNS TO RESOURCES
From the estimated elasticities we can obtain a set of estimatedmarginal productivities. The Cobb-Douglass production function isvery convenient for calculating these values, especially, when thevariables are measured in value flows. Because of the multiplicativenature of the production function used in this study, the estimatedmarginal revenue products were calculated at the geometric means ofthe variables and consequently related to the average farm.
TABLE 1.3: PRODUCTION FUNCTION STATISTICS - EFFECTS OFTHE SIGNIFICANT INPUTS ___
INPUTS POOLED DATA
ConstantLand SizeFarm ImplementsFertilisersLabourLiving Capital /acre
4.3267*0.9289"0.0091*0.0213*0.1301*0.2452*
(0.4436)#* (0.0283)* (0.0048)
(0.0025)(0.0523)(0.0572)
Adjusted R Square 0.8601F-Statistic 319.38***D - W Statistic 1.81No. of Cases 260Ib 1.33
Figure in brackets are the standard errors.Level of significance: * 10 per cent, * * 5 per cent
**" 1 per cent
44
Strictly speaking, allocative efficiency exists if there is a situa-tion of perfect competition. The latter implies price taking behaviourand perfect markets which are characterised by perfect communica-tion, instantaneous equilibrium and costless transactions (Pasour,1981). In this area, while factors market tend towards partial competi-tion, the capital market for land was relatively much less perfect.Under such a situation, the factor share had also to depend upon thedemand elasticity of output and the supply elasticity of the input.Yotopoulos and Nugent (1976), however, stated that since these twovalues were not easily available, the assumption of perfect competi-tion served as the next best alternative in detecting resource misallo-cation in the analysis of production function.
Since in this study, farmers seemed to have approached a perfectknowledge of some of the relevant variables and were price-takersboth in the output and input market, it was reasonable to assume thatthey were operating in a competitive environment. In this case, wecould then express the equilibrium condition as the equality betweenthe marginal revenue product of each of the input factor and themarginal cost to detect whether there was any resource mis allocationin the production process.
In the calculation of the marginal revenue products of the inputfactors, it was assumed that the prices of the cocoa beans and the nutswere fixed. Since the data used were cross-sectional in nature, pricesdid not exhibit much variation during the reference period.
MARGINAL FACTOR COST
The marginal factor cost of fertiliser used in this study was basedon the average price of the input per kilogramme. As for labour themarginal factor cost was based on its opportunity cost. From fieldobservations, during the period where no harvesting was undertakenor no maintenance work had to be performed, some farmers remainedtotally unemployed and under such situation during this slack seasonthe opportunity cost of labour should be zero.
Because of the seasonal nature of agricultural production theopportunity cost of labour tends to vary with season (Upton; 1987).Yotopoulos (1967) suggested that the opportunity cost of labour couldbe computed throughout the year by weighing the seasonal wage rateby the proportion of the total agricultural work that was performedduring the peak season. However, in this study, this technique wasnot adopted owing to the lack of the relevant data.
Sen (1966) and Bardhan (1973), however stated that the opportu-nity cost of family labour is equal to the wage rate multiplied by the
45
probability of success in securing alternative employment. If theprobability is equal to one which happens during the situation of fullemployment the opportunity cost of labour will be zero when theprobability of success is zero. In this study, a probability level of 0.5was taken to compute the opportunity cost of labour. Based on theresponse given by the respondents, the chances of success in securingalternative employment such as plantation and factory workers aswell as odd jobs were only 50%.
The wage rate used by the Department of Agriculture in the com-putation of this input was M$12.00 per man-day. Thus based on theprobability level of 0.5, the opportunity cost of labour was M$6.00 perman-day throughout the year.
As for the case of land size, it was rather difficult to determineits opportunity cost in this study area. During the study period, it wasfound that the average annual rent for every acre of land wasMS300.00. Assuming that this figure is correct, since data on annualrent are not easily available, so the marginal factor cost of this inputwould then be based on the average rent that was being computed.
In the case of capital inputs comprising farm equipment and liv-ing capital, the marginal factor costs were based on the opportunitycost of a dollar worth of these inputs invested in the Agricultural Bank.
ESTIMATES OF MARGINAL REVENUE PRODUCTS
The estimates of the marginal revenue products with respect tothe significant inputs were presented in Table 1.4. The marginal rev-enue products indicate the returns which on, the average, are expect-ed from the addition of one more unit of the various input factors. Asshown in Table 1.4, a dollar's worth of labour contributed M$0.89 tothe expected income. Such a low return from this input might beattributed to the measurement error that arises. Since there are greatvariations in the age and skills of the labour used, this might cause adownward bias in the coefficients and thus causes the estimates to bevery low. The low returns from labour, therefore, makes cocoa farminga less attractive activity to the rural youth. This has resulted in theexodus of this labour force to the cities as is now being observed.
The marginal returns for land was MS3.00. This implied that thisinput was consistently too sparingly being used in the regioninvolved. This might be attributed to the imperfections in the landmarket. Also it could be that the market rental of land was below theeconomic value of land. However, since this factor of production is aconstraint in this study area, no further expansion could take place inorder to get higher returns.
46
TABLE 1.4 : MARGINAL REVENUE PRODUCT AT THE GEOMETRIC MEANS_______OF THE INPUTS_________'_______________________
INPUTS POOLED DATA
Marginal Revenue ProductusLabour 0.89 (0.3593)#Land Size 3.00 (0.0915)Farm Tools 3.06 (1.6125)Fertilisers 4.45 (0.5227)Living Capital 0.20 (0.0455)
Geometric MeansusLabour (man-days) 67.97Land Size (Acres) 2.89Farm Tools (M$) 8.34Fertilisers (M$) 13.40Living Capital (MS) 3519.24
# Figures in brackets are the standard errors.
As shown in Table 1.4, the marginal returns for fertiliser wasaround MS4.45. Owing to the very low level of fertilisers beingapplied, while from the agronomic experiments it is known that theoutput of cocoa is closely associated with the amount of fertilisersused, an estimated marginal returns of M$4.45 was quite high. Thisshows that the cocoa farms in this area were still underfertilised.
As for living capital, the returns from this input was very low inthe analysis made. Such a low marginal returns for this input factorwas anticipated since it was composed of two different types of crops,namely; cocoa and coconut with varying ages, therefore, there isbound to be great variation in the productivity status of this input.This as consequence might bias the production coefficient downwardsand thus caused the estimates to be very low.
Futhermore it was suspected that the use of expected yield con-cept obtained from field experiments might not actually reflect thetrue yield potentials of the cocoa and coconut trees planted by small-holders owing to the differences in agronomic and management prac-tices.
In the case of farm implements, the returns was MS3.06 in theanalysis made. Considering the low level of investment in agriculturalimplements such a high marginal return implied that the farms wereunderequipped during the period under study.
The extent to which the farmers, on the average, should changethe relevant MRP through resource reallocation in order to arrive at
47
TABLE 1.5: PERCENTAGE CHANGE IN MRP REQUIRED TO EQUATEWITH MARGINAL COST OF INPUTS
CATEGORY FERTILISERS CHEMICALS LIVING LAND FARM LABOURCAPITAL SIZE TOOLS
Pooled Data 77.53 - 432.50 66.67 65.20 12.36
the equality of MRP and MC is given in Table 1.5. The great change inthe marginal revenue products for most of the inputs indicates thatthere are major deviations from allocative efficiency in the study area.This is at variance with the conclusions of most studies on traditionalagriculture such as those conducted by Schultz (1964) and Sahota(1968).
Because of the inequality between the marginal revenue productsof these inputs with their respective marginal costs we can, therefore,conclude that these factors of production were not allocatively effi-cient in crop production in relation to their ruling input and outputprices.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This study has clearly identified that among the input factorsused by the cocoa smallholders, the ones which had significantimpact on the production of cocoa were land size, labour, living capi-tal, farm implements and fertilisers. Among the management proxies,only farmer's age, extension contact, farmer's education and the prac-tice of keeping farm records and accounts were important. Inputs suchas chemicals, spouse's and children's education as well as soil typesdid not have any significant influence on cocoa production.
The data presented in this study also pointed to the fact that thecocoa smallholders were highly inefficient allocatively. Computationof the ratios of the Marginal Revenue Products indicated that appre-ciable deviations from allocative efficiency were found for land size,labour, living capital, fertilisers and farm implements.
From this study, it emerged that land size was the most impor-tant determinant that affects cocoa production. However, since thisinput is a constraint and was too sparingly used by the farmers, inorder to achieve allocative efficiency, it is therefore suggested thatmore efforts should be directed at group farming in the area.
The low dosage of the complementary inputs used in the produc-tion process might imply that the farmers still lack awareness of thebenefits of these inputs. Because of the risk involved and because of
48
their limited resources, the extension efforts must not only be in theform of routine advice but must seek to convince them by specificdemonstration and economic evidence relating to the costs and bene-fits. Farmers also should be encouraged to keep a record of their farmactivities in order to assist them in monitoring, understanding andevaluating future problems. It is recommended that more intensiveeffort must be made by the extension workers to encourage more farm-ers to undertake this form of activity to enable them to make effectivedecisions at the farm level.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BARDHAN, P.K. (1973) 'Size, Productivity and Farm Returns to Scale :An Analysis of Farm-Level Data in IndianAgriculture', Journal of Political Economy, Vol.81 (3), pp. 13701386.
BOATENG, M.Y. (1982) 'Problems of Increasing Output Of Small Cocoain Ghana. A case-study of the Ashanti CocoaProject', Ph. D. Thesis, University of Missouri,Columbia.
COSTA, A.D.S., and REIS, A.J.D. (1982)'Eficiencia Economia Dos Recursos Em DoisGrupos De Propriedades Cacauei ras DoMunicipio De Ilheus, Bahia, Proceeding of the8th International Cocoa Research Conference, 18-23 Oct. Lagos, Nigeria, pp. 621-626.
DE SOUZA MENEZES, J.A., PANIAGO, }., LADEIRA, H,O. and BANDERA,A.L. (1974)
'Economic idae Dos Insumos Modernos emFazendas De Cacau', Revista Theobroma, Vol. 4(2), pp. 21-33.
HEADY, E.G., and DILLON, J.L. (1966)Agricultural Production Function, Iowa StateUniversity Press, Ames.
KEE, N.S. (1967) 'Fertiliser Problems in Mixed Cocoa-CoconutPlantings', in Cocoa and Coconuts in Malaya',edited by J.W. Blencowe and P D. Turner, KualaLumpur, pp. 23-31.
KMENTA, J. (1971) Elements of Econometrics. The Macmillan, NewYork.
KOUTSOYIANNIS, A (1973)Theory of Econometrics, The Macmil lan PressLimited, London.
49
MALAYSIA, MINISTRY OF F I N A N C E (1988). ECONOMIC REPORT1988/1989
MALAYSIA (1989)
PASOUR, E.G. Jr. (1981)
SAHOTA, G.S. (19G8)
SCHULTZ, T.W. (1964)
SEN, A.K. (1966)
THIRTLE, C. (1984)
THOMAS, R.L. (1985)
UPTON, M, (1987)
Jabatan Percetakan Negara, Kuala Lumpur
I n f o r m a t i o n Malaysia Yearbook, Ber i t aPublishing, Kuala Lumpur.
'A Fur ther Note on the Measurement OfEfficiency and Economics of Farm Size', Journalof Agricultural Economics, Vol. 32 (2), pp. 135-143
'Efficiency of Resource Allocat ion in IndianAgriculture', Journal of Agricultural Economics,Vol. 50 (3), pp. 586-602.
Transforming Tradit ional Agr icul tura l , YaleUniversity Press, New Haven.
'Peasants and Dualism With or Without SurplusLabour', Journal of Pol i t ical Economy, Vol.LXXIV (5) Oct. pp. 438-450.
'Cocoa Product ion in Eastern Cameroon ' ,Manchester Paper on Development, Issue 10, pp.45-54.
Introductory Econometrics: Theory and applica-tion, London, Longman.
Afr i can Farm Management , Cambr idgeUniversity Press.
YOTOPOULOS, P.A. and NUGENT, B.J. (1976)Economics of Development EmpiricalInvestigations, Harper International Edition,Harper, Row Publishers.
YOTOPOULOS, P.A. (1967) A l l o c a t i v e E f f i c i e n c y in EconomicDevelopment. A Cross-section Analysis of EpirusFarming, Athens, Centre of Economic Research.
50
Biodata
Sabitha binti Marican dilahirkan di Johor.Mendapat Diploma dalam bidang Mikrobiologidari Institut Teknologi Mara pada tahun 1982,sebelum bertugas sebagai Penolong Pegawai
f • ; Penyelidik selama 3 bulan, dan 7 bulan sebagaiib-,- • . . . . . . . - - . . ,,.<•;. Pegawai Perhubungan Awam di Mardi, Selangor.
Kemudian melanjutkan pelajaran di Amerika Syarikat dalam bidang KesihatanAlam Sekitar dan menerima Ijzah Serjana Muda dari Point Park College padatahun 1985. Selepas itu beliau berpeluang menjalankan praktikal selama 2 bulandi Department of Environment Resources di Pittsburgh, sebelum melanjutkanpelajaran ke peringkat Ijazah Lanjutan dan menerima Ijazah Pentadbiran Awam diUniversiti Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania pada tahun 1987. Pada masa ini bertugassebagai Pensyarah di Universiti Utara Malaysia dalam Bahagian PentadbiranAwam.
Bidang pengkhususan beliau ialah 'Dasar Awam', 'Stress Management', 'ConflictManagement'dan 'Career Development'. Pernah juga menjalankan penyelidikantentang kesan kependudukan setinggan di Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur.
KE ARAB MENINGKATKAN PRODUKTIVITIUSAHAWAN WANITA SELARAS DENGAN
MATLAMAT WAWASAN 2020:KES KAJIAN UTARA MALAYSIA
OlehSabitha Marican
Peranan wanita mendapat perhatian yang lebih besar daripada kera-jaan dalam Rancangan Malaysia ke Enam (RM6) memandangkangolongan ini mempunyai potensi besar dalam bidang ekonomi danpembangunan sosial. Ini disebabkan walaupun harnpir separuh dari-pada penduduk negara ini adalah kaum wanita, jumlah tenaga buruhhanyalah 35% sahaja. Maka selaras dengan matlamat kerajaan, dibawah RM6, kerajaan telah menyediakan peruntukan sebanyak $20juta bagi membantu Urusetia Hal Ehwal Wanita (HAWA) melak-sanakan program-program dan projek-projek menurut Dasar WanitaNegara untuk pembangunan kaum wanita.
Maka salah satu dari aspek yang patut diberikan perhatian yanglebih ialah bidang keusahawanan, terutama sekali setelah kerajaanMalaysia melaung-laungkan kejayaan kehidupan mereka. -Dengan itupenulis telah membuat kajian ke atas usahawan kecil wanita di UtaraMalaysia, untuk menyingkap sedikit sebanyak masalah. Usahawankecil wanita dalam mencapai produktiviti dalam bidang ini. Pertamapenulis akan membincangkan mengenai mengapa penglibatan usa-hawan kecil wanita penting di negara kita. Kedua faktor-faktor yangtelah digunakan oleh penulis sebagai asas untuk mengkajrhalangan-halangan dan masalah-masalah yang dihadapi oleh usahawan wanita.Ketiga mengulas data yang telah diperolehi dan akhir sekali akan diu-tarakan cadangan-cadangan untuk mengatasi halangan dan tanggapanke atas usahawan wanita.
Penglibatan usahawan kecil wanita perlu diberikan tumpuankerana industri kecil menyumbangkan 19% kepada guna tenaga, 12%kepada hasil keluaran negara, dan 7% kepada harta tetap dan nilaiditambah. Dan memandangkan 35.5% daripada gunatenaga di negarakita terdiri daripada kaum wanita ini menunjukkan penelitian terper-inci ke ats penglibatan wanita dalam ekonomi dan produktiviti negaratidak dapat diketepikan.
52
Seterusnya faktor yang telah digunakan sebagai asas untukkajiannya mengenai masalah dan halangan yang dihadapi oleh usa-hawan kecil wanita adalah seperti berikut. Pertama ialah mengenaifaktor-faktor asas mengenai kualiti asas seorang usahawan.
KUALITI ASAS USAHAWANKEUSAHAWANAN
Usahawan
o Sikap o Kemahirano Pengetahuan o Mengenai
Peluang
Peluang Sumberdan Bantuan
SuasanaEkonomi
Dari rajah di atas kita dapat melihat bahawa faktor-faktor sepertipengetahuan, kemahiran, mengenai peluang dan dibantu dengansuasana dan peluang ekonomi bersama sumber-sumber bantuan yangboleh didapati dapat menentukan naik turunnya seseorang usahawanitu.
Faktor seterusnya yang digunakan sebagai asas untuk kajian iniialah melihat dari sudut sifat seorang usahawan yang hampir miripdengan sifat seorang pemimpin. Antaranya ialah harus:
- mempunyai semangat dan ketahanan,- berdisiplin.- konsisten dalam perilakunya.
berkebolehan menyelesaikan masalah.- berani mengambil risiko.- membuat keputusan dengan cepat.
mempunyai daya pemikiran kreatif dan inovatif.rajin serta bersungguh-sungguh dalam usahanya.berkebolehan dalam mengenalpasti peluang-peluang yangsedia ada.
53
Faktor ini diberikan perhatian kerana tidak ramai dalammasyarakat kita yang yakin bahawa wanita boleh jadi pemimpin. Danmemandangkan sebagai usahawan yang berjaya perlu sifat-sifatkepimpinan yang sedemikian, maka pandangan stereotaip seperti iniperlu dikaji sama ada benar atau hanya sebagai tanggapan yang menja-di batu penghalang dalam usaha wanita industri kecil ini.
Bercakap mengenai tanggapan, gambarajah yang berikut menun-jukkan faktor-faktor tanggapan am terhadap wanita. lanya diteliti untukmengetahui sejauhmana ianya benar dalam mempengaruhi penglibatanwanita sebagai usahawan kecil. Dari gambarajah ini jelas kelihatanbahawa kaum lelaki dipandang lebih positif daripada kaum wanita.
TANGGAPAN
Tanggapan terhadap usahawan wanita adalah berlainan sedikit.Secara ringkas wanita dan lelaki digambarkan secara berikut.
- kuat - lemah- agresif - pasif- berdikari - tdk mampu diri- berorientasi - berorientasikan
objektif - subjektif
Seterusnya penulis akan membentangkan penemuan-penemuanpenting dari kajian yang telah dijalankan.
PROF AIL AM
1. Umur Peratus21-30 31.8%31-40 37.9%41-50 30.3%
2. Status Perkahwinan
Bujang 18.2%Berkahwin 69.7%Janda 10.5%
3. Taraf Pendidikan
Sekolah Rendah 23.1%Sekolah Menengah 44.6%Kolej/universiti 21.5%Sijil-sijil dalam bidangkeusahawanan atau yangsetaraf dengannya 10.8%
54
Pada amnya kita dapat melihat bahawa ada perkembangan yangpositif di negara kita. Di mana kita dapat melihat bahawa lebih limapuluh peratus daripada usahawan wanita adalah dalam lingkunganusia yang muda iaitu antara 21 - 40 tahun. Ini menunjukkan kerajaanmempunyai harapan untuk meningkatkan lagi penglibatan merekakerana usahawan-usahawan wanita ini telahpun mula menjinak-jinakkan diri dalam bidang usahawan. Satu lagi faktor di sini ialahkebanyakan usahawan wanita ini telah berkahwin (70%). Peratus inimenunjukkan walaupun telah berumahtangga ianya tidak menjadihalangan untuk mereka menceburkan diri dalam bidang perniagaan.Maka ianya tidaklah seperti tanggapan orang ramai di mana tempatwanita adalah di dapur.
Mengenai taraf pendidikan mereka kebanyakkan adalah sama adasekolah menengah atau sekolah rendah. Di samping itu 10.8% sahajamempunyai sijil-sijil dalam bidang keusahawanan atau yang setarafdengannya. Maka ini merupakan satu faktor yang perlu diperhatikankerana tidak ramai yang mendapat pengetahuan secara formal mengenaiselok belok perniagaan. Pengetahuan formal ini merupakan salah satufaktor yang penting dalam membantu usahawan berjaya dalam pernia-gaannya. Kemahiran melalui pengalaman boleh diperolehi, tetapibersama-sama dengan pengetahuan formal ini ianya akan menjadikanusahawan itu lebih peka dalam mengendalikan urusan niaganya.
Penemuan-penemuan penting yang berikut adalah mengenaipengalaman, latihan dan modal usahawan kecil wanita. Ianya adalahseperti dalam rajah yang berikut:
Pengalaman, Latihan dan Modal Peratus
1. Bekerja sendiri sebelum menceburkan diri dalambidang sekarang - 60
2. Bekerja dalam bidang yang sama (usahawan) - 50.83. Mendapat modal dari saudara mara dan simpanan sendiri - 564. Memerlukan modal sebanyak 55,000-510,000 - 445. Memilih bidang ini kerana berminat - 83.16. Perniagaan ini milik sendiri - 737. Menjalankan perniagaan selama 2 hingga 5 tahun - 508. Mempunyai kurang dari 10 pekerja - 84.69. Pekerja-pekerja dari adik beradik atau saudara-mara - 55.2
10. Tidak pernah mengikuti apa-apa kursus formal yangditawarkan oleh kerajaan - 55.3
11. Membuka perniagaan atas inisiatif sendiri - 93.812. Tidak setuju untuk makan gaji jika diberi pilihan - 9013. Tidak setuju bahawa bekerja dengan kerajaan member!
mereka status yang tinggi berbanding dengan apa yangmereka lakukan sekarang - 80
55
Secara amnya kita dapat melihat bahawa kebanyakan merekasebelum menceburkan diri dalam bidang usahawan bekerja sendiridan dalam bidang yang sama atau yang berkaitan dengan perniagaanmereka. Bermakna jika dahulu mereka makan gaji mengambil upahmenjahit pakaian, sekarang mereka telah membuka kedai jahit sendiri,Majoriti daripada mereka menceburkan diri dalam bidang yang mere-ka pilih kerana berminat.
Mengenai modal mereka, kebanyakan memerlukan modal antara$5,000 dan 310,000 ringgit. Walaupun modal yang mereka perlukankecil, tetapi malangnya kebanyakan terpaksa mendapatkannya darisaudara mara ataupun simpanan sendiri.
Separuh daripada usahawan kecil wanita ini merupakan orangbaru dalam perniagaan yang mana perniagaan mereka adalah antara 2hingga 5 tahun. Mereka juga tidak mempunyai pembantu yang ramai,iaitu 84.6% mempunyai kurang daripada 10 orang pekerja. Dankebanyakan daripada mereka adalah adik beradik sendiri ataupunsaudara mara. Ini merupakan satu halangan kerana kebanyakan mere-ka kekurangan modal dan dengan itu mereka tidak dapat mengambilramai pembantu, dan ini kerapkali menganggu mereka dalam mengen-dalikan pasaran dan permintaan pelanggan.
Bukan sahaja kebanyakan mereka adalah orang baru dalam arenaini, malah lebih separuh daripada mereka tidak pernah mengikut apa-apa kursus formal yang ditawarkan oleh kerajaan. Walhal latihan ituamat penting untuk meningkatkan pengetahuan dalam mengendalikanperniagaan mereka. Seterusnya lebih 93% daripada mereka membukaperniagaan atas inisiatif sendiri. Maka ini merupakan satu lagi ciri-ciripositif di mana wanita itu tidaklah pasif seperti yang dikatakan selalu,tetapi mempunyai motivasi dan sanggup menghadapi cabaran. Disamping itu mereka juga memandang tinggi bidang usahawan kerana90% daripada mereka tidak setuju bahawa bekerja dengan kerajaanmemberi mereka status yang tinggi berbanding dengan apa yang mere-ka lakukan sekarang. Perlu diingatkan bahawa kebanyakan merekaadalah kecil dalam bidang makanan, teksitil jahitan dan bermodalkankurang daripada $10,000. Ini menunjukkan mereka yakin denganusaha mereka walaupun perniagaan mereka kecil.
Sikap
Seterusnya adalah mengenai sikap usahawan wanita seperti yangditunjukkan dalam gambarajah berikut.
Sikap Peratus
Tidak harus mengutamakan persahabatan, kemurahanhati serta sifat malu atau segan. - 62.1
56
Menjadi usahawan bukan kerana ingin dikenali (terkenal). - 65.1
Tidak percaya bahawa kejayaan dalam keusahawananbergantung kepada jantina. - 85
Usahawan wanita masih boleh menghadapiberbagai cabaran. - 74.2
Percaya terhadap usaha sendiri. - 82.7
Mengatakan telah berjaya dengan adanyasokongan dan bantuan dari pihak swasta. - 1.9
Masalah mendapatkan bantu an-bantu an yangdisediakan adalah lebih tinggi untuk kaumwanita dari usahawan lelaki. - 56.5
Tidak tahu tentang wujudnya agensi-agensi kerajaandan swasia yang boleh membantu meningkatkanprestasi perniagaan mereka. - 72.2
Maklumat wujudnya agensi-agensi kerajaanyang boleh membantu:
- kurang tahu - 51.4tidak ambil tahu - 21.4
- merasa kewujudan agensi-agensi tidak penting - 21.4
Wanita juga mempunyai daya ketahanan yang tinggiterhadap tekanan dan berupaya mengendalikan perniagaansamabaik kalaupun tidak lebih baik dari kaum lelaki - 71.2
Secara amnya, sebahagian besar daripada masyarakat kitaberanggapan bahawa wanita itu lemah, emosional dan pasif. Namunbegitu data menunjukkan sebaliknya. Penemuan yang pertamamenunjukkan bahawa mereka tidak hams mengutamakan persaha-batan, kemurahan hati serta sifat malu atau segan. Ini menunjukkanmereka tegas dalam menjalankan perniagaan. Tanggapan yang meny-atakan wanita kebanyakkannya bersifat materialistik juga dapatdisangkal kerana ramai yang menjadi usahawan bukan kerana inginterkenal tetapi kerana minat dan yakin atas usaha sendiri, dan masihmempunyai sifat rendah diri.
Seterusnya walaupun ramai yang mengganggap bidang ini meru-pakan monopoli kaum lelaki tetapi ramai yang tidak percaya kejayaansebagai usahawan bergantung pada jantina dan yakin bahawakejayaan mereka adalah atas usaha sendiri (82.7%). Hakikat ini
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menunjukkan usahawan wanita tidak merasakan diri mereka lemah(74%), tetapi boleh menghadapi berbagai cabaran.
Lebih separuh daripada usahawan wanita mengatakan wanitalebih sukar untuk mendapatkan bantuan jika dibandingkan denganusahawan lelaki. Memandangkan hanya 15.7% sahaja yang men-gatakan mendapat sokongan kerajaan. Ini mungkin disebabkanramai (72.2%) tidak tahu tentang wujudnya agensi-a^ensi kerajaandan swasta yang boleh membantu meningkatkan prestasi perniagaanmereka. Ini disebabkan lebih separuh kurangtahu mengenai kewuju-dan agensi agensi tersebut, dan 21.4% memang tidak ambil tahu,dan 21.4% merasakan kewujudan agensi-agensi tidak penting.Maklumat ini penting kerana hampir setengah daripada usahawanwanita tidak mengambil berat mengenai maklumat wujudnya agensi-agensi kerajaan yang boleh membantu dalam meningkatkan pernia-gaan mereka. Keadaan ini hams diperbaiki, kerana tanpa maklumatdan bantuan kerajaan maupun dari pihak swasta hanya akan menje-jaskan peluang mereka dalam perniagaan. Dan dari sumber-sumbermaklumat dan bantuan yang sedemikianlah mereka boleh membe-sarkan dan mempertingkatkan perniagaan mereka, agar tidak hanyabergantung kepada modal sendiri atau saudara mara sahaja dan disamping itu dapat mempelajari selok belok perniagaan dan cara-caramengendalikan perniagaan kerana kebanyakkannya adalah berpen-didikan rendah.
Sebagai wanita mereka tidak dapat lari dari tanggungjawabrumahtangga. Seterusnya adalah mengenai persoalan pembahagianperanan rumahtangga dan kerja.
Persoalan pembahagian peranan rumahtanggan - kerja Peratus
Kegiatan perniagaan jarang sekali menjejaskanpenumpuan mereka terhadap masalah rumahtangga - 95.3
Tidak setuju bahawa usahawan wanita yang berjaya tidakmempunyai ciri-ciri kewanitaan dan justeru itu kurangkebolehan dalam peranan sebagai pembimbing rumahtangga - 87.8
Tidak setuju wanita mengutamakan masalah rumahtanggadaripada masalah di tempat kerja - 73.9
Sepertimana yang dirujuk dari rajah di atas, lebih 95% daripadausahawan wanita mengatakan penyertaan mereka sebagai usahawantidak menjejaskan tumpuan rnereka terhadap rumahtangga. Inimenunjukkan mereka peka dalam membahagikan masa antara kerjadan tanggungjawab di rumah.
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Sepertimana tanggapan masyarakat bahawa kebanyakan wanitatidak dapat berjaya dalam dunia yang penuh dengan cabaran danmenjadi pembimbing anak-anak pada masa yang sama. 87.8% tidaksetuju bahawa wanita akan hilang ciri-ciri kewanitaan dan justeru itukurang kebolehan dalam peranan wanita ini juga berpendapat bahawamereka berupaya menyelesaikan masalah di tempat kerja maupun dirumah. Mereka pandai membahagikan masa untuk keluarga dan per-niagaan. Perlu diingatkan di sini bahawa ramai wanita yang terpaksabekerja dua kali lebih besar untuk menunjukkan bahawa mereka beru-paya menjalankan tugas mereka dengan kerjaya.
Rumusan Kajian
Secara amnya dari penemuan di atas kita dapat merumuskanseperti yang berikut: iaitu ciri positif usahawan kecil wanita ialah:
1. Mempunyai cita-cita untuk membangunkan perniagaan.
2. Sanggup menyediakan modal dengan usaha sendiri atau pinja-man dari saudara mara.
3. Mempunyai minat dalam bidang ini dan ada peluang untukmeningkatkan diri dalam bidang yang diceburi.
4. Keupayaan untuk menghadapi tekanan menunjukkan merekasanggup menghadapi cabaran.
5. Mereka tidak berapa gemar untuk makan gaji. Jika ada pilihan,menunjukkan boleh bergantung pada diri sendiri.
6. Kebanyakan usahawan wanita berpendapat wanita boleh mence-burkan diri dalam bidang usahawan dan tidak menjejaskan tang-gungjawab mereka pada rumahtangga.
Seterusnya ciri-ciri usahawan kecil wanita yang perlu diatasiialah :
1. usahawan wanita menghadapi masalah dalam mendapatkanmodal, sama ada untuk memulakan atau memperkembangkanperniagaan.
2. kurang mengambil tahu tentang peluang-peluang yang disedi-akan dan kurang menerima/tidak tahu tentang bantuan sepertikhidmat nasihat atau latihan dari pihak kerajaan dan swasta.
a. tahap pendidikan yang rendah dan kurang pengetahuan menge-nai pengurusan moden.
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Cadangan
Setelah kita meninjau penemuan di atas maka halanganpenglibatan wanita, dalam bidang usahawan perlu dikaji dari banyakaspek. Mengikut El-Namaki, 1989 jenis-jenis halangan yang seringdihadapi oleh usahawan wanita dalam membangunkan bidang usa-hawan mereka ialah seperti berikut:
1. Halangan struktur (teknologi, kredit)2. Halangan pekerjaan (tradisional, kemahiran dll.)3. Halangan pendidikan (latihan dan vokasional)4. Halangan sosial dan budaya (nilai dan norraa)5. Halangan peranan (status, minoriti, ciri-ciri kepimpinan)6. Halangan tingkahlaku (keyakinan diri, harga diri, dll.)
Kesemua halangan ini jika tidak di atasi boleh berlaku dan akanmembelenggu penglibatan usahawan wanita dan akan terusmenanamkan sifat stereotaip dan tanggapan negatif terhadap mereka.
Di antara cara-cara untuk mengatasi halangan usahawan wanitaialah pertama memberikan bantuan atau nasihat dari segi jenis danlapangan perniagaan yang hendak diceburi. Ini disebabkan ada yangmasih ragu-ragu dan tidak tahu yang mana yang perlu mereka ceburimemandangkan ramai mempunyai pengalaman yang kurang dalamarena ini.
Seterusnya teknik-teknik jualan juga harus diperkenalkan keranakebanyakkannya berniaga secara setempat dan untuk mengurangkanpersaingan mereka harus diberi tajuk dalam memperluaskan lagi skopjualan, misalnya memperkenalkan produk mereka ke seluruh negaradan mengadakan pengiklanan. Faktor ini perlu diberikan perhatiankerana kebanyakan pengusaha kecil menghadapi persaingan sesamasendiri apabila sesuatu perusahaan atau pengeluaran berasaskan sum-ber tempatan yang hanya tertumpu di satu-satu kawasan sahaja. Olehkerana perniagaan usahawan wanita berskala kecil maka selain dari-pada masalah pengurusan, kerana mereka kurang bersedia dengansumber maklumat, kajian pasaran, mutu dan hal teknikal sepertibungkusan dan reka bentuk mereka juga tidak peka dengan arah turunnaiknya permintaan pasaran. Maka garis panduan umum mengenaibarangan, pasaran, persaingan harus diperkenalkan, lebih-lebih lagikepada pendatang baru dalam arena usahawan ini. Dengan itu usaha-usaha untuk meningkatkan penglibatan mereka dalam kursus-kursuskeusahawan perlu difikirkan.
Di samping itu usahawan kecil wanita menghadapi masalahjurang teknologi yang besar, dengan rata-rata belum mencapai tahapyang tinggi. Sebahagian besar pengusaha kecil masih bersifat tradi-
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sional dalam pengerakan serta teknik pengeluaran mereka. Dengan ituhasil dan mutu pengeluaran juga akan menjadi rendah dan tidakdapat memenuhi kehendak dan kualiti pasaran.
Menyentuh tentang kursus seperti mana yang kita dapati dalamkajian ini, tidak ramai yang tahu tentang wujudnya kursus-kursussedemikian, walaupun terdapat begitu banyak program-program yangwujud untuk meningkatkan usahawan. Contohnya seperti yang ditun-jukkan dalam gambarajah berikut:
1. MEDEC (Malaysian Enterpreneurial Development Centre).
2. NPC (Perbadanan Produktiviti Negara).
3. MARA (untuk Bumiputra).
4. Kementerian Belia dan Sukan (Untuk usahawan-usahawanmuda).
5. Pusat Pembangunan untuk peniaga kecil (UPM).
6. Pusat Pembangunan Usahawan untuk graduan (dikendalikanoleh JPA).
7. Pusat Pembangunan Usahawan, iaitu suatu program usahasamadenganMARDIPORIMFRIM (Forest)CIAST (Centre for Instructor and Advanced Training Skill).
8. CIAST mengadakan usahasama dengan Pusat Latihan Belia.
Dari penyelidikan penulis walaupun program-program usa-hawan adalah banyak tetapi terdapat rungutan bahawa tidak ramaipeserta. Ini mungkin disebabkan di samping ramai yang kurangtahu mengenainya, kebanyakan kursus dianjurkan di bandar-ban-dar besar dan bukannya di kawasan setempat usahawan. Terdapatjuga kursus-kursus lain yang berjangka masa panjang dan ada yangsampai enam bulan. Ini merupakan masalah besar kepada pengusa-ha kerana kebanyakan mereka menjalankan sendiri perniagaanmereka di samping masalah kekurangan pekerja. Selain daripadaitu kebanyakkan kursus-kursus juga mengenakan bayaran antara$400 - $3000 yang mana adalah tinggi untuk usahawan-usahawankecil. Dari itu kelayakan kursus itu haruslah diadakan dengankerap, padat dan pendek di samping memperbanyakkan latihanpercuma.
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Satu lagi masalah utama dan yang serius adalah masalah modal.Kebanyakannya menggunakan modal sendiri atau saudara mara.Dengan itu mereka tidak dapat memperkembangkan perniagaan danakan berada di takuk lama. Kebanyakan mereka sukar mendapatkanmodal dari bank. Selalunya pihak bank akan mengambil kira faktor-faktor asas dalam membuat pinjaman, iaitu sikap, modal dan syarat-syarat pinjaman, penjamin dan sandaran. Manakala pengusaha sendirimempunyai masalah yang menyebabkan bank tidak meluluskan pinja-man. Lazimnya masalah mereka adalah pengusaha tidak ada akaun diBank, modal yang dikeluarkan oleh pengusaha adalah lebih kecil dari-pada pinjaman yang diharapkan. Seterusnya sikap pengusaha, iaitumohon pinjaman hari ini dan berharap diluluskan esok, tidak mempu-nyai pengalaman dalam bidang yang dtceburi, tidak tahu dengan tepatberapa banyak yang diperlukan untuk membuka perniagaan dan tidakada rancangan perniagaan juga menjadi batu penghalang dalam men-dapatkan pinjaman perniagaan mereka.
Melihatkan masalah yang sedemikian bank-bank harusmemainkan peranan yang penting iaitu memperbanyakkan lagi skim-skim yang mudah untuk membuat pinjaman dengan kadar faedah yangrendah dan pinjaman jangka masa panjang. Bercakap tentang sikap,sikap stereotaip pegawai-pegawai bank juga harus diperbaiki denganmemberi peluang yang lebih banyak kepada usahawan wanita.Misalnya, mengikut Presiden Usahawan Wanita Bumiputra DatinSalmah Supawan, pengalaman telah membuktikan kaum wanita lebihbertanggungjawab dan peka dalam membayar balik pinjaman atauhutang mereka dengan mana-mana institusi kewangan berbandingdengan kaum lelaki. Seterusnya sikap bank lebih mengutamakankeuntungan dari memberi perkhidmatan untuk meningkatkan tarafhidup wanita yang berkecimpung dalam perniagaan juga harus diubah.
Ramai juga wanita gagal mendapat pinjaman dan kemudahankredit dengan bank kerana tidak cekap dalam membuat kertas kerjapinjaman, memandangkan ramai berkelulusan rendah. Maka harusada inisiatif untuk membantu mereka. Seterusnya pihak bank jugabukan sahaja mengutamakan pinjaman tetapi perlu disusuli denganperkhidmatan selepas pinjaman dan memberikan perundingan per-cuma ketika mereka menghadapi kesukaran dalam perniagaan bagimenjamin kejayaan usahawan kecil wanita yang berkenaan.
Akhir sekali sikap stereotaip bahawa wanita tidak berupaya men-jalankan dua kerjaya harus dikikis. Memandangkan dasar kepen-dudukan 70 juta akan dicapai lebih awal daripada yang dijangkakan,maka kerajaan juga harus menyediakan lebih banyak pusat-pusat pen-jagaan kanak-kanak yang berkualiti ianya penting kerana dapat mem-bantu mengurangkan beban wanita dalam menjalankan perniagaan.Memandangkan lebih ramai lagi wanita yang akan berkecimpung
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dalam ekonomi negara pada masa akan datang. Ini juga adalah selarasdengan kehendak Wawasan 2020 untuk membina masyarakat yangbukan sahaja maju tetapi penyayang.
Kesimpulan
Memandangkan negara kita sekarang ini giat berusaha untukmelengkapkan diri menjadi negara yang maju lagi moden menjelangtahun 2020, maka peranan wanita sebagai usahawan juga tidak harusdiabaikan dalam pembangunan negara, kerana bukan sahaja bilanganwanita merupakan hampir separuh dari tenaga kerja di Malaysia,malahan bidang usahawan juga merupakan salah satu cara yang dapatmendokong cita-cita Wawasan 2020. Dengan menyediakan peluangyang lebih banyak kepada mereka yang menceburi bidang ini, negaraakan dapat meningkatkan ekonomi serta kualiti kehidupan rakyatnya.
RUJUKAN
A.Aziz Deraman. Budaya niaga usahawan Melayu. Mastika, Okt., 1990.
Baharudin Omar. Delima peniaga bermodal kecil di ibu kota. Mastika, Feb.1990
Ciri-ciri dan kuatiti usahawan berdaya maju. Utusan Malaysia, 1/7/1991.
Data' Khalid Ibrahim. Bahaya 'Broker Agen' dalam mencapai Wawasan 2020.Mastika, Ogos, 1991.
Dato' Seri Rafidah Aziz. Usahawan Melayu mesti ada disiplin. Mastika, Okt.,1990.
Kao, J. Entrepreneurship, Creativity and Organization, Englewood Cliff, N.J.:Prentice Hall, 1989.
Masabumi Suzuki. Outline of Japan's policies for SME. InternationalConference on SME, 28 - 30 May, 1990.
Mahmood, N.M. an exploration of the personality profile of small scale busi-ness bumipu t ra and non-bumipu t ra entrepreneurs. MalaysianManagement Review, 25, 2, Aug, 1990.
Mohd Yusuf. Usahawan kecil dan masalahnya. Dewan Masyarakat, Jan., 1988.
Pelan Induk Perindustrian. Dasar-dasar utama Kerajaan. INTAN, 1988.
Sabitha, M. G Mahmood, N.M. Profile, Challenges and Strategies of WomanEntrepreneurs. A case study in Northern Malaysia. Kertas kerja, XVIIPacific Science Congress, Hawaii, Mei, 1991.
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Sudin Haron. Small scale entrepreneurs; Perceptions of Malaysian commer-cial bankers. Malaysian Management Review, 25, 2 Aug. 1991.
Usahawan wanita tubuh persatuan. IUB, Sept. 1990.
Wanita tidak mampu buat keputusan punca gagat jadi pengurus. UtusanMalaysia, 14/8/1991.
Yep Putih. Keusahawanan. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 1989.
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Biodata
En. Guok Eng Chai ialah Pegawai Penjnding, diUnit Penyelidikan Produktiviti dan PembangunanSistem di bawah Jabatan Pengukuran danPenyelidikan Produktiviti, Perbadanan Produk-tiviti Negara (NPC).
Sebelum penyusunan semula struktur organisasi NPC, beliau menjalankan tugassebagai Pegawai Latihan dan Penyiasatan dalam bidang PerkembanganPengurusan (Management Development).
Beliau memperolehi Ijazah Sarjana Sastera (M.A.) dalam bidang Pengurusan,Universiti Sains Malaysia pada Ogos, 1991. Encik Guok pernah mengetuaibeberapa projek penyelidikan produktiviti dan kualiti anjuran NPC.
KESAN-KESAN KUMPULAN DAN PERSEKITARANKE ATAS KEBERKESANAN PERLAKUANKUMPULAN KERJA DILEMBAH KLANG,
SEMENANJUNG MALAYSIAGUOKENGCHAI
ABSTRAK
Rencana ini merupakan tesis penulis untuk memenuhi keperluan IjazahSarjana Sastera (M.A.) dalam bidang pengurusan, Universiti SainsMalaysia, Mei 1990. Artikel ini juga merupakan sambungan daripadarencana pertama tentang kajian tersebut di atas yang dikeluarkan dalamJurnal Produktiviti Bil 11 Disember 1991 yang menumpukan kepadapenemuan-penemuan berikut: (1) penemuan univariat; (2) penemuandwi-variat; dan (3) penemuan variat berganda.
PENGENALAN
Artikel ini mengemukakan penemuan penyelidikan berasaskandata yang diperolehi daripada soal-selidik kajian (sila lihat Lampiran1 dalam rencana pertama). Penemuan yang dikemukakan olehpengkaji di sini mengikut pembolehubah kumpulan dan persekitaran,pembolehubah proses kumpulan (termasuk sumber bahan) serta pem-bolehubah keberkesanan perlakuan kumpulan kerja; kesemua itu yangdibincangkan di bahagian rangka teoritis dalam rencana pertama.
Laporan penemuan univariat tentang pembolehubah-pemboleh-ubah tersebut dari segi corak taburan akan dibincangkan terlebihdahulu. Penemuan univariat itu akan juga menerangkan perbezaankeberkesanan perlakuan kumpulan kerja dari sudut jenis kumpulankerja 'Small Group Activity'- (SGA) yang disukat dengan nisbah "F".Seterusnya perhubungan dwi-variat di antara pembolehubah kumpu-lan dan persekitaran serta pembolehubah proses kumpulan (termasuksumber bahan) dengan keberkesanan perlakuan kumpulan kerja akandikemukakan. Akhirnya artikel ini akan membincangkan penemuantentang perkaitan variat berganda di antara pembolehubah-pemboleh-ubah tersebut.
Artikel ini juga menekankan penemuan empirik tentang modelkeberkesanann perlakuan kumpulan kerja di Semenanjung Malaysia.Untuk menguji perkaitan variat berganda, kajian ini menggunakanrosot kembali (Multiple Regression) berganda dua kuasa terkecil.
66
Analisis variat berganda itu akan menganggap pembolehubah kumpu-lan dan persekitaran serta pembolehubah proses kumpulan (termasuksumber bahan) sebagai pembolehubah antejadian sepertimana dit-erangkan dalam rencana pertama. Dari penemuan penyelidikan yangdiperoleh kita dapat menentukan samada data empirik mempunyaikonsistenan demi menyokong model keberkesanan perlakuan kumpu-lan kerja.
PENEMUAN UNIVARIAT
Taburan kekerapan untuk selurub, sampel (Jadual 1) tentang per-atusan cadangan projek diterima oleh pengurusan menunjukkan satukadar penerimaan yang sangat tinggi secara perbandingan. 76.5 pera-tus sampel itu melaporkan kadar penerimaan sebanyak 80 peratus keatas, manakala 87.9 peratus melaporkan kadar penerimaan 60 peratuske atas.
JADUAL IKOD-KODIDENTIFIKASI DAN TABURAN UNIVARIAT
UNTUK PEMBOLEHUBAH-PEMBOLEHUBAH YANGDIGUNAKAN DALAM KAJIAN INI
Kod-kod Pembolehubah-pembolehubah N %
Pembolehubah Berg ant ung:Keberkesanan Perlakuan Kumpulan Kerja
Yj Peratusan Cadangan ProjekDiterima oleh Pengurusan (CADANG)
Di bawah 20% 0 020-39% 3 2.340 - 59% 13 9.860-79% 15 11.480% ke atas 101 76.5
132 100.0
Skor Kesanggupan Ahli-Ahli KumpulanBekerjasama Secara Pasukan (PASUKAN)
Kurang dari 4 markah 0 04-5markah 4 3.06 - 7 markah 8 6.18-9 markah 33 25.0
10-11 markah 45 34.1
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JADUAL 1, SAMBUNGAN
Kod-kod Pembolehubah-pembolehubah N %
12-13markah 30 22.7Melebihi 13markah 12 9.1
132 100.0
Y3 Skor Kejayaan Perubahan Sikap PositifAhli-Ahli Kumpulan Hasil DaripadaPengalaman Kumpulan (SIKAP)
Kurang dari 4 markah 1 0.84 - 5 markah 0 06 - 7 markah 7 5.38-9 markah 33 25.0
10 - 11 markah 33 25.012 -13 markah 41 31.1Melebihi 13 markah 17 12.8
132 100.0
Pembolehubah Antejadian:Faktor Kumpulan dan Persekitaran,Faktor Proses Kumpulan serta Sumber Bah an
Xl Skor Proses Intra Kumpulan (INTRA)
Kurang dari 6 markah 0 06-8 markah 0 09 -11 markah 4 3.0
12 -14 markah 8 6.115 -17 markah 46 34.818 - 20 markah 58 43.9Melebihi 20 markah 16 12.2
132 100.0
X2 Sejauhmanakah Perbincangan StrategiDipraktikkan (STRATEGI)
(1) TidakPernah 25 18.9(2) Antara di bawah Kadang-Kadang dan
Tidak Pernah 9 6.8(3) Di bawah Kadang-Kadang 10 7.6(4) Kadang-Kadang 30 22.7
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JADUAL 1, SAMBUNGAN
Kod-kod Pembolehubah-pembolehubah N %
(5) Di atas Kadang-Kadang 20 15.2(6) Antara di atas Kadang-Kadang dan Selalu 16 12.1(7) Selalu 22 16.7
132 100.0
X3 Sejauhmanakah Pertimbangan InputIndividu Dipraktikkan (INPUT)
(1) TidakPernah 3 2.3(2) Antara di bawah Kadang-Kadang dan
TidakPernah 3 2.3(3) Di bawah Kadang-Kadang 5 3.8(4) Kadang-Kadang 32 24.2(5) Di atas Kadang-Kadang 33 25.0(6) Antara di atas Kadang-Kadang dan Selalu 29 22.0(7) Selalu 27 20.4
132 100.0
Skor Pengurusan Sempadan (SEMPADAN)
Kurang dari 4 markah 35 26.54-5 markah 51 38.66-7markah 23 17.48-9 markah 15 11.4
10-11 markah 5 3.812 -13 markah 1 0.8Melebihi 13 markah 2 1.5
132 100.0
X5 Sejauhmanakah LengkapnyaSumber-Sumber Bahan (BAHAN)
(1) Tidak Lengkap Langsung 5 3.8(2) Antara di bawah Sederhana dan Tidak
Lengkap Langsung 4 3.0(3) Di bawah Sederhana 4 3.0(4) Sederhana 18 13.6(5) Di atas Sederhana 11 8.3(6) Antara di atas Sederhana dan Sangat
Lengkap 31 23.5
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JADUAL 1, SAMBUNGAN
Kod-kod Pembolehubah-pembolehubah N %
(7) Sangat Lengkap 59 44.8
132 100.0
X6 Pembahagian Jantina (LELAKI1)
Dibawah20% 31 23.520-39% 16 12.140 - 59% 9 6.860-79% 16 12.180% ke atas 60 45.5
132 100.0
Kombinasi Keturunan (TURUN)
(1) Satu Kombinasi 14 10.6Melayu/Cina/India (termasuk dll.)
(2) Dua Kombinasi 56 42.4(Melayu dan Cina)[Melayu dan India (termasuk dll.)][Cina dan India (termasuk dll.)]
(3) Tiga Kombinasi 62 47,0[Melayu, Cina, dan India (termasuk dll.}]
132 100.0
X8 Sejauhmanakah Tahap Pelbagai Kebolehandan Kemahiran (KEBOLEH)
(1) Rendah 1 0.8(2) AntaradibawahSederhana dan Rendah 6 4.5(3) Di bawah Sederhana 11 8.3(4) Sederhana 42 31.8(5) Di atas Sederhana 40 30.3(6) Antara di atas Sederhana dan Tinggi 27 20.5(7) Tinggi 5 3.8
132 100.0
1 Menunjukkan perkadaran bilangan ahli-ahli lelaki berbanding dengan ah l i -ah l iperempuan.
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JADUAL l, SAMBUNGAN
Kod-kod Pembolehubah-pembolehubah
Xg Skor Kesepaduan (SEPADU)
Kurang dari 4 markah4 - 5 markah6 - 7 markah8-9 markah
10-11 markah12 - 13 markahMelebihi 13 markah
X10 Skor Kepimpinan (PIMPIN)
Kurang dari 4 markah4 - 5 markah6 - 7 markah8-9 markah
10-11 markah12 - 13 markahMelebihi 13 markah
N
006
19444320
132
04
1533392318
%
004.5
14.433.332.615.2
100.0
03.0
11.425.029.517.413.7
132 100.0
Xn Sejauhmanakah Aktifnya Komunikasi (KOM)
(1) Tidak Aktif Langsung 2 1.5(2) Antara di bawah Sederhana dan Tidak
Aktif Langsung 1 0.8(3) Di bawah Sederhana 4 3.0(4) Sederhana 35 26.5(5) Di atas Sederhana 24 18.2(6) Antara di atas Sederhana dan
Terlalu Aktif 40 30.3(7) Terlalu Aktif 26 19.7
132 100.0
Saiz Purata Kumpulan (SAIZ)
Kurang dari 6 ahli-ahli 23 17.46-9 ahli-ahli 76 57.6
10 - 13 ahli-ahli 29 22.0
71
JADUAL 1, SAMBUNGAN
Kod-kod
X13
X14
Xis
^16
Pembolehub ah-p embolehub ah
14 - 17 ahli-ahliMelebihi 17 ahli-ahli
Jenis Kumpulan Kerja (SGA) (JENIS)
(!) BukanQCC(2) QCC
Skor Teknik Keputusan Berkumpulan
Kurang dari 10 markah10-14 markah15-19 markah20 - 24 markah25 - 29 markah30 - 34 markahMelebihi 34 markah
Skor Alat Statistik (ALAT)
Kurang dari 14 markah14 - 20 markah21-27 markah28 - 34 markah35 -41 markah42 -48 markahMelebihi 48 markah
Skor Pembahagian Tugas (BAHAGI)
Kurang dari 4 markah4 - 5 markah6-7 markah8-9 markah
10 - 11 markah
N
13
132
3993
132
(TEKNIK]
07
255137120
132
77
22423813
3
132
111153135
%
0.82.2
100.0
29.570.5
100.0
05.3
18.938.628.0
9.20
100.0
5.35.3
16.731.828.89.82.3
100.0
0.88.3
11.423.526.5
72
JADUAL 1, SAMBUNGAN
Kod-kod Pembolehubah-pembolehubah N %
12-13 markah 22 16.7Melebihi 13 markah 17 12.8
132 100.0
:17 Pembahagian Jam Mesyuarat (PEJABAT1)
Di bawah 20% 7 5.320-39% 3 2.340 - 59% 6 4.560 - 79% 6 4.580%keatas 110 83.4
132 100.0
:18 Skor Latihan (LATIH)
Kurang dari 20 markah 9 6.820 - 29 markah 7 5.330-39 markah 16 12.140-49 markah 37 28.050-59 markah 47 35.660-69 markah 15 11.4Melebihi 69 markah 1 0.8
132 100.0
X19 Skor Sistem Maklumat (MAKLUM)
Kurang dari 4 markah 1 0.84 - 5 markah 6 4.56 -7 markah 10 7.68-9 markah 26 19.7
10-11 markah 46 34.812 -13 markah 29 22.0Melebihi 13 markah 14 10.6
132 100.0
1 Menunjukkan perkadaran jam waktu pejabat yang digunakan dalam mengendalikanmesyuarat berbanding dengan jam waktu sendiri.
73
JADUAL 1, SAMBUNGAN
Kod-kod Pembolehubah-pembolehubah N %
X20 Skor Sistem Ganjaran (GANJAR)
Kurangdari 2 markah 34 25.82 -3 markah 44 33.34 -5 markah 33 25.06-7markah 15 11.4
Melebihi 7 markah 6 4.5
132 100.0
X21 Skor Sokongan Pengurusan (SOKONG)
Kurang dari 8 markah 1 0.88-11 markah 1 0.8
12 -15 markah 13 9.816 - 19 markah 31 23.520-23 markah 39 29.524 -27 markah 37 28.0Melebihi 27 markah 10 7.6
132 100.0
Dari jadual tersebut di atas kita dapati 90.9 peratus sampel itumengatakan bahawa mereka sanggup bekerjasama secara pasukan diantara "sederhana" dan "sangat sanggup" sepertimana dicerminkanoleh pencapaian skor 8 markah ke atas pada skel kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan. Di samping itu 31.8 per-atus sampel itu melaporkan bahawa ahli-ahli kumpulan mereka ham-pir sangat sanggup bekerjasama secara pasukan sepertimana dicer-minkan oleh pencapaian skor 12 markah ke atas pada skel kesanggu-pan ahli-ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan.
Tentang sejauhmanakah kejayaan perubahan sikap positif ahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan, 93.9 peratussampel itu mengatakan bahawa kegiatan kumpulan mereka adalah diantara "sederhana berjaya" dan "amat berjaya" sepertimana dicer-minkan oleh pencapaian skor 8 markah ke atas pada skel kejayaanperubahan sikap positif ahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripada pengala-man kumpulan. Manakala 43.9 peratus sampel itu melaporkanbahawa kegiatan kumpulan mereka hampir amat berjaya dalam men-capai perubahan sikap positif ahli-ahli kumpulan sepertimana dicer-minkan oleh pencapaian skor 12 markah ke atas pada skel kejayaan
74
perubahan sikap positif ahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripada pengala-man kumpulan.
Nampaknya taburan-taburan untuk pembahagian jantina, kombi-nasi keturunan, saiz purata kumpulan, jenis kumpulan kerja (SGA),pembahagian jam mesyuarat, dan skor sistem ganjaran menunjukkandarjah-darjah kepencongan (skewness) yang berlainan. Begitu jugadengan pembolehubah-pembolehubah seperti proses intra kumpulan,perbincangan strategi, pertimbangan input individu, pengurusan sem-padan, sumber bahan, kebolehan dan kemahiran, kesepaduan,kepimpinan, komunikasi, teknik keputusan berkumpulan, alat statis-tik, pembahagian tugas, latihan, sistem maklumat, dan sokongan pen-gurusan. Kepencongan-kepencongan itu mencerminkan beberapa biasdalam sampel; kebanyakan kumpulan memperolehi bilangan ahli-ahlilelaki yang tinggi berbanding dengan ahli-ahli perempuan; kombinasiMelayu, Cina, dan India (termasuk dll.) yang tinggi serta saiz purata 6hinggaQ ahli-ahli.
Perbezaan Jenis Kumpulan Kerja (SGA)
Satu set penemuan yang penting dalam kajian ini mempertim-bangkan tentang wujudnya perbezaan jenis kumpulan kerja (SGA)dari segi keberkesanan perlakuan kumpulan kerja. Sampel sampinganQCC dan Bukan QCC adalah berbeza apabila perbezaan di antara vari-ans-varians masing-masing diuji secara berertian dari segi statistikoleh nisbah "F". Jadual 2 menunjukkan perbezaan berertian secarastatistik di antara QCC dan Bukan QCC dari sudut pengurusan sem-padan, pembahagian jantina, kesepaduan, saiz purata kumpulan, alatstatistik, pembahagian jam mesyuarat, latihan, dan sokongan penguru-san. Sebaliknya jadual tersebut menunjukkan persamaan taburanskor di antara sampel sampingan QCC dan Bukan QCC dari segi pera-tusan cadangan projek diterima oleh pengurusan, kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan, kejayaan perubahan sikappositif ahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan,proses intra kumpulan, perbincangan strategi, pertimbangan inputindividu, sumber bahan, kombinasi keturunan, kebolehan dankemahiran, kepimpinan, komunikasi, teknik keputusan berkumpu-lan, pembahagian tugas, sistem maklumat, dan sistem ganjaran.Antara pembolehubah-pembolehubah itu, terdapat persamaan yangbegitu rapat terutama dari segi proses intra kumpulan, sumber bahan,dan kombinasi keturunan.
Kesimpulannya sampel tentang "Small Group Activity" (SGA)dalam kajian ini menunjukkan pencapaian yang tinggi dari segi: pera-tusan cadangan projek diterima oleh pengurusan; kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan; dan kejayaan perubahansikap positif ahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripada pengalaman kumpu-
75
lan, Walau bagaimanapun sampel itu tidak menunjukkan perbezaanjenis kumpulan kerja (SGA) yang berertian dari segi aspek-aspekkeberkesanan perlakuan kumpulan kerja. Sebaliknya terdapat per-bezaan-perbezaan yang penting di antara sampel sampingan QCC danBukan QCC dari segi pembolehubah-pembolehubah antejadian sepertipengurusan sempadan, pembahagian jantina, kesepaduan (cohesive-ness), saiz purata kumpulan, alat statistik, pembahagian jammesyuarat, latihan, dan sokongan pengurusan.
JADUAL2PERBEZAAN JENIS KUMPULAN KERJA (SGA) DARI SEGI
PURATA, SISIHAN PIAWAI (S.P), NISBAH "F", DAN UJIAN "t"UNTUK PEMBOLEHUBAH-PEMBOLEHUBAH DALAM KAJIAN INI
QCC*(N - 93)
Y! CADANGY2 PASUKANY3 SIKAPX: INTRAXz STRATEGIX3 INPUTX4 SEMPADANX5 BAHANX6 LELAKIX7 TURUNX8 KEBOLEHX9 SEPADUX10 PIMPINXn KOMXj2 SAIZX14 TEKNIKX15 ALATX16 BAHAGIX17 PEJABATX16 LATIHX19 MAKLUMX20 GANJARX21 SOKONG
X
86.76310.49510.50517.2693.871
5.2044.9685.753
48.2952.3554.409
10.98910.2475.1618.495
23.93533.699
9.71085.43548.290
9.968
3.903
20.710
S.P.
19.0762.3892.4082.6222.117
1.3402.3471.640
39.2420.6861.0962.1642.3391.2622.8464.6696.7512.925
29.719
11.0222.594
2.027
4.951
Bukan QCC*(N = 39)
x"
87.179
10.23111.05117.8974.6925.0265.7695.538
87.1632.3855.154
12.07710.2825.5907.128
20.20526.9239.769
97.92141.20511.051
1.359
22.077
S.P.
20.7051.9391.8632.5211.7791.5813.0991.668
18.6090.6331.2471.5112.8001.3903.7154.503
12.0532.7096.821
18.6382.2351.709
3.710
Nisbah
1.18
1.521.671.081.421.391.74a
1.034.45b
1.17
1.292.05a
0.01
1.211.70a
1.08
3.19b1.17
18.98b
2.86b
1.351.41
1.78a
Ujian"t"
0.112-0.610
1.2651.2712.127a
-0.6621.450
-0.6827.706b
0.2333.4213.296b
0.073
1.726
-2.0583
-4.232b
-3.300b
0.1093.819b
-2,217b
2.277s
-6.876b
1.742
a = Paras keertian .05b = Paras keertian .01*X13 = QCC, Bukan QCC
76
PENEMUAN DWI-VARIAT
Analisis penemuan dwi-variat di bahagian ini berdasarkanmatriks korelasi (zero order) bagi setiap dimensi keberkesanan per-lakuan kumpulan kerja. Dimensi itii ialah peratusan cadangan projekditerima oleh pengurusan (Yj), kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bek-erjasama secara pasukan (Y2), dan kejayaan perubahan sikap positifahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan (Y3),Dalam membuat analisis matriks korelasi bagi setiap dimensi tersebut,kesan jenis kumpulan kerja (SGA) iaitu QCC dan Bukan QCC akandijadikan konstan. Ini membolehkan kita menganalisis pemboleh-ubah yang mempunyai perkaitan berertian secara statistik denganlebih sistematik dan terkawal.
Peratusan Cadangan Projek Diterima Oleh Pihak Pengurusan (YJ
Jadual 3 menunjukkan matriks korelasi untuk seluruh sampel.Pembolehubah-pembolehubah dalam model empirik yang mempunyaiperkaitan-perkaitan secara berertian dari segi statistik dengan peratu-san cadangan projek diterima oleh pengurusan (Ya) merangkumi pem-bolehubah proses kumpulan seperti proses intra kumpulan, penguru-san sempadan, dan sumber bahan serta pembolehubah kumpulan danpersekitaran iaitu saiz purata kumpulan, sistem maklumat, dan sokon-gan pengurusan. Antara korelasi-korelasi itu, terdapat lima korelasiterbaik seperti proses intra kumpulan, Xj (r=.286); pengurusan sem-padan, X4 (r=.222); saiz purata kumpulan, X12 (r=-.238); sistem mak-lumat, X19 (r=.228); dan sokongan pengurusan, X2i (r=.227). Korelasiyang baik ialah sumber bahan , X5 (r=.180).
Perbezaan Jenis Kumpulan Kerja (SGA): Apabila identiti jeniskumpulan kerja (SGA) dijadikan konstan, terdapat satu corak1 perkai-tan dwi-variat dalam sampel sampingan QCC (Jadual 4) yang hampirsama dengan seluruh sampel. Kecuali pengurusan sempadan, sumberbahan, dan sistem maklumat, terdapat perkaitan secara berertian diantara peratusan cadangan projek diterima oleh pengurusan dan pem-bolehubah antejadian yang tertentu dalam sampel sampingan QCC.Korelasi-korelasi terbaik untuk peratusan cadangan projek diterimaoleh pengurusan merangkumi saiz purata kumpulan, X12 (r=—.284);dan sokongan pengurusan X2i (r=,311). Lain korelasi yang pentingtermasuk proses intra kumpulan, Xa (r=.245).
Mungkin keadaan ini wujud disebabkan oleh saiz sampel: sampel QCC adalah lebihbesar, lebih kurang 70 peratus dari seluruh sampel. Maka pekali-pekali dalam sam-pel QCC akan mempunyai nilai-nilai hampir dengan pekali-pekali dalam seluruhsampel, tetapi bukan semestinya dalam segala perhubungan. Tetapi disebabkan olehsaiz sampel yang lebih kecil (30 peratus dalam sampel Bukan QCC), pekali-pekalinya harus ditaksirkan secara berhati-hati kerana kemungkinan pekali-pekaliitu tidak boleh dipercayai (unreliable).
77
JADUAL 3MATRIKS KORELASI (ZERO ORDER) UNTUK SELURUH SAMPEL (N = 132)
Y, Y, Y3 X, X, X3 X, XB X6 X7 XB X9 X1(
Y] CADANC 1Yz PASUKAN 145Y3 SIKAP .228b
Xt !NTRA 286b
Xz STRATEGI - 008Xj INPUT 109X4 SEMPADAN .222b
X5 BAHAN 180'X6 LELAKI 170X7 TURUN -.030XB KEBOLEH 021X9 SEPADU 075X10 PIMPINXM KOMX,2 SAIZX,3 JEN1SX,, TEKNIKX15 ALATX,6 BAHAGIX I 7 PEJABATX,g LATIHX,9 MAKLUMXZD GANJARXzl SOKONG
.031
.152-.238b
-.010
-.043.017.066
- 048.159-228b
-.003-227b
1-586b
514b
.241b
.384b
.317b
.322b
- 065
- 035-337b
.451b
.398b
.389b
-.114
.053-340b
.39Bb
.356b
-.220'.432b
.460b
.230b
-454b
.492b 1264b ,235b
.390* 3Blb
435b .247.312b .276b
.163 .028-.060 - 030
.441b .290b
,537b -532b
31 Ob -342b
.42Bb .360b
-.187' -.280b
-.110 -.111.227b 149
,325b -280b
231b -295b
-.178* - 114385b -349b
516b .461b
2141 .083.463b .503b
1329b
-326b
140090
- 064
158284b
324b
.226b
-148- 183*
.242b
200*29 5b
061223b
386b
06 B
286b
1
.290b
307b
- 054
-.051157406b
.304b
178*- 107
.058
.3Ub
274b
477b
- 042
394b
51 5b
225b
.508b
1236b
214* •
.084237b
32 7b
.214*289b
- 166- 141
303b
344b
.269b
- 127 -339**421b
253b
.294b
1-.097
006202'.210'159
.123
.024OBO
310b
.314b
179*
-00741 3b
.434b
.101-334b
1222b 1226b -.031223b -.077
- 074 -.034.096 054
-.186' .049- 4BOb -.020-.349b-.070- 189' .028- 118 .024
042 -.054- 110 -015
035 -.112- 097 .044
079 -.008
1437b
-316b
.457b
-.036 --.267b -
.188'-269b
.348b
- 070 --369b
330b
- 033
.312b
1.39Bb
.4Blb
.110243b
.133
.209'2B9b
-206»262b
509b
.12754Bb
1.243b
-.058-.006
.403b
422b
,348b
-.176*.385b
.406b
.112
.40 lb
) Xn
1-.150-.124
.174*
.187*
.189'-.132
.276b
338b
.091
.340b
Y ' Y YA12 A13 A14
1
197*
047
.037- 044-.019
032- 136
120-.062
1.34 Bb
339b
- 010- 222b
231b
-.196'.516b
- 135
1.644b
,389b
- 073607b
-310b
342b
168
X1B X16 X17 X1S X19 X20 XZ1
1
.355b 1- 223b -.073 1
.693b 455b-.103 1334b 376b-.067 450b 1404b .092 -,246b -349b 094 1.250b .2Blb .031 .342b .621b .168 1
' Di paras keeitian 0.05b Di paras keerttan 0 01
JADUAL 4MATRIKS KORELASI (ZERO ORDER) UNTUK SAMPEL SAMPINGAN Q£C (N = 93)
YI
Y, CADANG 1Yz PASUKAN .100Y3 SIKAP .216*X, INTRA 245*X2 STRATEG1 - 092X3 INPUT .001X4 SEMPADAN .131X5 BAHAN 124X6 LELAKI .194X7 TURUN 009X8 KEBOLEH -.015Xg SEPADUX10 PIMPINXn ROMXu SAIZXM TEKNKX16 ALATX16 BAHAGIX17 PEJABATX]8 LATIHXlg MAKLUMX20 GANfARX21 SOKONG
.076-111.119
-.284b
-.034
.028
- 047
-.052169180
003.31 lb
Y*
1-608b
.4B2b
191
-464b
2BOb
387b
- 076
Oil
404b
.466b
.466b
3Blb
-.119-320b
.439b
.357b
-.223*-531b
.513b
.228*-519b
Y v3 Al
1
498b 1.205' 175409b -473b
4B8b .199360b .317b
148 -.056- Oil .019
477b .234*
.504b -53911
406b -466b
499b .37 lb
-.230' -.271b
253' .206'371b .33911
200 .33 lb
-.218' -.151.490*" .396b
.504b .423b
.346b .183
.4 SB6 .542b
Xi
1358b
.264b
141
-.025- 02B
.159192366b
.166-.125
.306b
.204*
.299b
.036
.278b
.326b
.200
.268b
X, X4 XB X6 X7 X8 X9 X10 Xn XM
1.344b
330b
-.123-044
.26Bb
439*-424b
.244*- 206*
.374b
.419b
528b
-.028.522b
.537b
239'517b
1
.198
.152
.142
,284b
.37 2b
.271b
.35Bb
-.193.3B6b
.428b
.229b
-.194.432b
.405b
399b
.285b
1-.123-.009
.244*
1
261*
.068.250* .130.274b -.188 -
-.092 -.2B2b -.247* -.182 -.003 -.405b -.453b -012
413b-
.142
.014
.100,307b
.113
.200
.071
.071134189001
1.007
- 091006
.184- 013-.091
.075
.014-.075
-.027-.128
.017
.021
1
45Bb
.410b
439b
022.305b
3B4b
.377b
- 167
472b
-311b
140317b
1.484b
-482b
.003
.208'-314b
-312b
--292b
-409b
-469b
-356b
-5B2b
129911
- 072.413b
474b
4B9b
- 225*.41 8b
-548b
062573b
1-.110
.267b
-3Blb
.207*
-.195.416b
-370b
320b
40Bb
1-.088-.013-.143
.041-.182-.092- 046- 058
, X14 X1S X,8 X,T Xla X1B XM XZ1
1-529b 1-418b -463b 1
-.005 -.243* -.071 1521b .546b MfP -.089 1475b -522b -403b -.125 .566b 1112 .184 .026 -.154 .211' 231* 1247* .389b .284b -.004 .464b 627** 334b 1
* Di paras keertian 0 05b Di paras keertian 0.01
JADUAL 5MATRIKS KORELASI (ZERO ORDER) UNTUK SAMPEL SAMPINGAN BUKAN QCC (N = 39)
Y,
Y, CADANG 1Yz PASUKAN 276Ys SKAP .273Xj INTRA 388'Xj STRATEGI 208X3 INPUT 316*X4 SEMPADAN 381*Xs BAHAN 304XB LELAKI 204X7 TURUN - 126Xa KEBOLEH 084Xe SEPADUX10 PIMPINXn ROMX,z SAIZX,4 TEKNIKX,B ALATX t6 BAHAGIX17 PEJABATX1B LATIHX]9 MARLUMXM GANJARX21 SOKONG
079- 12Q
219- 170
- 060
.014
.33B*
- Ill
171
364'
003193
YZ
1550b
662b
.486b
.195464b
.131
138- 181
290
542b
254
-47Sb
-.154.422b
42 5b
361*
- 264
334'367'268257
Ys
1455b
41 Bb
402*326*
211
005- 240
32 5J
E44b
083.201
- 039391'
50 Sb
341*- 245
388*524b
217441b
i X,
1356*
219310207125
- 172357'
-493b
090303
-.260190
380*
.201-.205
.413b
.533b
113.350'
X,
1330*426b
.190
.195-.196-.002
.498b
.250
.309
-.105412b
,461b
296-.144
.320*-487b
158
.271
X3
1.238.254356'
-.063.025.462b
.099
.089
.013
.184113
.378'-.098
.248
.558b
.211
.574b
i *<
1
340'.315
-.034.084.172.132081
-.073.381*-423b
.225-.178
343*,431b
.379'
.301
Xs X6
1.130 1.048 .170.200 .338*182 .130
-.067 .116.018 248.205 - 193.377* .145430b .141174 .181
.042 -.028
.451b .194465b 342*
.261 .189
146 .164
X,
1-.144- 334'-.122-.265
.191
-.001- 013
.053
.046
.013- 089
210- 125
' Xg
1245.183432b
.024
.360*-456b
.330'- 109
482b
.252
.146225
**9 *MG
1237 1
,441b .145-.255 -.036
.361* .480*"
.424* .445b
242 .047- 192 -.056
.280 .386*
.56011 111
.091 .314326' -.022
. *1
1-.076
190.119.149
-.169.218193
-.114108
1 Xlz
1.098
-.053
155-.054
.168- 128
171
.015
XH
1757b
.420b
.109,715b
229472b
187
x,B xle x]7 x1B xla x™ xz]
1.308 1
-.030 -.226 1.770b .493b .050 1
365* .3191 -.095 .516b 1496b .382* -.342* .42& .236 1
.266 .190 .073 .326* .56 lb .074 1
' Di paras keertian 0.05b Di paras keertian 0.01
Seterusnya terdapat lima korelasi berertian di antara pemboleh-ubah kumpulan dan persekitaran serta pembolehubah proseskumpulan dengan peratusan cadangan projek diterima oleh pengu-rusan dalam sampel sampingan Bukan QCC (Jadual 5). Walaubagaimanapun pekali-pekali berkenaan adalah lebih tinggi berband-ing dengan sampel sampingan QCC dan seluruh sampel. Misalnyaproses intra kumpulan, XT (r=.388 untuk Bukan QCC Iwn r=.245untuk QCC); pertimbangan input individu, X3 (r=.316 untuk BukanQCC Iwn r = .001 untuk QCC); pengurusan sempadan, X4 (r=.381untuk Bukan QCC Iwn r=.131 untuk QCC); pembahagian tugas, X1B(r=.338 untuk Bukan QCC Iwn r=-.047 untuk QCC); dan sistemmaklumat, X19 (r=.364 untuk Bukan QCC Iwn r=.180 untuk QCC).Data-data itu menunjukkan pembolehubah-pembolehubah tersebutmempunyai kesan-kesan yang lebih tinggi terhadap peratusancadangan projek diterima oleh pengurusan dalam sampel BukanQCC berbanding dengan sampel QCC. Antara pembolehubah-pem-bolehubah tersebut, kecuali proses intra kumpulan, pembolehubah-pembolehubah lain seperti pertimbangan input individu, penguru-san sempadan, pembahagian tugas, dan sistem maklumat merupakanpembolehubah-pembolehubah yang penting khas untuk peratusancadangan projek diterima oleh pengurusan dalam sampel BukanQCC.
Secara rumusan penemuan yang dibincangkan mencerminkancorak perkaitan dwi-variat yang lebih kurang konsisten di antara bebe-rapa pembolehubah kumpulan dan persekitaran serta pembolehubahproses kumpulan dengan peratusan cadangan projek diterima olehpengurusan untuk seluruh sampel dan sampel sampingan QCC.Walau bagaimanapun satu perkara yang menarik yang dapat diru-muskan daripada penemuan yang dibincangkan ialah kumpulanBukan QCC lebih menitikberatkan pertimbangan input individu danpembahaigan tugas dalam usaha meningkatkan peratusan cadanganprojek diterima oleh pengurusan.
Kesanggupan Ahli-Alili Kumpulan Bekerjasama Secara Pasukan (Y2)
Jadual 3 menunjukkan kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan beker-jasama secara pasukan (Y2) mempunyai lebih korelasi berertian secarastatistik berbanding dengan peratusan cadangan projek yang diterimaoleh pengurusan (YJ. Terdapat kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan be-kerjasama secara pasukan memperolehi perkaitan sangat berertian de-ngan segala pembolehubah proses kumpulan iaitu proses intrakumpulan, X: (r-.514); perbincangan strategi, X2 (r=.241); pertimban-gan input individu, X3 (r=.384); pengurusan sempadan, X4 (r=,317);dan surnber bahan, X5 fr=.322). Tambahan pula kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan berkait secara berertiandengan pembolehubah kumpulan dan persekitaran. Kecuali korelasi
81
pembahagian jam mesyuarat, X17 (r=-,220) yang baik, yang lain meru-pakan korelasi-korelasi terbaik seperti kebolehan dan kemahiran, X8(r=.337); kesepaduan, X9 (r=.45l); kepimpinan, X10 (r=.398); komu-nikasi, Xai (r=.389); teknik keputusan berkumpulan, X14 (r=.340); alatstatistik, X15 (r=.398); pembahagian tugas, X16 (r=.356); latihan, X18(r=.432), sistem maklumat, X19 (r=.460); sistem ganjaran, X20 (r=.230);.dan sokongan pengurusan, X2i (r=.454).
Perbezaan Jenis Kumpulan Kerja (SGA): Apabila jenis kumpu-lan kerja (SGA) dikawal, terdapat korelasi-korelasi berertian yangsama untuk kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secarapasukan dalam seluruh sampel dan juga dalam sampel sampinganQCC kecuali untuk perbincangan strategi (Jadual 4). Pembolehubahyang mempunyai perkaitan berertian dengan kesanggupan ahli-ahlikumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan meliputi pembahagian jammesyuarat, X17 (r=-,223), dan sistem ganjaran, X20 (r=.228); kedua-dua itu adalah kurang penting berbanding dengan pembolehubahlain yang lebih penting seperti proses intra kumpulan X j (r=.482);pertimbangan input individu, X3 (r=.464); pengurusan sempadan, X4(r=.280); sumber bahan, X5 (r=.387); kebolehan dan kemahiran, X8(r=.404); kesepaduan, X9 (r=.466); kepimpinan, X10 (r=.466); komu-nikasi, Xn (r=.38l); teknik keputusan berkumpulan, X14 (r=.320);alat statistik, X15 (r=.439); pembahagian tugas, X16 (r=,357); latihan,X18 (r=.53l); sistem maklumat, X1Q (r=.513); dan sokongan pengurus-an, X21 (r-.519).
Untuk sampel sampingan Bukan QCC (Jadual 5), terdapatkurang korelasi-korelasi berertian bagi kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpu-lan bekerjasama secara pasukan berbanding dengan sampel sampin-gan QCC dan seluruh sampel. Pembolehubah yang mempunyaiperkaitan berertian dengan kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan beker-jasama secara pasukan dalam sampel Bukan QCC termasuk pembaha-gian tugas, X16 (r=.361); latihan, X18 (r=.334); dan sistem maklumat,X19 (r=.367); ketiga-tiga itu kurang penting berbanding dengan pem-bolehubah lain yang lebih penting iaitu proses intra kumpulan, Xa(r=,662); perbincangan strategi, X2 (r=.486); pengurusan sempadan,X4 (r=.464); kesepaduan, X9 (r=.542); komunikasi, Xn (r=.475);teknik keputusan berkumpulan, X14 (r=.422); dan alat statistik, X15(r=.425).
Sebagai rumusannya penemuan yang dihasilkan menunjukkansatu corak perkaitan dwi-variat yang konsisten di antara kebanyakanpembolehubah kumpulan dan persekitaran serta pcmbolehubah pros-es kumpulan dan sumber bahan dengan kesanggupan ahli-ahlikumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan. Memang konsistenan ituboleh didapati dalam seluruh sampel, sampel sampingan QCC, dansampel sampingan Bukan QCC.
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Kejayaan Perubahan Sikap Positif Ahli-AhliKumpulan Hasil Daripada Pengalaman Kumpulan (Y3)
Jadual 3 menunjukkan kejayaan perubahan sikap positif ahli-ahlikumpulan hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan (Y3J memperolehikorelasi-korelasi berertian yang sama dengan kesanggupan ahli-ahlikumpulan b'ekerjasama secara berpasukan (Y2). Di samping itukejayaan perubahan sikap positif hasil daripada pengalaman kumpu-lan mempunyai perkaitan berertian dengan saiz purata kumpulan.
Korelasi-korelasi yang baik bagi kejayaan perubahan sikap positifahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan termasuksaiz purata kumpulan, X12 (r=—.187); pembahagian jam mesyuarat,X17 (r=-.178); dan sistem ganjaran, X20 (r=.214). Manakala korelasi-korelasi terbaik merangkumi proses intra kumpulan, Xt (r=.492);perbincangan strategi, X2 (r=.264); pertimbangan input individu, X3(r=,390); pengurusan sempadan, X4 (r=.435); sumber bahan, X5(r=.312); kebolehan dan kemahiran, X8 (r=.44l); kesepaduan, X9(r=.537); kepimpinan, X10 (r=.310); komunikasi, Xn (r=.426); teknikkeputusan berkumpulan, X14 (r=.227); alat statistik, X15 (r=.325); pem-bahagian tugas, X16 (r=.23l); latihan, X18 (r=.385); sistem maklumat,X19 (r=.516); dan sokongan pengurusan, X21 (r=.463).
Perbezaan Jenis Kumpulan Kerja (SGA): Apabila jenis kumpu-lan kerja (SGA) dijadikan konstan, terdapat kejayaan perubahan sikappositif ahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulandalam sampel sampingan QCC (Jadual 4) memperolehi korelasi-kore-lasi berertian yang lebih kurang sama dalam seluruh sampel. Walaubagaimanapun pembolehubah yang sangat penting iaitu pembahagiantugas yang didapati dalam seluruh sampel tidak menjadi pentingdalam sampel sampingan QCC.
Korelasi-korelasi yang baik bagi kejayaan perubahan sikap positifahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan dalam sam-pel sampingan QCC meliputi perbincangan strategi, X2 (r=.205); saizpurata kumpulan, X12 (r=-.230); teknik keputusan berkumpulan, X14(r=.253); dan pembahagian jam mesyuarat, X17 (r=-.218). Manakalakorelasi-korelasi terbaik merangkumi proses intra kumpulan, X^(r=,498); pertimbangan input individu, X3 (r=.409); pengurusan sem-padan, X4 (r=.488); sumber bahan, X5 (r=.360); kebolehan dan kemahi-ran, X8 (r=.477); kesepaduan, Xg (r=.504); kepimpinan, X10 (r=.406);komunikasi, Xn (r=.499); alat statistik, X15 (r=.37l); latihan, X18(r=.490); sistem maklumat, X19 (r=.504); sistem ganjaran, X2o (r=.346);dan sokongan pengurusan, X21 (r=.458).
Seterusnya sampel sampingan Bukan QCC (Jadual 5) menun-jukkan kekurangan korelasi berertian bagi kejayaan perubahan sikap
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positif ahli-ahli kumpulan berbanding dengan sampel sampinganQCC.
Kecuali pembolehubah pembahagian tugas, segala pemboleh-ubah yang penting bagi kejayaan perubahan sikap positif ahli-ahlikumpulan hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan dalam sampelsampingan Bukan QCC boleh didapati juga dalam sampel sampinganQCC. Korelasi yang baik untuk kejayaan perubahan sikap positif ahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan dalam sampelsampingan Bukan QCC meliputi pertimbangan input individu, X3(r=.402); pengurusan sempadan, X4 (r=.326); kebolehan dan kemahi-ran, X8 (r=.325); teknik keputusan berkumpulan, X14 (r=.391); pemba-hagian tugas, X16 (r=.341); dan latihan, X18 (r=.388). Manakala kore-lasi terbaik termasuk proses intra kumpulan, Xa (r=.455); perbincan-gan strategi, X2 (r=.418); kesepaduan, X9 (r=.644); alat statistik, X15(r=.505); sistem maklumat, X19 (r=.524); dan sokongan pengurusan,X21 (r=.441).
Secara kesimpulan analisis dwi-variat secara keseluruhan mem-perolehi had-had yang menyebabkan kesukaran dalam menjawabsoalan-soalan penyelidikan yang dibincangkan awal dalam rencanapertama. Analisis itu tidak mengkaji tentang kemungkinan perkaitan-perkaitan kepalsuan (spuriousness) yang diakibatkan oleh kesan pem-bolehubah yang mengelirukan (confounding variable) terhadap kore-lasi dwi-variat. Oleh itu analisis variat berganda akan diperkenalkanuntuk mengatasi had-had tersebut.
PENEMUAN VARIAT BERGANDA
Tujuan asas untuk membuat penilaian awal penyuaian terbaik(goodness of fit)itu ialah untuk mengkaji pelanggaran-pelanggarankasar terhadap model seperti "outliers", heteroscedasticiti, lengkunglinear (curvilinearity), dan ketinggalan masa dan susunan (omission oftime and order) (Cohen & Cohen, 1983 ; 127-130). Program komputerSAS seperti analisis reja piawai (standardized residual analysis) digu-nakan untuk mengenalpasti masalah-masalah yang tersebut khasnyamasalah "outliers". Oleh kerana reja piawai mempunyai puratakosong dan unit sisihan piawai, model itu dianggap betul atau diteri-ma apabila reja jatuh di antara ± 2 sisihan piawai (dirujuk daripadaAminudin, 1981: 118). Tambahan pula untuk menentukan kemungki-nan kolinearan berganda [multicollinearity) di antara pembolehubah-pembolehubah bebas, teknik "Variance Inflation Factor" dalam pro-gram komputer SAS digunakan.
Seterusnya model ini akan diuji dengan mengawal kesan per-bezaan jenis kumpulan kerja (SGA). Tujuan untuk mengawal kesanQCC dan Bukan QCC ialah untuk menspesifikasikan dengan jelasnya
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perhubungan fungsional yang terlibat. Kajian-kajian lalu kurangmengkaji tentang kumpulan dalam organisasi. Kecuali kajianGladstein (1984) yang berasaskan kumpulan-kumpulan jualan dalamorganisasi, kebanyakan kajian lalu merupakan penyelidikan makmal.Maka kawalan untuk jenis kumpulan kerja (SGA) dalam kajian iniboleh memperbaiki teori keberkesanan perlakuan kumpulan kerjadengan memmjukkan perbezaan yang disebabkan oleh faktor tersebut.Ini akan menambahkan pengetahuan kita dalam bidang keberkesananperlakuan kumpulan kerja di organisasi dalam konteks SemenanjungMalaysia.
Penilaian Awal Tentang Penyuaian
Keputusan tentang model penyuaian terbaik untuk seluruh sam-pel yang berdasarkan analisis rosot kembali langkah demi langkah(Stepwise Regression) dilaporkan di Jadual 6. Analisis reja menun-jukkan bagi setiap pembolehubah bergantung, terdapat titik-titik "out-liers" di mana reja-reja melebihi ± 2 sisihan piawai. Tetapi kes-kes"outliers" itu bagi pembolehubah bergantung iaitu, Y2, dan Y3 adalahkurang daripada dua peratus1 jumlah sampel. Oleh itu tidaklah perluuntuk kita menghapuskan kes-kes itu dalam penganalisaan modelmuktamad bagi pembolehubah bergantung yang tersebut. Manakalakes-kes "outliers" bagi pembolehubah bergantung iaitu, Y t ialah 2.3peratus jumlah sampel. Oleh kerana kes-kes itu dalam lingkunganlebih kurang 2 peratus jumlah sampel, maka tindakan tidak diambiluntuk menghapuskan "outliers" itu.
Berdasarkan analisis petak reja (residual plots), terdapat tiadamasalah yang nyata berkenaan dengan lengkung linear, heteroscedas-ticiti, dan ketinggalan masa dan susunan bagi seluruh sampel.Manakala ujian kolinearan berganda juga menunjukkan tiada interaksiberertian di antara pembolehubah-pembolehubah antejadian bagiseluruh sampel,
Jadual 7 dan 8 menunjukkan keputusan model keberkesanan per-lakuan kumpulan ker ja un tuk sampel QCC dan Bukan QCCberdasarkan analisis rosot kembali langkah demi langkah apabilakesan jenis kumpulan kerja (SGA) dikawal dalam model am. Analisisreja untuk model keberkesanan perlakuan kumpulan kerja untuk sam-pel QCC (Jadual 7) menunjukkan bagi setiap pembolehubah bergan-tung, terdapat juga "outliers" yang melebihi ± 2 sisihan piawai. Kes-kes "outliers" itu bagi pembolehubah bergantung iaitu, Y1( Y2, dan Y3ialah 1.1 peratus sampel QCC. Maka kes-kes "outliers" itu tidak perludihapuskan.
1 Menurut Cohen & Cohen (1981 : 128), kes-kes "outliers" yang diantara satu dan duaperatus jumlah sampel tidak perlu dihapuskan
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JADUAL 6ANALISIS ROSOT KEMBALI (STEPWISE REGRESSION)
LANGKAH DEMI LANGKAH UNTUK MODEL AM KEBERKESANANPERLAKUAN KUMPULAN KERJA
PembolehubahBergantung
Ya CADANG
Y2 PASUKAN
Y3 SIKAP
Pembolehubah RPeramal Berertian Kuasa Dua
X21 SOKONGX,2 SAIZ
Xl INTRAX ia LATIHX9 SEPADU
X9 SEPADUX iq MAKLUMX4' SEMPADANX8 KEBOLEHXT INTRA
.077
.126
.265
.337
.371
.288
.368
.407
.439
.467
c1
(Beta)
.263-.222
.304
.269
.219
.186
.178
.203
.194
.205
Ip < 0.05
JADUAL 7ANALISIS ROSOT KEMBALI (STEPWISE REGRESSION)
LANGKAH DEMI LANGKAH UNTUK MODEL AM KEBERKESANANPERLAKUAN KUMPULAN KERJA : SAMPEL QCC
PembolehubahBergantung
Y! CADANG
Y2 PASUKAN
Y3 SIKAP
PembolehubahPeramal Berertian
X21 SOKONGX12 SAIZ
X18 LATIHX21 SOKONGX17 PEfABAT
X19 MAKLUMXB KEBOLEHX, INTRAX4 SEMPADAN
RKuasa Dua
.097
.168
.282
.377
.413
.254
.368
.444
.506
O1
(Beta)
.296-.267
.348
.357-.191
,178.272.304.278
Ip < 0.05
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JADUAL8ANALISIS ROSOT KEMBALI (STEPWISE REGRESSION)
LANGKAH DEMI LANGKAH UNTUK MODEL AM KEBERKESANANPERLAKUAN KUMPULAN KERJA : SAMPEL BUKAN QCC
Pembolehubah Pembolehubah R Q1
Bergantung Peramal Berertian Kuasa Dua (Beta)
Y, CADANG XI INTRA .174 .417
Y2 PASUKAN
Y3 SIKAP
Xt INTRAX,4 TEKNIKXn KOMX18 LATIH
X9 SEPADUX15 ALAT
.438
.529
.591
.637
.414
.480
.627
.494
.265-.336
.523
.283
Ip < 0.05
Seterusnya analisis petak reja untuk model keberkesanan per-lakuan kumpulan kerja bagi sampel QCC memmjukkan tiada masalahyang nyata berkenaan dengan lengkap linear, heteroscedasticiti, danketinggalan masa dan susunan. Ujian kolinearan berganda jugamenunjukkan tiada interaksi berertian di antara pembolehubah-pem-bolehubah antejadian bagi sampel QCC.
Di samping itu analisis reja untuk model keberkesanan per-lakuan kumpulan kerja bagi sampel Bukan QCC (Jadual 8) menun-jukkan bagi setiap pembolehubah bergantung terdapat juga "outliers"yang melebihi ± 2 sisihan piawai. Memandangkan kes-kes "outliers"bagi pembolehubah bergantung iaitu, Y2, dan Y3 adalah lebih kurangdua peratus sampel Bukan QCC, maka "outliers" itu tidak perlu diha-puskan. Tetapi kes-kes "outliers" bagi pembolehubah bergantungiaitu Y t adalah 5.1 peratus sampel Bukan QCC. Oleh itu tindakandiambil untuk menghapuskan kes-kes "outliers" itu.
Seterusnya analisis petak reja menunjukkan tiada masalah yangnyata berkenaan dengan Icngkung linear, heteroscedasciti serta keting-galan masa dan susunan untuk sampel Bukan QCC. Ujian kolinearanberganda juga menunjukkan tiada interaksi berertian di antara pembo-lehubah-pembolehubah antejadian bagi sampel Bukan QCC.
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Keputusan Mulct am ad Tentang Model AmKeberkesanan Perlakuan Kumpulan Kerja
Dalam analisis rosot kembali langkah demi langkah, pemboleh-ubah bergantung meliputi peratusan cadangan projek diterima olehpengurusan (¥5), kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secarapasukan (Y2), dan kejayaan perubahan sikap positif ahli-ahli kumpul-an hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan (Y3). Manakala pemboleh-ubah antejadian disifatkan sebagai pembolehubah peramal (predictorvariables). Hanya pembolehubah antejadian yang mempunyai perkai-tan berertian dengan pembolehubah bergantung di dalam analisisdwi-variat diambilkira dalam analisis rosot kembali langkah demilangkah itu. Cara itu membolehkan kita mewujudkan satu persamaanramalan (prediction equation) untuk setiap pembolehubah bergantungdengan memilih satu pembolehubah antejadian pads satu masa,bermula dengan memilih pembolehubah antejadian yang merupakanperamal terbaik, Seterusnya lain pembolehubah antejadian ditam-bahkan secara langkah demi langkah sehingga terdapat tiada pembo-lehubah yang memperolehi sumbangan berertian dalam persamaanramalan. Penambahan setiap pembolehubah antejadian dalam modlangkah demi langkah itu berasaskan nilai "F" minima 0.05. Terlebihdahulu analisis rosot kembali langkah demi langkah dijalankan atasmodel am keberkesanan perlakuan kumpulan kerja untuk seluruhsampel. Seterusnya analisis itu dijalankan dengan mengawal kesanjenis kumpulan kerja (SGA) iaitu QCC dan Bukan QCC.
Peratusan Cadangan Projek Diterima oleh Pengurusan (YJ
Merujuk kepada Jadual 6, saiz varians bagi Yj (peratusan cadan-gan projek diterima oleh pengurusan) yang dapat dijelaskan oleh pem-bolehubah bebas berertian bagi model am ialah 13 peratus (R2 = .126).Pembolehubah bebas terlibat termasuk sokongan pengurusan, X2i,(Beta = ,263); dan saiz purata kumpulan, X12 (Beta = -.222). Inimenunjukkan kumpulan SGA yang meningkat peratusan cadanganprojek diterima oleh pengurusan: diberi sokongan pengurusan; danmirip kepada mempunyai saiz purata kumpulan yang kecil.
Perbezaan Jenis Kumpulan Kerja (SGA): Apabila kesan jeniskumpulan kerja (SGA) dikawal dalam model am, saiz varians bagi Yj(peratusan cadangan projek diterima oleh pengurusan) yang dapatdijelaskan oleh pembolehubah bebas berertian bagi model QCC ialah17 peratus (R2 = .168) (Jadual 7). Pembolehubah bebas terlibat terma-suk sokongan pengurusan, X21 (Beta = .296) dan saiz purata kumpu-lan, X12 (Beta = -.267). Ini menunjukkan kumpulan QCC yangmeningkat peratusan cadangan projek diterima oleh pengurusan:diberi sokongan pengurusan; dan mirip kepada mempunyai saiz pura-ta kumpulan yang kecil. Walau bagaimanapun sokongan pengurusan
88
dan saiz purata kumpulan dalam model QCC mempunyai kesan-kesanyang lebih besar berbanding dengan kesan kedua-kedua pemboleh-ubah itu dalam model am. Contoh-contoh: sokongan pengurusan, X21(Beta = .296 untuk model QCC Iwn Beta = .263 untuk model am); dansaiz purata kumpulan, X12 (Beta = -.267 untuk model QCC Iwn Beta=-.222 untuk model am).
Manakala Jadual 8 menunjukkan saiz varians bagi Yt (peratusancadangan projek diterima oleh pengurusan) yang dapat dijelaskanoleh pembolehubah bebas berertian bagi model Bukan QCC ialah 17peratus (R2 = .174). Pembolehubah bebas terlibat termasuk prosesintra kumpulan, Xj (Beta=.417). Ini bererti bahawa kumpulan BukanQCC yang meningkat peratusan cadangan projek diterima oleh pengu-rusan berkomunikasi berterus-terang, sokong-menyokong pendapat-pendapat , dan mengurangkan k o n f l i k interpersonal semasabermesyuarat.
Secara rumusan model QCC dan Bukan QCC merupakan model-model yang berupaya memberi penjelasan yang lebih tinggi berband-ing dengan model am. Saiz varians bagi peratusan cadangan projekditerima oleh pengurusan dalam model QCC ialah 17 peratus (R2 =.168) (Jadual 7) dan 17 peratus (R2 = .174) (Jadual 8) dalam modelBukan QCC berbanding dengan saiz varians sebanyak 13 peratus(R2=.126) (Jadual 6) dalam model am.
Kesanggupan Ahli-Ahli Kumpulan Bekeijasama Secara Pasukan (Y2)
Jadual 6 menunjukkan saiz varians bagi Y2 (kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan) yang dapat dijelaskanoleh pembolehubah bebas berertian bagi model am ialah 37 peratus(R2 = .371). Pembolehubah bebas terlibat termasuk proses intrakumpulan, Xa (Beta = .304); latihan, X18 (Beta = .269); dan kesepadu-an, X9 (Beta = .219). Data-data tersebut menunjukkan kumpulan SGAyang mempunyai ahli-ahli yang sangat sanggup bekerjasama secarapasukan: mempraktikkan komunikasi berterus-terang, sokong-menyokong pendapat-pendapat, dan mengurangkan konflik interper-sonal semasa bermesyuarat; diberi latihan yang mencukupi; danberpandukan kepada konsensus kumpulan dalam mesyuarat demiuntuk kepentingan dan kcbaikan kumpulan.
Perbezaan Jenis Kumpulan Kerja (SGA): Apabila kesan jeniskumpulan kerja (SGA) dijadikan konstan dalam model am, saiz vari-ans bagi Y2 (kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secarapasukan) yang dapat dijelaskan oleh pembolehubah bebas berertianbagi model QCC ialah 41 peratus (R 2 = .413) (Jadual 7).Pembolehubah bebas terlibat termasuk sokongan pengurusan, X21(Beta = .357); latihan, X18 (Beta = .348); dan pembahagian jam
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mesyuarat, X17 (Beta = —.191). Ini bermaksud kumpulan QCC yangmempunyai ahli-ahli yang sangat sanggup bekerjasama secarapasukan: diberi sokongan pengurusan; diberi latihan yang men-cukupi; dan kurang menggunakan jam waktu pejabat (regular meeting)berbanding dengan jam waktu sendiri (ad hoc meeting) dalam men-gendalikan mesyuarat.
Manakala Jadual 8 memmjukkan saiz varians bagi Y2 (kcsang-gupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan) yang dapatdijelaskan oleh pembolehubah bebas berertian bagi model Bukan QCCialah 64 peratus (R2 = .637). Pembolehubah bebas terlibat merangku-mi proses intra kumpulan, X^ (Beta = .627); teknik keputusanberkumpulan, X14 (Beta = .494); latihan, X18 (Beta = -.336); dankomunikasi, X a i (Beta = .265). Data-data tersebut menunjukkankumpulan QCC yang mempunyai ahli-ahli kumpulan yang sangatsanggup bekerjasama secara pasukan: berkomunikasi berterus-terang,sokong-menyokong pendapat-pendapat, dan mengurangkan konflikinterpersonal semasa bermesyuarat; menggunakan teknik-teknik mem-buat keputusan berkumpulan; kurang memerlukan latihan dalammenyelesaikan projek; dan berkomunikasi secara akt i f semasabermesyuarat.
Apabila kesan jenis kumpulan kerja (SGA) dijadikan konstandalam model am, terdapat pembolehubah latihan kekal mempen-garuhi kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukandalam model QCC dan Bukan QCC. Walau bagaimanapun kesan pem-bolehubah latihan mempunyai tahap kesan yang berlainan dalammodel am, model QCC, dan model Bukan QCC. Contoh: latihan, X18(Beta = -.336 untuk model Bukan QCC Iwn Beta = .348 untuk modelQCC Iwn Beta = .269 untuk model am). Justeru itu arahan kesan pom-bolehubah latihan ke atas kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bckcr-jasama secara pasukan dalam model Bukan QCC merupakan satukesan yang negatif. Di samping itu pembolehubah proses intrakumpulan kekal mempengaruhi kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bek-erjasama secara pasukan dalam model Bukan QCC sahaja .Pembolehubah proses intra kumpulan mempunyai kesan yang lebihbesar dalam model Bukan QCC berbanding dengan kesannya dalammodel am. Contoh: proses intra kumpulan, X-[ (Beta = .627 untukmodel Bukan QCC Iwn Beta = .304 untuk model am).
Ringkasanya model Bukan QCC merupakan model yang mempor-olehi penjelasan yang lebih tinggi berbanding dengan model QCC danmodel am (lihat Jadual 6, 7, dan 8). Saiz varians untuk kesanggupanahli-ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan dalam model BukanQCC ialah 64 peratus (R2=.637) berbanding dengan 41 peratus(R2=.413) dalam model QCC dan 37 peratus (R2 = .371) dalam modelam.
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Kejayaan Perubahan Sikap Positif Ahli-AhliKumpulan Basil Da rip a da Pengalaman Kumpulan (Y3)
Merujuk kepada Jadual 6, saiz varians bagi Y3 (kejayaan perubah-an sikap positif ahli-ahli kumpulan basil daripada pengalamankumpulan) yang dapat dijclaskan oleh pembolehubah bebas berertianbagi model am ialah 47 peratus (R2 = .467). Pembolehubah bebas ter-libat meliputi proses intra kumpulan, Xa (Beta = .205); pengurusansempadan, X4 (Beta = .203); kebolehan dan kemahiran, X8 (Beta =.194); kesepaduan, X9 (Beta = .186); dan sistem maklumat, X19 (Beta =.178). Ini menunjukkan kumpulan SGA yang mencapai kejayaanperubahan sikap positif di kalangan ahli-ahli hasil daripada pengala-man kumpulan: berkomunikasi berterus-terang, sokong-menyokongpendapat-pendapat, dan mengurangkan konflik interpersonal semasabermesyuarat; berhubung dengan kumpulan-kumpulan atau individu-individu di dalam dan luar syarikat untuk menjayakan projek; mem-punyai ahli-ahli kumpulan yang pelbagai bakat; berpandukan kepadakonsensus kumpulan dalam mesyuarat demi untuk kepentingan dankebaikan kumpulan; dan mempunyai sistem maklumat yang berkesandi mana mereka diberi maklumat-maklumat penting oleh ketuajabatan dalam mengendalikan projek.
Perbezaan Jenis Kumpulan Kerja (SGA): Apabila kesan jeniskumpulan kerja (SGA) dijadikan konstan dalam model am, saiz vari-ans bagi Y3 (kejayaan perubahan sikap positif ahli-ahli kumpulanhasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan) yang dapat dijelaskan olehpembolehubah bebas berertian bagi model QCC ialah 51 peratus (R2 =.506) (Jadual 7). Pembolehubah bebas terlibat termasuk proses intrakumpulan, Xt (Beta = .304); pengurusan sempadan, X4 = (Beta = .278);kebolehan dan kemahiran, X8 (Beta = .272); dan sistem maklumat,X19 (Beta = .178). Data-data itu menunjukkan kumpulan QCC yangmencapai kejayaan perubahan sikap positif di kalangan ahli-ahli hasildaripada pengalaman kumpulan: berkomunikasi berterus-terang,sokong-menyokong pendapat-pendapat, dan mengurangkan konflikinterpersonal semasa bermesyuarat; berhubung dengan kumpulan-kumpulan atau individu-individu di dalam dan luar syarikat untukmenjayakan projek; mempunyai ahli-ahli kumpulan yang pelbagaibakat; dan memperolehi sistem maklumat yang berkesan di r, anamereka diberi maklumat-maklumat penting oleh ketua jabatan dalammengendalikan projek.
Manakala Jadual 8 menunjukkan s"aiz varians bagi Y3 (kejayaanperubahan sikap positif ahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripada pengala-man kumpulan) yang dapat dijelaskan oleh pembolehubah bebasberertian bagi model Bukan QCC ialah 48 peratus (R2 = .480).Pembolehubah bebas terlibat merangkumi kesepaduan, X9 (Beta =.523); dan alat statistik, X15 (Beta = .283). Ini bermaksud kumpulan
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Bukan QCC yang mencapai kcjayaan perubahan sikap positif di kalan-gan ahli-ahli hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan: berpandukankepada konsensus kumpulan dalam mesyuarat demi untuk kepentin-gan dan kebaikan kumpulan; dan menggunakan alat-alat statistikdalam menyelesaikan projek,
Rumusannya apabila kesan jenis kumpulan kerja (SGA)dijadikan konstan dalam model am, terdapat empat pembolehubahberertian untuk kejayaan perubahan sikap positif ahli-ahli kumpulanhasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan dalam model QCC. Semuapembolehubah itu boleh juga didapati dalam model am di mana pem-bolehubah sistem maklumat mempunyai kesan yang sama dan pembo-lehubah-pembolehubah lain mempunyai kesan-kesan yang lebih besardalam model QCC berbanding dengan kesan-kesan pembolehubah-pembolehubah dalam model am.
Di samping itu terdapat dua pembolehubah yang penting untukkejayaan perubahan sikap positif ahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripadapengalaman kumpulan dalam model Bukan QCC. Antaranya hanyapembolehubah kesepaduan juga didapati dalam model am. Tetapipembolehubah kesepaduan mempunyai kesan yang lebih besar dalammodel Bukan QCC berbanding dengan model am.
Ringkasannya model QCC dan Bukan QCC merupakan model-model yang berupaya memberi penjelasan yang lebih tinggi berbandingdengan model am. Saiz varians bagi kejayaan perubahan sikap positifahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripada pengalaman kumpulan dalammodel QCC ialah 51 peratus (R2=.506) [Jadual 7) dan 48 peratus(R2=.480) (Jadual 8) dalam model Bukan QCC berbanding dengan saizvarians sebanyak 47 peratus (R2=.467) (Jadual 6) dalam model am.
RINGKASAN DAN KESIMPULAN
Artikel ini telah membincang pcnemuan-penemuan secara salingberkaitan dari segi ketiga-tiga analisis univariat, dwi-variat, dan variatberganda. Analisis univariat itu tertumpu kepada taburan kekerapandan. perbezaan berertian tentang jenis kumpulan ker.ja (SGA) darisudut peratusan dacangan projek yang diterima oleh pengurusan,kesanggupan ahli-ahli kumpulan bekerjasama secara pasukan, dankejayaan perubahan sikap positif ahli-ahli kumpulan hasil daripadapengalaman kumpulan. Seterusnya analisis dwi-variat mengkajiperkaitan berertian di antara pembolehubah-pembolehubah antejadiandan pembolehubah bergantung di kalangan seluruh sarnpel. Di samp-ing itu jenis kumpulan kerja (SGA) juga dikawalkan dalam analisisdwi-variat itu. Akhirnya analisis variat berganda digunakan untukmenentukan sccara perbandingan pembolehubah peramal berertianterhadap keberkesanan perlakuan kumpulan kerja.
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BIBLIOGRAFI
Aminudin Sulaiman (1981), A Multi-variate Model of Rural Mobility inPeninsular Malaysia. Unpublished Ph.D dissertation, SyracuseUniversity, Ann Arbor: University Microfilm International.
Cohen, J. & Cohen, P. (1983). Applied Multiple Regressiori'/CorrelationAnalysis for the Behavioural Science, 2nd edn. New Jersey: LawrenceErlbaum Associates Inc.
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