Option C8: A World Divided: Superpower Relations 1945-62 Revision Checklist

� Key themes and contents coverage Reasons for the Cold War

� Long-term rivalry between Soviet Union and West. � Differences during the Second World War and at Yalta and Potsdam. � Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. � Attitude of Truman. � Students should be aware of the ideological differences between

capitalism and communism. Early developments in the Cold War, 1945-49

� Soviet expansion in Eastern Europe. � Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan. � Differences over Germany. � Causes, events and results of the Berlin Crisis (1948-9). � Setting up of NATO. � Students should be aware of developments in China and the Soviet testing

of the atomic bomb.

The Cold War in the 1950s � Korean War. � Khrushchev and peaceful co-existence. � The Warsaw Pact. � Causes, events and results of Hungarian uprising.

The Berlin Crisis of 1961 � U2 incident (1960). � Reasons for construction of Berlin Wall. � Students should be aware of more long term factors and the failure of a

negotiated settlement � Its effects on relations between East and West and on Germany.

The Cuban Missiles Crisis

� Castro and relations with USA and Soviet Union. � Bay of Pigs. � Kennedy and missile sites. � Key events of crisis (this includes how it was eventually resolved) � Impact on East-West relations (this means the immediate effects more

especially the hot-line).

ReasonsfortheColdWarWhatwastheColdWar?TheendoftheSecondWorldWarsawtheemergenceoftwosuperpowers,theUSAandtheUSSR,whowerelockedinastrugglewhichlastedfor45years.ThiswasknownastheColdWar.ThetermColdWarwasfirstusedin1947todescribetheconflict.Itwasawarofwords,ofpropagandaandofthreatbetweentheUSAandtheUSSR,butitdidnotinvolvethetwoSuperpowersindirectconfrontation.Theybothtookpartinproxywars–thatistheyhelpedtheiralliestofighttheotherSuperpowerortheiralliesbutdidnotbecomedirectlyinvolvedintheconflictthemselves.WhydidtheColdWarbegin?TheColdWarbeganduetoamixtureoflongandshorttermcauses.LongTermCauses:

• DifferingIdeologies:

In1917Russiabecamethefirstcommunistcountryintheworld.BoththeUSAandtheUSSRbelievedthattheirsystemwasthebestwayoforganisingacountryandothercountriesshouldfollowtheirexample.

o TheUSSR–onepartystate,nofreeelections,stateownedindustryand

agriculture.Thegovernmentplannedtheeconomyandwhatshouldbeproduced.Thereisalackoffreedomandstrictcensorship.

o TheUSA–democraticandcapitalist,freeelections,industryandagriculture

wereprivatelyownedandrunforprofit.Freepressandfreedomofmovement.

Bothsidesfearedtheotherwasouttodestroyit.TheSovietsbelievedthewestwasouttodestroycommunism.TheWestbelievedSovietswantedtospreadcommunismaroundtheglobe.

• Stalin’sSuspicionoftheWest

o TheUSSRhadbeenattackedpreviously,GermanyhadinvadedRussiain1914,

in1918,AlliedforceshadinvadedRussiaduringtheCivilWar.Hitlerhadinvadedin1941.Stalinbelieveditwasessentialtohavefriendlycountriesonhisbordertopreventthishappeningagain.

o StalindidnottrusttheWest.TheWesthadbeenappeasedHitlerinthe1930s-StalinbelievedtheyhadwantedHitlertodestroycommunism.TheWestwasalsoslowtoopentheSecondFrontduringtheSecondWorldWartohelptheRussiansfightHitler.

• TheUSA’schangeofpolicy

o TheUSAwasdeterminednottorepeatitsisolationistpoliciesoftheinterwar

years.TheUSAbelievedappeasementdidnotwork,andthatdictatorshadtobeconfrontedanddemocracysupported.

o AstherichestandmostsuccessfulcountryintheworldtheUSAexpectedto

haveasayinthewaytheworldwasrun.Itwasconfidentnootherpowerhadnuclearweapons.

o TheUSAdidnotwanttoreturntotheDepressionandwantedtosecuremarkets

foritsgoods,itdidnotbelievethatthecommunistcountrieswouldbuyAmericangoodsandsowasdeterminedtopreventthespreadofcommunism.ItwasnotintheUSA'seconomicintereststoallowthespreadofcommunism.

ShortTermCausesTheYaltaandPotsdamConferencesYaltaConference(February1945)TheleaderspresentwereStalin(USSR),Roosevelt(USA)andChurchill(Britain).Agreements

• StalinagreedtojointhewaragainstJapanonceGermanywasdefeated

• All3agreedtojointheUnitedNations.• Germanytobedividedintofourzonesof

occupation(Br,Fr,USA,USSR)• Berlintobedividedintofourzones,as

Germany• Stalintohave‘asphereofinfluence'in

EasternEurope.• ‘Freeelections'tobeheldtodecide

governmentscountriesliberatedfromNazioccupation

HowevertherewasadisputeoverPoland:

• Stalininsistedona‘friendlygovernment’inPoland.TheWestdemandedfreeelectionsinPoland.

PotsdamConference(July1945)TheleaderspresentwereStalin(USSR),Truman(USA),andAttlee(Britain)Personalityclash:Truman,thenewPresidentoftheUSA,wasfiercelyanti-communist.HewasnotpreparedtonegotiatewithStalin.This,inturn,angeredStalin.

Agreements:

• USSRtogaineasternPolandandPolandtobebecompensatedwithsomeGermanterritory-theGermanborderwassettledattheOder-NeisseLine.

• NaziPartytobebannedandNaziwarcriminalstobeputontrial.

Disagreements:• StalindemandedharshreparationsfromGermanyfortheUSSR-demanded$20billion

compensation.ThisfigurewasrejectedbyTrumanandAttlee–theydidnotwanttomakethesamemistakesasatVersailles.

• StalindeniedanavalbaseintheMediterranean• StalinhadsetupacommunistgovernmentinPolandwithoutfreeelectionsbeingheld–

thisangeredTrumanandAttleeandmadethemsuspiciousofStalin’smotives.TheAtomBomb

On16thAugust,duringthePotsdamConference,theUSAsuccessfullytestedtheirfirstABomb.TrumaninformedStalinaboutit,butwasnotwillingtosharethetechnology.ThismadeStalinevenmoresuspiciousoftheWestandencouragedhimtobeginanarmsracetomaketheUSSR’sweaponsequalinforcetothoseoftheUSA.

• TheArmsRacewaspushedalongbyfear.o Until1949theUSSRcouldnotriskawaragainstUSA.WhentheUSSRexploded

ownnuclearweaponin1949,USAnolongerhadamonopolyandneededtorethinkitsstrategy.TheUSAbegantodeveloptheHbomb.

o In1952theUSSRexplodeditsownH-bomb.o TheUSAbegantobuildbomberaircraft,todelivertheH-bomb,inthemistaken

beliefthattheUSSRhadmorebomberaircraftthantheUSAdid.WarofWords1946–Churchill’sIronCurtainSpeech,deliveredatFultonMissouri

CountriesandcitiesundertheSovietsphereofinfluencearesubjectnotjusttoSovietinfluencebuttoaveryhighdegreeofcontrolfromMoscow.

1946–Statin’selectionspeechcomparingChurchillandhisfriendstoHitlerandhiscronies.SecretTelegrams1946LongTelegramfromGeorgeF.Kennan,AmericanambassadorinMoscow:

• Stalinhadgivenaspeechcallingfordestructionofcapitalism• TherecouldbenopeacewiththeUSSRwhileitwasopposedtocapitalism• TheUSSRwasbuildingupitsmilitarypower.

1946Novikov’sTelegramfromtheSovietambassadorinWashington:

• AmericadesiredtodominatetheWorld• TheAmericangovernmentnotinterestedinco-operationsinceRoosevelt’sdeath• AmericanpeoplearebeingpreparedforwarwiththeUSSR

Summary: Why did the Cold War begin? Long Term Causes:

- Differing ideologies - Stalin’s suspicions of the West - The USA’s change in policy

Short Term Causes:

- Tensions between the leaders at Yalta and Potsdam - The A Bomb began an arms race - Personality clash between Truman and Stalin

SovietExpansionintheEastTheUSSRrespondedtoitsnuclearinferioritybystrengtheningitscontroloverEasternEurope.Riggedelections,violence,intimidationandothermethodswereusedtogaincontroloverEasternEuropeanstatesincludingBulgaria,Hungary,PolandandRomania.By1947alleasternEuropeanstatesapartfromCzechoslovakiahadcommunistgovernments(Czechoslovakiacameundercommunistgovernmentin1948)NofreeelectionshadbeenheldasagreedtoatYalta.

TheUSSRjustifieditsactions;

- IthadcreatedabufferzoneagainsttheWest.- ItwasafraidoftheUSA’sA-bombmonopoly.- ItwasafraidofanattackbytheWestinthenearfuture.- Ithadcreateda‘sphereofinfluence’asagreedatYalta.

TheUSAclaimed;

- TheUSSRhadseizedcontrolofEasternEuropeandrejectedfreeelectionsasagreedatYalta.

- TheUSAfearedthattheUSSRwasdeterminedtoextenditsinfluenceintoWesternEurope(andthentherestoftheworld)

TheUSSRclaimedthattheirmeasuresweredefensive,buttheUSAclaimedtheywereaggressiveandathreattothewest.

TheTrumanDoctrineBetween1945and1949theUSAsoughttocontainthespreadofcommunism,firstinEuropebutlateraroundtheglobe.TheUSAbelievedthattheUSSRwasdeterminedtoexpandandthattheUSAshoulduseanymeanspossibletostopthatexpansion.Greecewasthefirstcountrytobenefitfromthispolicy.DuringWW2theGreekresistancetotheGermanoccupationhadbeendividedintosupportersofthemonarchyandthecommunists.AttheendofthewarBritishtroopshadhelpedtorestorethemonarchybutwerenowunderattackfromthecommunists.By1947,BritaincouldnolongeraffordtocontinuetokeeptroopsinGreeceandsotheyaskedforhelpfromtheUSA.TheUSAprovidedmoneytokeeptheBritishtroopsinGreece

In1947PresidentTrumanoutlinedtheUSA’sresponseinwhatbecameknownastheTrumanDoctrine.“IbelievethatitmustbethepolicyoftheUnitedStatestosupportfreepeopleswhoareresistingattemptedsubjugationbyarmedminoritiesorbyoutsidepressures.”PresidentTruman12March1947Thispolicywasdesignedtostopthespreadofcommunism-itwascalledcontainmentPolicywasdrivenbyabeliefinthe‘DominoTheory'–theUSAshouldpreventonecountryfromfallingtocommunismtostop

othersfromfollowingsuit.ItwasbelievedthatitwasAmerica'sdutytoprotectdemocraciesfromthethreatofcommunism.Itwoulddothisbyprovidingmoney,aid,advisorsorevenweaponstoanycountrythreatenedbycommunism.USAshowedthispolicyinactionwhenitinstalledballisticmissilesinTurkey-theUSSRhadnosuchmissilesandthereforesawthisactionashostile.TheMarshallPlan

TheMarshallPlanisanotherexampleoftheTrumanDoctrineinactionEurope’seconomyhadbeenshatteredbyWW2.Europehadtotacklethedevastationcausedbythewar,theimpactofthebombing,thelossoflives,thedestructionofindustry,refugeesandamountainofdebt.EuropeowedtheUSA$11.5billion.

USSecretaryofStateGeorgeMarshallbelievedthatcountriessufferingfrompovertyandunemploymentweremorelikelytoturntocommunism.TheaimoftheMarshallPlanwasthereforetorebuildtheshatteredEuropeaneconomysothatitcouldresistthespreadofcommunism.Afundof$15billionwasmadeavailabletoanynationwhoappliedforit.TheMarshallPlanaimedto:

- RaiselivingstandardsinwesternEuropetoreducetheappealofcommunism.- TorebuildGermany- ToweakenSovietcontroloverEasternEurope- TohelptheUSeconomybyincreasingUSexportstoEurope.Theydidnotwantarepeat

ofthe1920s.TheUSgovernmentwasinitiallyinsureaboutprovidingsomuchaidtoEurope,however,eventsinCzechoslovakiasoonchangedtheirmindsCzechoslovakia,1948By1948Czechoslovakiawasnotunderthecontrolofthecommunists.ThegovernmentconsideredacceptingMarshallAid.ElectionswereduetotakeplaceinSpring1948andthecommunistswereexpectedtodobadly.Acommunistcoupsawthenon-communistsremovedfromoffice,JanMasaryk,aministerwhosupportedthewestwasmurdered.ThecommuniststookcontrolofCzechoslovakia.Thisangeredpeopleinthewest.USCongressmenwhohadbeenreluctanttograntMarshallAid,agreedtothemoneyfortheMarshallPlan.Stalin’sReactiontotheMarshallPlanStalincalledtheMarshallPlan‘dollarimperialism'andclaimedtheUSAwastryingtocontrolindustryandtradeinEurope.Hebelievedthatitsoughttounderminecommunismandtopromotethespreadofcapitalismacrosstheglobe.HerefusedtoacceptanyeconomicaidandstoppedanyEasternbloccountryapplyingforit.HowdidStalinreacttotheactionsoftheWest?Cominform(1947)andComecon(1949)TotrytopreventanyeasternEuropeancountriesapplyingforaidandtostrengthenhisgriponthecountriesonhisbordersStalinofferedhelpandsupporttoeasternEuropebysettinguptwoorganisations,Cominform(1947)andComecon(1949).Cominform(CommunistInformationBureau)wasanallianceofEuropeancommunistpartiestohelpthemplanandtoworktogetherandspreadStalin’sideas.ItincreasedthecontrolStalin

hadoverthesecountries,andlimitedtheirindependence.OnlyMarshalTito,thecommunistleaderofYugoslavia,wouldnotacceptStalin’stotalleadershipandsplitwithMoscow.Comecon(CouncilforMutualEconomicAid)wassetuptocoordinatetheproductionandtradeoftheeasternEuropeancommunistcountries.TheywereexpectedtotradewitheachotherandnottheWest.However,itfavouredtheUSSRmorethananyofitsothermembers.TheBerlinCrisis:1948-49Germany,andBerlin,hadbeendividedin1945intozonesofoccupation.ThiswasasourceoftensionwhichpeakedduringtheBerlinCrisisof1948-49.

MapshowingthedivisionofGermanyandBerlinin1945CausesoftheBerlinCrisis/BerlinBlockade:

- Britain,FranceandtheUSAhadmergedtheirzonesofWestGermanyintooneinMarch1948

- Britain,FranceandtheUSAhadthenintroducedanewcurrencytowesternGermany,whichwasintendedtohelpitbecomeeconomicallystronger.

- Capitalismwasdrawingmanypeopleawayfromthecommunisteasttowardsgreateropportunitiesandfreedoms.Asaresult:

- StalinfeltthreatenedbyGermany’sgrowingstrength

- StalinwasangrythatthewesthadnotconsultedhimbeforemakingchangesintheirzonesofGermany

- Stalinwantedthe‘cancer’ofwestBerlintoberemovedfromEastGermany.Whathappened?InJune1948Stalincutoffallroad,railandcanallinkstoWestBerlin–theBerlinBlockade.Thecityonlyhad6weekssuppliesoffoodandfuel.Stalinaimedtostarvethe2millioninhabitantsinWestBerlinintosubmission.HebelievedthatTrumanwouldeitherhavetogiveupWestBerlinorgotowar.ButtheWestrespondedwithamassiveairlift-food,fuelandsupplieswereflownintoBerlinfor10months.Stalindarednoshootdownanyplanes–itwouldbeanactofwar.StalincalledofftheBlockadeinMay1949.Outcomes:

- ApropagandavictoryfortheWest-Trumanhadshownhewouldnotallowthepolicyofcontainmenttofail.

- Stalinwashumiliated-theUSSRhadfailedtoextenditsinfluence- ThedivisionofGermanyintotwoseparatestates-inMay1949thenewFederal

RepublicofGermanywassetup.InOctobertheeasternzonebecametheGermandemocraticRepublic.

- TheformationofNATO.- DeepenedhostilitybetweenEastandWest.-

WhatwasNATO?

• TheNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganisation(NATO)wasformedinApril1949bytheWesternpowers.ThiswasduringtheperiodoftheBerlinBlockade,andwaspartlyinresponsetoStalin’saggression.

• TheoriginaltwelvemembersofNATOin1949weretheUnitedStates,theUnitedKingdom,Canada,France,Denmark,Iceland,Italy,Norway,Portugal,Belgium,Netherlands,andLuxembourg.

• NATOwasamilitaryalliancethatcommittedallmemberstothedefenceofalltheothers.

• ButNATOwasmorethanapromiseofAmericanhelpinanemergency.Thealliancewastobesupportedbylargenumbersoftroopsontheground.

• Inparticular,therewerealargenumberoftroopsinWestGermany.By1953,5divisionsofUStroopswerepermanentlybasedthere.

• Stalin,unsurprisingly,sawNATOasathreattotheUSSRandEasternEurope.WhatwastheWarsawPact?TheWarsawPactwassetupin1955.

• TheWarsawPactwasadefensivemilitaryallianceoftheUSSRanditssatellitestatesinEasternEurope.

• Itwasintendedasacounter-forcetoNATO,whichwasamilitaryallianceofwesternpowers.

• TheWarsawPact,likeNATO,reliedoncollectivesecurity–ifonenationwasattacked,theotherswouldcometoitssupport.

• TheWarsawPacthelpedtomakeEasternEuropeaneffective‘bufferzone’fortheUSSRagainsttheWest.

ChinabecomesCommunist:1949YouarenotexpectedtoknowthedetailsoftheCommunistrevolutioninChina,butyoushouldbeawarethatthefactofsuchalargecountrybecomingCommunistgavetheUSAfurther‘evidence’thatCommunismwasadangerandthatitwasspreading.TheUSAfeareda‘dominoeffect’wherebyonecountryafter

anotherwouldfalltocommunism.ThisisonereasonwhytheUSAwassokeentogetinvolvedintheconflictinKorea.TheKoreanWar:1950-53

NotethatyouwouldnotbeexpectedtoknowtheeventsoftheKoreanWarindetail,butthatyoushouldknowitskeyfeatures,andunderstandthattheUSSRandUSAweresupportingopposingsidesinthewarandwhy,andtheconsequences.TrumanviewedtheKoreanWarasatestofhispolicyofcontainment.KeyEvents:

• InJune1950CommunistNorthKoreainvadedtheSouthandtheKoreanWarbegan.• Trumanimmediatelysentadvisers,suppliesandwarshipstohelpSouthKorea.

• TrumanthenputpressureontheUnitedNationstocondemnNorthKorea’sactions.• Initially,sixteenstatesprovidedtroopsorsupporttotheUNforceinKorea,butitwas

dominatedbytheUSA.• UNarmyhadearlysuccessandpushedtheNorthKoreansbackbeyondthe38thParallel.• Buttheydidnotstop.DespitewarningsfromMaothatChinawouldsupportNorth

Korea,theUNarmypressedonintotheNorth.ByOctober1950theyhadreachedtheborderwithChina.

• InNovember,200,000ChinesetroopsjoinedtheNorthKoreans,bringingwiththemmoderntanksandplanessuppliedbytheUSSR.

• ByJanuary1951UNforceshadbeenpushedbacktothe38thparallel.• Fightingcontinuedforanothertwoyears,butnoprogresswasmadeoneitherside.• AfterthereplacementofTrumanwithEisenhowerin1952andthedeathofStalinin

March1953,stepsweretakentobringtheconflicttoanend.• ThearmisticewassignedinJuly1953.

KhrushchevandPeacefulCo-existenceStalindiedin1953.Afterashortstruggleforpower,in1955KhrushchevbecamethenewruleroftheUSSR.Atfirst,thewesternpowershopedthatKhrushchevwouldbethestartofa‘thaw’intheColdWar.

- Khrushchevmetwesternleadersat‘summit’meetingsandeventravelledtotheUSA.

- StalinhadmadeallCommunistcountriesdowhathewanted–andhehadfallenoutwithPresidentTitoofYugoslavia.Butin1955KhrushchevwenttoYugoslavia,tellingTitothat‘therearedifferentroadstocommunism’.WesternleadersthoughthewouldnolongerinsistthatallcommunistcountriestakeordersfromMoscow.

- Inthe‘SecretSpeech’attheTwentiethPartyCongressin1956,KhrushchevattackedStalin,sayingthatStalinwasamurdererandatyrant.Khrushchevbeganto‘de-Stalinise’Russia-politicalprisonersweresetfreeandtheactivitiesofthesecretpolicewerereduced.

- Khrushchevsaidthathewantedpeacefulco-existencewiththeWest.WesternleadershopedthismeanttheendoftheColdWar.

GivenhopethatStalin’seraofrepressionandfearhadcometoanend,opponentsofcommunisminEasternEuropebegantomakedemands.Poland,October1956:DemonstratorsattackedPolishpolice,protestingaboutrisingfoodpricesand53workerswerekilledbythePolisharmyduringriotsinPoznan.KhrushchevwasalarmedandsenttroopstothePolishborder.

Gomulka,apopularleaderoftheCommunistresistanceduringtheNazioccupationofPoland,wasappointedleader.Gomulkawasnothard-line,butKhrushchevacceptedthisappointmentasitwouldkeepthepeace.TherewasalsoagreementthatCommunistswouldstoppersecutingembersoftheCatholicChurch.TheRedArmyleftthePolishborder.TheHungarianUprising,October1956:EncouragedbyeventsinPoland,theHungarianpeopledecidedtoprotestagainstcommunistrule–withdevastatingresults.Causes:

1. PovertyHungarianswerepoor,yetmuchofthefoodandindustrialgoodstheyproducedwassenttoRussia.

2. RussianControlTheHungarianswereverypatriotic,andtheyhatedRussiancontrol–whichincludedcensorship,thevicioussecretpoliceandRussiancontrolofwhattheschoolstaught.

3. CatholicChurchTheHungarianswereareligiouspeople,buttheCommunistPartyhadbannedreligion,andputtheleaderoftheCatholicChurchinprison.

4. HelpfromtheWestHungariansthoughtthattheUnitedNationsorthenewUSpresident,Eisenhower,wouldhelpthem.

5. De-StalinisationWhentheCommunistPartytriedtode-StaliniseHungary,thingsgotoutofcontrol.TheHungarianleaderRakosiaskedforpermissiontoarrest400trouble-makers,butKhrushchevwouldnotlethim.

Events:

- 23October:Riotsofstudents,workersandsoldiers.TheysmashedupthestatueofStalin,andattackedtheSecretPoliceandRussiansoldiers.

- 24October:ImreNagytookoverasPrimeMinister.HeaskedKhrushchevtotakeRussiantroopsoutofHungary.

- 28October:Khrushchevagreed,andtheRussianarmypulledoutofBudapest.

- 29October–3November:ThenewHungariangovernmentintroduceddemocracy,freedomofspeech,andfreedomofreligion(theleaderoftheCatholicChurchwasfreedfromprison).NagyalsoannouncedthatHungarywasgoingtoleavetheWarsawPact.

- 4November:Atdawn,1000RussiantanksrolledintoBudapest.By8.10amtheyhaddestroyedtheHungarianarmyandcapturedHungarianRadio–itslastwordsbroadcastwere‘Help!Help!Help!’Hungarianpeople–evenchildren–foughtthemwithmachineguns.Some4000HungarianskilledfightingtheRussians.

- KhrushchevputinJanosKadar,asupporterofRussia,asPrimeMinister.- Nagywasexecuted.

Outcomes/ConsequencesoftheHungarianUprising:

1) 200,000HungarianrefugeesfledintoAustria.2) RussiastayedincontrolbehindtheIronCurtain.3) PeopleintheWestwerehorrified–manyBritishCommunistslefttheCommunist

Party.4) ItwascleartoEasternEuropethattheWestwouldnotcometotheiraidtohelpthem

overturncommunism.5) However,whilsttheywouldnotinterveneincountriesthatwerewithintheSoviet

sphereofinfluence,Westernleadersbecameevenmoredeterminedto‘contain’communism.

TheU-2spyplaneincident–May1960Keyevents:

• TheUSSRshotdownanAmericanU-2spyplaneovertheUSSRandcapturedthepilot,GaryPowers.HewasparadedonSoviettelevision.AccordingtotheUSSR,hehadconfessedtobeingonaspyingmission.

• TheUSAdeniedthatspyingflightstookplaceovertheUSSR–theysaidPowershadgoneoffcoursewhilststudyingweatherconditions.

• WhentheSovietsdevelopedthefilmfromPowers’plane,itwasclearthathehadbeenspying–thiswasahugeembarrassmenttotheUSgovernment,whohadobviouslylied.

• KhrushchevdemandedthattheUSAstoptheirspyingmissions,thattheypunishthoseresponsibleandapologisefortheiractions.

• TheUSagreedtostoptheflightsbutwouldnotapologise.PowerswasimprisonedintheUSSR.

• TheSovietshadscoredagreatpropagandavictory.

TheBerlinCrisis–1961Causes:WhywastheBerlinWallbuilt?Berlinhadbeenasourceoftensionbetweenthesuperpowerssince1945.In1961itagainreachedcrisispoint.

• ThehighstandardoflivinginWestBerlincontrastedsharplywiththeconditionincommunistEastBerlin–itcontinuallyremindedpeopleintheeasternareasthatcommunismwasnotasuccessfulsystemtoliveunder.

• Itwasestimatedthat3millionpeoplehadcrossedfromEasttoWestBerlinbetween1945and1960.Manyofthesewereyoung,skilled,professionalpeople–theEastwassuffereda‘braindrain’astheseeducatedmenandwomenlefttomakenewlivesintheWest.ItseemedlikelythatthiswouldcontinueiftheirexitroutethroughWestBerlinwasnotblocked.

• KhrushchevalsosuspectedtheUSAofsendingspiesintoEastBerlinandfromthereintotheEasternblocthroughWestBerlin.Thisseemedverylikely,giventheU-2spyplaneincidentof1960.

Events:Whathappened?

• 13August1961–TheEastGermansbeganbuildingawallaroundWestBerlin.Thiswasinitiallyabarbedwirefence,whichwasgraduallyreplacedwithconcrete.

• AllmovementbetweenEastandWestwasstopped.

• ForseveraldaysSovietandUStanksfacedeachotheracrossthedividedBerlinstreets.

Outcomes:Whatweretheconsequences?• Theflowofrefugeeswasreducedtoatrickle.Between1961and1989(whenthewall

camedown),only5000peoplemanagedtoescapeacrossit.• Westernnationsweregivenapropagandavictory,asitseemedthatcommuniststates

neededtobuildawalltostoptheircitizensleaving.• ThewallbecameasymbolofthedivisionofEastandWest.

TheCubanMissileCrisis–1962

Causes:

Superpowertension BoththeU-2spyplaneincident(whichhadhumiliatedtheUSA)andthenon-resistanceof

theWesttothebuildingoftheBerlinWallmadetheUSSRbelievethattheywereinastrongposition.

FidelCastro’sCuba

• FidelCastro,asocialist,hadoverthrowntheAmerican-backedleaderBatistain1959.TheUSAweresuspiciousofCastroandwantedtoremovehimfrompower.

• Cubawasonly90milesoffcoastofAmerica–theydidn’twantasocialist(orworse,acommunist)country‘intheirbackyard’.

• USAtriedtoruinCubabyrefusingtobuytheirmainexport–sugar.Facingfinancialcollapse,CastrodidadealwiththeUSSR–theywouldbuyCuba’ssugarcrop.

• CubanationalisedAmericancompaniesandsoldoffUS-ownedproperty

BayofPigs (April1961)–Americasentin1400exiledCubanrebelstooverthrowCastrobuttheywere

easilydefeated.ThiswasahumiliationfortheUSA,andjustencouragedCastrototurntotheUSSRforprotection.USSRstartedshippingweaponsandequipmenttoCuba.

Missilebases

14October1962–AmericanU-2spyplanesphotographedSovietmissilesitesonCuba.

Events–The‘ThirteenDays’:

• Kennedyorderedanavalblockadeandthreatenedretaliationifanymissilewasfired.

• For10daystheworldwasonthebrinkofnuclearwar.

• KennedypromisedtoremoveUSmissilesfromTurkeyin

returnforthebasesonCubabeingdismantledandthemissiles(whichwerestillontheirwaytoCuba)takenbacktotheUSSR.

• 28OctoberKhrushchevremovedthemissilesandthe

crisiswasoverOutcomes:

• Khrushchevseemedtohavefailed–hehadbackeddowninthefaceofAmericanpressure.ThepublicdidnotknowthatKennedyhadsecretlyagreedtoremoveUSmissilesfromTurkey.

• KennedybecametheherooftheWesternworld.

• Telephone‘hotline’setupbetweenMoscowandWashingtonsothattheleaders

couldspeakdirectly.Thiswastotryandheadoffanyfuturecrisesbeforetheybecameserious.

• Thetwopowersrealisedhowclosetheyhadcometonuclearwar.Armstalksbegan

andtheNuclearTestBanTreatywassignedin1963.