T

alld

J. DAVID BOYLE

By

RUDOLF E. RADOCY'roJes.or Emeritu: of 'fu. ic Edutation and 1u ic Thrrall l

Tite Uniuer. i ly (Jf KansasLaiorence. f((/IWI.l'

Irofes ar Emeritus ofMusic Education and Mu ir TherapTite Uniuet. ily of 1iami

Coral Cables, Florida

R n 1.. .A .

s C OLOGICALFOU DAT O S OUSICAL BEHAVIO

' 11

Rudolf E, Rado hology ofof musi ,

ami ot h r lnsses P i rt in mt to m us .d u ationund musi th 'ra p al the niv ' rsily of Kansasfor ~ !l 'ar s; h ' taugh : music for five ea rs inM ichi ran c lem -ntar a nd secondary s hools.In addition lo thr prior editi on ' of thi text,he is ihe o-autho r of Mra urement andEnaluation o[Musical Experienccs. A Iormer edi-to r 01" rhe fou rual o/Rescare/ in Musc Educationa mi co mr ibutor lo various p ro fcssion a l j our-na ls, I r. Rad ' hold ' deur fro rn th ' Ohio, tare .niv ersit , th e niversity of 'l ichi!ffiI1, nrl th Penns -lvanla late niversitv,,

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1' , am I l"l 'sU\JRt'S nccc ssarlly lmlted ths revis ion's scope an d breadth.!lI Ullulrs havr - cxerctsed the ir professional judgmcn ts. based 0 11 teaching'M'S nru! cundurtiug research and oth er scholarly nquiry, regarding con-

Nnturnlly, sonn- urburary d ccisous were neccssary, and the book( ts ll lt' aut bors' sd Hlla rl y b iases ..('('1'111 )'l'an. have sr- r-n thc ap pearance of vurious texts add rcssing spe- 1'c1 un-ns withn muste psychology, especally cogni tve pcrspccvcs.

ll 'I'"WIlt.s un incrcusing di verslficarion wi th in the field . The authors. l'll't It'e1 lo r-ontuuu- a "onc-volume" eoverage of a br oad array of top-' llidltI hy 1111' 111I 1t' "cruerlon c's": Thc text should be comprehensioe in its' I . ' W 0 1 di \'I'lst' Il I ' U rom prising muste psychology , ccmprehmsible u (he1'1 who l ~ l i ln ;l l l ' iu Ellg lish (ur thc languuge in to w hich the text ls trans-1) am i P II SSl SSt S xome- backgr ound in musc and psychology, and contem-1)' 111 th iIU luaiou of lnforma cn gathere d in reccnt )'ears.,tll ill, wllih' lllt' world is even:han ging, and music's uses chan ge with it,fI,nrlll,ol IIHl sk is llllehanging. Th e authors alTer their latest review of"l ts 111 hll lllall IllllSkal bc havior with profollnd recognition of mu sic'sl lll' i l1 ~ v

CONTENTS

H/p,r"' rJiu(' / 11 l/U F(Jurtlt t idition v

(:Iml'la1. INTI\OIlUC rJ O N _. __. _ :1

l 'u rp osc _ :'Scope Al'n-vi c w 1Rcfcrcnces _ 7

~ . ~ I US I C, A I'I1 ENOM ENO N OF I' EOI'LE, SOCIETY,AN Il CUI:rU I\E H

\Vhy MIISic? !)Cultural An th ropological Funco ns 10S ocologi cnl FUIlCtiOIlS .... ..... . . . . . . ... ...... 1-1I'sychologi cal Functions _. . _ 17Anoth er l'erspective _.. _ I!)

\\'h;ll Mak es Sume Sounds Music? _ : I

OrigillS (IrMnsic : !iMusc, Unlvcrsals. Soc icty, and Culture , , .:t:Suu unary :11HI'ft' l'I' llf( 'S :11 .

;1. I'lI NCT IO NAL Al' l' I.ICilTIO NS O F M USIC INCONT EMI'O I\A I\Y I.I I'E 10

S lilll ll la l ivt' a m i St'da tivI' M usi c " 11

Stuuuluvc Muslo " 11St' tla l ivt, M lIsic , . , I:I)ff('n 'n lia l H( ' .~po ns(' s to Sfimulattvc and Scda vc

Mus ic . , , l :

J\l ll ~k in C en-moulr-s ., .. ,., ,.j.1

Couuuercia l M uslr .. ... , . , . . , , , , , ,.l!l

Ba t 'k~rolll \( 1 t\1m it' ".,' ,. , , ". A!I

, -,)'",." ..",,, ,, , " .. "",,, ,, ,, .. ,, ..' ';1 ." " ." " " "".,, ' l' "

M lI'/.' lk ' s I>t'VI 'lnplI H' lI l . . ... , . . , ., ." .. " .,., ., .. 1DMusic in Iltt' \VOI kpl ' lt l ' .. ,., , S IMl l.~i c in Il w Mur kr-rpl:u-c , , . , . , S ~

M uslo in Adverli.~ i llg , .. , .. , , .. , . , . , SSMusc as En tcrt uinmcn r .( i:-~

M w;il" fOl" Ellhandllg Nanution , .I5Tht 'l'a lll'lllk lJSl~ S of Musc G!)M usk- lo l'ucilitatc Nonmusical Lcuming 74Suuuuury . .H:~l{t,lil'I'll t'e.s . .85

I'SYCI IOACO USTICA L FO UNIlAnO NS . .!):ll'roduct lon nI' M uslcul Souuds 93Tmusnusslon 01" M uxicu l Sonnds 95I{t't'l' p lioll 0 1" Musical SlH llIds 96

FIOIII Ai r lo 11IIu'l' Ea ]' ., .. , 9G1"1mu 11lIH'1 Ear In Hruin 98

I'ill h 1'lt r'1 10llll'IW 99FtC'(llll 'I ICY I'ild l Rchuiooslup 101

Pill h l'lo n 's.sin", ol"Sitlg lt l'ure ' Iones 102

Pltlt I " on ' s "~ i n .\ ofCombl ncd l'urc Tones 1O:~

Pi!t lt I'l t lC't '.s.sing ulComplcx 'Iones 104COlll lJill atio l1 ' Iinu-s 109

lurcrvuls , .. ,.,., .. , 110Consouuncc-Disson uucc 110Appan-nt l' Itch 112Appurenr Sizc 113

lh-nng 11,1Ahso lulc l't tch ., 115

l'iu-h Mcus urcmcn t 116I.Olltl lllSS l'l n-nomcna . . 117

IIlh'lI sity.Lou dn css Rclaonshp 118Vll llllllt', Dcnsiry, Auuoyan ce, am i Noisin cs s 118Measurcmeru 01' Loud ncss , lID

Sruulus Mensures , 119Response Mensures , 121

Tlu~ POWt'r La , . , , , . , , .. , I ~ :~M usktug " ,.,", ,.".,",.,. , 1:2 4

Loudncss Suuuu.uion , , 1:2 S

s.

ti.

I>a l l gt ' l.~ In II I'uil llJ, , , 1:27

' I'imlm- I'hl' IHJl IH'l lll .,., .. , . . , , 1:,10Wavefonu 'I'Imbu- 1l1'1' l liollShip .1:-10l uflucu ces wit hn \VH\ltform 1:11'l im e Sourcc Rocoguhion , 1 :~ :2

M casurcmcnt ofTimbrc J:t-ISum mary r t1Rcfcrc uccs 1:1/;

IU IYTII M IC FOUNDATIONS 11:1Fu nctio ns ofRhy thm in Music 11 1

Rh ythnu c Stru cture in M usc 1I.'iMovcrneut a nd Rhythm Pcrccpon and Performan ce , , , .. Ifi ICoguve Pcrspcc tiv es on Rhythmic Behavior 1.'i7

Early Noncogniti vc Theo rles 1.'iHHcat/T empo l'crcepon , . , , lI iOMeter l 'crccpuon l/il Rhythm Grou ps 170Exprcssiv c Timing , .. 17X

Dcvelopment 01' Rhythmc Behaviors IX1Dcvcloprncntal Rescarch IX:2

Experimen ta l Rcscarch , . . , 18STcachlng Practlces for Rhythmic Developmen t 18XEvaluatio n 01' Rhythmic Be havo rs WO

Sum mary , . , , .. , . I!I:IRefcrcnccs 1!I.j

ME LOIl IC AN Il HAltMON IC FO UN DATION S ~ ,,;,Extended Dcf lnions ~Ol

Mclod y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ () I Structuru l C huracrerscs of Mclody ~ ()Xl'crccptua l Organlzatiou 0 1' M elody :2 10

Harm ony , ~ I: 1Srructurn l C haracrcriscs 01' Hurrnon y ~ I:' Il'crceptua l Orguuizauu 0 1" llnrmony :2 15

"lonallty , , , :2 1!JSculcs uud Modos , , . , , , , . , , . , , , ..:22:2

l-uncrtons 01' Sc.i1 t'S , ~2 ',. I ' fl . S 'l

I '.\y(1, lIlo/!. ;mI i'iJII I/II(J I; /11/\ (llAt/1,\;("(1 I lIr1u/II ;(J r 0 11I (( 11 (.\ xiii

l ' IU N 111111 ' )NS ') 1" PERFORMANC E,1 ~ 1I ' 1l ' IVISAT IO N, AN Il C O M PO SITIO N 273

l 'I'l le't tll,ll lC l' , l's ychomotor Bchavior 2741'.'. 101 1l1,1I1n ' EX I lC' rt i .~1' , 27G1" 'd Oll ll,llln ' A uxk-ry 2HO

I .. 2H!n quovrsa no n .l l isto nca l Pc-rsp..ctive 2 HSl'sycb ological l'c rspccuvc _..2 M7

J au hu pro visation 2M!)Evaht;lling lm p rovisa ou 2!Hlmprovisation as a 'Ieaching Tool :.W3

C " 2() !omposruon , 'A 'I'h corcca l Perspe ctivo , 295

Compos ttlonul Approuchcs o f Selecrcd Composcrs 29!JCom posilion Theory ...... .. . ...... .. ......... . . . 3 0 1Composi tion il S a 'Ieurhing 'J()()I 303

S . . ~)~ 11Illltla l Y ,." . . . . . ....... " ... .. ". ,......... .1{ l' f( ' n ' Il( ' t ' S , , , , ..... . , .......:'107

H. MTE

/!l1I/ h/llr.\ . , , . , , . , , 435I/nl l"d,.\ , . , , . , 44 :1

11.

- -v --1'1 ,., ... . " .. ... "J .. ... .,",.. ... " " .'"''

Normal f\l m it'a l l). 'vI'IIIPllH'llt uud Lc uming ,.".,' ."., .:I!lI i'1"1 . 11\ l'~u -on-tu'u il 'iIS . , . , . , . . . . . . . . . . .. . , ., " ,

Behaviora l-Assnd ationb t Tln-ortcs ,. , " ,:I!J7

Cognuvc-O rgunlzatlonal Th co rcs ..l O(~Musical Develo pm ent Acro ss Agc-Bascd Stagcs -tul>

Musical Abnon n alics _.411

Mensurcmcnt und Prc dlcto n of M usical Ablity and

1 " 41 ~,can llng , ,... .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . ... . .. ... ,Sorne Approaches .-114Valld lty .416huportunce uf Nonmusical Variables AISWluu Should \Ve Mensure ? 41H

1'r:H' tiGII Suggestions Regardi ng M usc Educaton .419Sunuuary ..1 22R I 'fl'lt'lU 'P S . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42 4

I IITI JI\ E I\ESI';i\I\C II DII\ECTIONS . "" " .430H " I"I I' lI H ' 'i ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS

OF MUSICAL BEHAVIOR

Chapler 1

INTRODucnON

Purposc

r I-' lI.. hook rc vlcws hu m a n m usical bc havior co m p re he nsivel y, fro m u " sy". (-hu lo.:ka l perspectivo. Music has lx-e n a vital co m po neru uf human ru l

t llH' Si lllT lx-Ion- rccordcd hislory. Human orgamza tion u f so un d 1'01 lumIlllrla l am i m-stln-fic pmpoS(\s mi ses m an y Iasc inating, ulthongb o lTils inrlil llyuu.utx wernbh-, qucsons. Dcscrip ou, prcdicon, and ex planauou of l lll l." I i l l 'll ll l p ll...ilion , performance, and llstcning bchavio rs are continuons chu l1.'11""1's. 111 n-rt-n t ycars, claims rcgurding ru usic's pu rp ortcd t lH' rapt' ll lt ' , COIII -uu-uIal, "H I cdurnonal bcneflts havc increased, thanks in part \0 hasryIllll'l p lt talio llS of lncomplctc data . This boo k foc uscs q uestion s and gt 'lU' ra lII,t i 'l i ' sl 111 1 dcscr ibin g, predictin g, an d cx p lainng hu man m usical bch uvor.lIId ~ l'pks lo promol e a hea lthy ske puc lsm regard ing premaluTe co nclusions/l ltout music's influcn ccs. Psychol ogi sts, r nusicians, educators. therupists,1II I'Im'ss Ill'op le. am i anyone with a serious in tcrest in music' s po w!'r m ayIlIu\ it la-ur-fk-inl.

1Jndr-rstunding human mu sical be havior is uscful fOT tbe perfonuing musr tuu, whr-rlu-r in t111' stud o. un stagc. in the class room, DI' in a rennun-n-ia l"'III IIJ,. \Vh )' do Ill'opll' prcfer ce rta in so u nds o ver o thers ? Huw reh- v um is

1'1" \ 1'1 ' piuh d iscrimi nution ? \\'hat psychoaco ustica l p rocesses uudr-rlu-11I 1I ,ua l 1'I' I'U'plin n ? \\'h al cogn inve pmcesses tum a strca m 0 1' 1ll'1'('t' ivI'd~ ll ll il vems in t m usi c ? Are sume ind ividua ls natura lly " m usica l" 0 1" "um uu' lo " I" ! \Vll y i\ a devuuion Irorn stc re otypcd performan ce p raccc a "s llOkl'I II 111'aliv l ' KI' Il IIlS" w hen done by a wcll- knowu co nd uctor b ut " fa lhu l ' l olllld l'l .' Lllltl!l1t' styh-" wh cn d O!ll' hy un um arcur? Docs the master 1'1' l fOlIIH'rddkl 111 ,' 1111 11 ' fuudumen tnl way from tlu- srmgghng studcut . 0 1' i,s H j usI :111101 111 '1 Ol llHJll' p roll:lin "! Knowh-dge 01' human m usical bcha vior in di vl'LSI 'm.m l ..~ l a l i l l lls uml situaons is t ' S.~ I ' lIli 1 fur addrcssin g 11 H'.sl ' am i utlu-r1 1 1 11 1 ll' 1 ' 1l 1 ~ qur-sti on s.

1111 ' ] " ' r SOIl who wislu-s l o scflp rodu rts U I' sr-rvircs 0 1' c n hance entcrtui n -ItlO'lIt I ll'l'd \ to n lll s id " v a ri ll lls IIM'S0 1' lll llSit:, Can busin ess employ m usir in

111. ,,\, 1111 In ;uk l'lill,l.; slra ll',I.; i's? (,'an il1l l' uh ivl' sboppcrs lit' l'III'olll'ag('(1 lohl1 J( l'I 1011 ,10\1 '1 a llll sllt' lld unm- a\ a h u,. uou 01' musica l background ? Is 1111'

[nusic ( ' s ,~ I ' n tia l l tl un l lll f\l l d ll~ ntu r; livI' :'M ll.~ic ' .~ rhcrupcut 1'1I 11t 'll lllS un- we-] documcnu-d. but tllt'l'llI' Y is uo r a

lun-. In w ha t scuings ts musk- uscfu l as a hc aln g agcn t? A n' lht,['( , iustan ce s~ 1 H' r(' musc may he hanuful" Aru thcrc physiological changos uudcrlyi ng:Ilt' lu-huviora l chan gos noted with musical expericnce? The grow th o f the~ IlI.Sil' therupy profession owes m uch to cvolvlng understa ndng of human:llll.sic d bchavo r, and resea rchers investigatmg m usical phenumena o wemu-h to mnsc thernp ists' d o cum entation of their expcriences.

Con tcmporury cd ucators , struggllng to balance conflicng phil osophiesnul socict al demanda, m ay fi nd utili ty in developing u nderstand ing of and:a lll ilia r ity wit h human music al behavior. Does m uste really mo tvate an d/orit'd ah' slllc! ('n ts? Wh y are child re n more recep rve to "dfferent" music in theu uary g rad es than in Iatcr yenrs? Does m usical ab ility re late to in tcllcctua l)1' mnuual ah ilities '! Again , although this bouk can not promisc definhveIll ~Wt' I' S , l ht ~ iuformannn provlded may foc us relevant inquiry.

Scope

I\'l ll ~ k psyehul ll';Y's lra d ilio nal dornains indud e psychoacoustics, m eas-11' 1111'111 ' Iud Jll't 'd id io ll o r musical ab ili ty, functional music, cu ltural organi-ll lioll 01 Il1Il sin L! p;llh'rn s, m llsic leaming, and lhe affective respo nse to~ 11l ~ I , 1\11l Slt- t"OJ. llilio n, broad ly d ellned, has been a d om in an t d om ain for

111 ' pll ~l Cj ll' Iltl'1 n l' ;1('('lltllry 01' so. Music's catalytic uses in business, educa-0 1111 1, a tlt lll ll'r' lfwlllic .sd tings, wh ile dearly with in the tradilional domain o fIltll lio lllll lllllSic, arg llahly eom p rise emerging conte m poralY dornains. T he11;1)11 1'1 llt 'J.~a lli za l io ll l'ecogn izes lh e trad itio naI and more con temporaryi(J ll lal I.\ , wilh sp{'dod e m p bases o n psychoacoustics, musical p refere nce,~ , . lt' ll l l '; , alHl lhl' psy('ho logi ca l fo undation s of rh ythm, melody, and harmo-,y. T Il(' d l'l pl l'" 011 m llsic as a pheno m enon of peop le, so cie ty, and cu ltu rel' l1 l'rt.S t'IHlh' mpof;lry in leresl in music 's various roles as a catalyst for so cial,t'lun' im a nd its d iverse socioc ult ur a l fun ctions. \-Vhile m us ic p sychologyIll l' ~'; I V t ' less alit' ntioll lo pe rfo rm ance and creative acti v ity th an lo listen-l~ 1 11l 1 a.ssocia tt'd be hav iors, pe rform ance, co m position, and im p ro visatio nIIW lt 'l'l' ivt, .slt'd a l atlelltio ll.

,1/1/ Iim/ llt'lla villl" is hut o ne aspect o f human behavio r. Cons equen tly, m usi-id IlI'llav ior IIHl st he sllbj ect lo whal ever genetic and cnvironmenlal fa cto rsllhwlll 'l' atl hum an heh av ior. Th rougholl t, the bo ok exp resses a co ncero fo r'1i;11 Ill'o pl l' do wilh lllusica l stirn llli a mI wha t m llsica l slim uli do lo th em , innl l11 'l lllS wt' ll as laboralo ry sl'Uings.

IIdulllioT, as IIM'tI lH'rein , m eans Ihe obse rvab le .u:liv itie s of liv ing d y nam-Illll llall llt' illgS. SlH: h acl iv it iL's are nI' illt l'l"esl d lh t,l' ill Iht'm .sd ves 0 1' as

~ l l' l'II a l t'vi dt'lICl' of .Slllll t' in lt'rna l Slollt'. (;0l!.lIi1 io /l, lll t' i11 1t 'l'tla l p ron's.st!s o f

" , , 1/; , , 1, / , /IU

Il "lSl lllila ling , OI'g'll lizinJ., 1 I ' l l ll' l l l l ll ' r i ll~ , am i l"l'('a llill'; Infunuut iou [nr "tlnnk-l ll~" ) , Illay IH\ ;I covt' !'1 lu-huviur, lnu Illt, oll ly way lo snul y co vl'l'l llt 'ha vio rwlrh n-lutivc- o!Jjl'l'tivily is lo stud y irs o vcrt mautfcsuukms. I h rr!,/ lrm is ilIIIt In 'ss of sou xug 11w cuvin umu-nt ; obviously, it is esxeu tia l for mu ch lx-huVhu, 1'1'ITt'plioll Illa y he studi cd only th rough ev ldcncc uf its res ults . Musica llwha vinr lncludcs pcrfounaucc, lisrcning, a nd creat ivo uctivity lnvolvcd int mposition and lmprovisaou . 'I'hc sr udy of m usical bchavlor nccessarllyllu h l( k~ u-la-d cogn ive and pcrccptua l p ro cesses. Thnt which pcoplc dowlth nur sc is musical bcluunor. So, ton, is th at wh ich m usi c does lo pcoph-.

i\.~ (:a slon ( I!i/H, p. 7) indicat cs, musical bchavior is studlcd Ih roll gh psyIl lllll l'Y, authropology , and sociology. T be book primarily reflecta a psyr hoIIlJ.l, in d npprouch : l 'sychology s tbe stu dy 01' h um an beh avior. N('V t' r l ]l' II ' :- _~ ,tlll' uuthors have loo kcd beyond the ge neral bod y ofpsycho log ica l lill'nl llllt ' .SI It itllll';Y, uuthropology. philosoph y, music hstory. acouscs, and htl.~ i ll t' S ~1111' ~l' l llla l lt ' ureas Irom which thc au thors have druwn m ateria l.

Prcview

As w ilh lil e threc p rio r cd ion s, thc uuthors havc co nsidcrcd thc d ynuruIt (11 1 Iht, St'IlSt' o f movi llg a nd eve rch

/ ~ \ yillll fllJ:1m t I'I1/llIdllf 111111' OJ At ustra t / lt'/ lfl/ll'"

f\.11ldl 1If Iht , wt il Id'!I lllll , k l'x'lb primaril y to furtln-r M 11111 ' 111 U 1I1111 , it" '11o rmunusk-a l pUrpU'iI', 'illl h in 'il' lIing sonu-r hing , seda ng 01 .'i t i ll lll l.l l i ll~ Pl'(}-

111" t'nhalll'i ng a slUl'Y throngh film or tclcvsion, or fucili nuug ami eurich-Ilj.l; rercmonlcs .u1

Chapter 2

MUSIC, A PHENOMENON OFPEOPLE, SOCIETY, AND CULTURE

S ~ 'hoJlI~ ha ~l' c~amitH."d musica l behavior from Olany perspcctves,Illdudlllg histo rcal, psychological, philosophcal, socological, and cul-l~" a l ;1II ~ IJropol {)h'-ca l pcrspcctives, as wc ll as the more specahzed perspec-

,Il Vl ' 'l 0 1 1 ' lhll0 Il1 11 ~ icn lf)hry , soc io m usico logy , and so cology o f rnu sc. ',Ik cl ' llll ~ " suuu- l1l1J skolo.g-i1l ls huvc expressed a rcncwed nterest in cxplor-H': 1I1m ll " ~ uu ux uva socia l ami cultural phenomenon (\Vallin, 1991; " 'allio,1"1~" 'I , &: lhowu, 1( 00). Such interest has stimulated the development of

1/II /II lI lfffl /flA.'), ,111 "I I ll' fRing Ilcld (Ir study.

1I1111111l 'il lllo.:y, " "'"m illl'S music 's orgm s and its socio cultural applicatons.1111 1'" ' 1 I I d l l' ld~ Illt ltldl' t'1!f1I /11imw ry musicelogy, the cxplo raton o f music's'\ III II' IIIIIHI)' 1'li ,l.t i lJ ~ ; //I'lIrom ll ,lim/(Jgy, the study of ne ural an d cogni ve111111' _\' " llllcll'dyill Jo:; 1II11 'iind pruductlon an d percepton; and comparatioeIIII11If1/uA,'t , 1/11' " xalllillal ioll of music's fun crons a nd uses in all h uman cul-11 .. .. (11111 " 11, 1\1"l kl'l, & \\'a ll in , :,WOO, p, 5), Ths chapter dscusses aspectsd .llld lo (1lltll'a r,llivl' nnd cvulunona ry mlls icology ,

lI ul.; rl'a vls lI11 d No rlh ( I !J ~ ) ! )) ma inta in th a l lh e socia l co n le x t in \....h ichllll"k,d /wh..vill l o(nu-s shu uld bl' an inl egral par l o f m usic psycholo>ists'II!I!" Cla( Ill' s lO.slud)' ing Illllsicallwhavio r, In th e b elief that emphases 0 0 eog-ml" 'l' (hlllt ' mloll s. uf IIl1l ska l pl'rce ption and prod uetion dUring lh e la tt e r1'; 1I u f lhl' IW('lI lll' lh n 'nl llry 111 lo neg lec t o f musica l behavio r 's so cia ldi llll 'II.-'io IlS, I la rgn 'a ves am I North (1997) argl lc that a ny aspcct of m usical1II' I," IVIIII" un tll 'f s llHly lIlusl co nsid e r "Ihe so cia l an d in lerpe rsona l eonlext in

Wllll,h Illll skal .llH'aning is co ns ll1lcted " (p . 1). Socia l functions in flllen ci ngf1 IU'iIl'a l Ilt'ha vIOf p urported ly in volve level s of Ihe indiv id ual, sma ll a nd!.IIW' ,\od a l }.: l"OllpS, a m I soeie ty a nd culture as a whole (H a rgrea ve s & NorthJ! I! ' ~J . I" i n) . '

111 sh orl. soci l' ly amI Cll ll ll l"(_' ev ide ntly ha ve n lll sidcra b le inlluenec on the

s...1' " wilh I'OI'IIl"Y\ ' '' .:;.;,'slioll, A" , t1wli" "'h",,ls" 111,,,1111 111 "1101 l"" ".' ,r ,'"Uin.:; mll. i, ~1I , ,, ,, t" " 1 ... ,01"'111 1, ,11 " ildd l>,,,,'d iu l 'h"I'I"l'. H ..nd !l,

,, - ..- - ,. _ "' ''J , ' ' , ' .

~ fm lll othe r nnimu ls hy Illilkl lllo: 1'1I'I'Ii"ll' sl' t' t'ch a n d a h'lllm l Ihill kill':'. al soi nubles "s ignifica m non vl'dml ron un unicauon in IIIt' lonn 111 m usc."S lol)IJd ;1 (1!' X5. p, :l /iN) und Dowling ami Harwood (l 9Nli, pp . :l:Ui- :l:I7) alscIt'('o g lliz(' th at biologi ca l dcvclopnu-n t h as bccn essent ial to music lx-comlngsud l a vita l pa rt o f socic ty and cu lture , a nd sevcral essays in rhe reccn t\\'.1I Iil1 . Mcrker, and Brown (2000) vo lu me cc ncemi ng cvolu touary musi-t'Ology prevido nddtio nu l sup po rt fo r this view (c.g., Hrown, 2000; Falk,2000; Freeman , 2000 ; Merker, 20( 0).

No twithstandmg so rne tenuous a rgu m en ts th a t b ird so ngs . gibbon so ngs.und whalc su ngs reflect m us ical characterst cs (Geissm a n n , 2000; Payn c,2000; Wh aling, 20( 0), most scho la rs agree that m usical be havior is uni que to1)('0,,11', hui th crc m a y b e Iess consen sus regardng why music exists. \ Vhile,1.llO.SI philosoplucal nquiry regardin g the queson examines musie as an art,/m m wit h ur-sthcc valu, anthro pologists and ethnomuslcologi sts sugg es tI/lal 1IlII,' I' r-xb ts 11t'(~a ll se !J I' its e nc ul turatio na l functons [j o hnson, 1985 , p .. 1; NI 'II I. I!IK'i, p , II!)). Musc a lso is re cognized as serving additional fu ne-1111\

~"\ 1 ' 1 1I 1 WIIil' IS (l-,Io: ', Adorno. W7fi; Dowlng & H a rw ood , 198 6 ; Frith,'H1, ( ;1I ~1 1I1I , Iql iX; (: n'gory, W!17; H argreaves & No rth, 19m , 1999;" 1'111 11 , 11'.', MI'l dOl lll , 1!1( j.j; Nl'It l, 1985 ; Slob o da . 19 85) p resen t views

W.. d l ll~ 11 HI 'Ii. '" hlll lliol1,s, a m I tl1is sl'ction co nsidcrs vi ews from three per-1,... lh 'I'_: 1 11 111 11 ;1 1 11l111Ilo po lo.:;ica l, s(I(: io log ieal, and psyehological. As will.1' "\'1111 '111. 11 11' Im ll tio m il!'lItillt' d wilhin eaeh perspeeti ve a re neither di s-, di' 111 " , , 11il11 liv, .

:,/I,m ,1 .1" ,II m/mh,xim l Hmr!ion.'i

111 h i ~ d

n ~ ( ' 10 ;1I'sll1 d lCIt',d ill,l.lS1I11d m i l1lusk may vurenulu, t1 u, IIU ,I Itll"ll h 0 1' pop-ular und a rt m usn- al'l' .1I 1'1I11)' n-mniu 111l' sunu.. toda y. ( 'I'l la illiy. musi c lovnn-n uiu is ;1 mujer ind ustry in i!!'ot' lf. ami whe n comuu-uu l vnhu-s [e.g. ,pl;ulI.H'd oh:m ll'sn'IKI' so tluu new mu sc and reco rdngs mar bt ' sold, thcca n-tu l "puckagi ng" 01' perf umers. market ing tce shirts an d lunch boxcs wit hPt'rl~ l l ~lllt' rS ' l i ~t'n l' sses) ov crr ide arti stc valu es, onc lllay queson suchllllL,m : s potcntta l to serve an ucsthetc function. Howevcr, ene can not denyIhal highly commcrcialzed and financially successful undertaklngs suc h asAndrew 1.I () d \\"cbbe r's musica ls J~us Crist Superstar, Eoita, Cats, and H e'/fU/10m of Ihe Opa o resul ted in aesth ec experi enc es for millicns 01' people .( Ir wen- thcy jusi bc ing ente rtained ?

Hargn-aves uud North (W99, p . 74) also recognz c that the aesthe tic enjoy-1111'111 uud ontertuinmcnt functions are interl inked and suggest that an indi-vldual's I'I 'SI)( I,I1S.I' lo a given piece 01' m usic dcpends on th e interaction among11" , I-hara('It'l'IsIICS (J I' the penon, the music, and the situation in which it is"l ll 11 llllh ' II't1 , Furt her, Ilwy note thar most research regardng such responseh ,l ~ 11Il U'lt1 011 ('haral"l t' ristics uf the person and the mu slc wh ile tend ing tolloil u II l' 1111' h11111 11 l otll( 't ' uf siluation cha rac leris tics. T hey arb'Ue tha t redressingIlI h H ' M '1I 11 h i111h"Llll t't' is an important task for invcstigators.

1\ 1" 111,1111 ' llAA"s t.' thal llI11sic's function as communication perhaps is th e1" ,1 1 I IIUtl 'I ~ ll ",( lll l lli 'l ll 1l1ajor fun cl ions. Adamanllhat music is no "uni-\ l 1~,d J'lll ~Il 'IW " " r>. II'niam conlends that music is sha p for indi vidual pe rfonm-rs, jU,r .ra tl l.~J and1o'1" \"I \OIl pm hrr;ull !'>. and ev r-n [ur products prometed in ad versing J lIIgl ~'s,11 n havt' ;l rc-rtuin sym(o lic vahn-, ahhough it is doubrful rhat the sym bolicll 'I'Il "I 'IlI.tl iOll in tlu-sc nsran ccs rcfk-c ts thc profundity 01' cu ltura l symbol -I ~ II I 1I 1il1 Merriam snggests.

" 1 11 ~it" gives rlse lo p!lysical response, and all socle ties use musc intcgrully" llh tt l1l( '1' an d ot hc r rb ythmic activities. l\l usic elc its. excites, and ch unm-ls'l lIwtllwha vin r. although th e cu lture shapes the nature and extcnt 1.11', 1111'lu 'lln\'lll l', Chatllcy (l!J{i.t . P: ( 2) suggcsts th at an im portant part 01' n '!lHI.llll'O11111 ,11 in prhuiti vc socctics was to draw thc worshlpcr "out 01' himsc-lf 11 1, 1\ 111 ,' lIim uud , ' , to pu t him in a sta te 01' ecs tasy." Chuillcy ulso SH,L\,I.l, '

va lida lc '~ sl lr ia l IIISIIIIIIIIJl1 \ .1111 1 ' l' li jo\ il ' 11.\ ruuul s, il is ( I,'a r rh.u U l ' " 11111'1,"", l.'1/11' n m llll ll llr aud shill l \, 0 1 t ultun- ~I,, " ' ', ." . , I , S IC IS III .1 ,\ 1' 11'" ;1 /Il1tl llll ,l hH)'.11 t,vIlr fm t rI!' I' X I Jl I '~ S ln ll 0 1 vnhn-s , ; uu-ans whe reby tht- IlI'a ll u f llll' !,S)' -I ~ 1l ~ l o8Y o! a r-ultnn- IS l' xl' 0 Nt'd wuhont mallY of th e prcn-cuve 1II('(-!Ia u isllIs.... 1I1( h su rro un d olh('1 cuhu ral afli vilies.

.Ml'lTi;u.1l gOl:S .011 to slIgges l that rnusc's vel)' ex iste nce provides a norma l,mil solid .KIIVlly Ihut ussu res a socc ty's membe that rh ' Id ' ,,. . . elr wor 15 conun -t111l'; 11I 1I1L' right dlrecton. Music contin ues to serve thi s function today S'Iill' WSCh. Am erican adoJescent subc ulture has had vanious , f' lO~e' 1 h . . " rorrns o m uslcWlI 1 W iich lo ldcnfy, music that tecnagers fee l is "th . " . F Ikf 1 " . err muste. 'o sOllgs10m 1 H' old coururv '' may provide im m lnranr an d th ir d d ' h, ' 1 . ' / O ' '"" crr escen an ts wn

,1 (11 rura l link lo th e past. In addtion lo th er 1" d '. .' . . h re IglOus an enter tai nmcnt

11lI1ll IUllS, trndifion a] C hristmas and Hannukah son id 'I '1' gs provr e a certam sta-l! lIy ;HTO~~ gvnvraons .

PI'lhaps musl c's rnost importan function from Merriam's ti ," . . . " perspee !Ve IS us/llII l r /flul /(1f/ l o JIu mteeration or socias lf noth ing 1 ic d 1

" b ' 'J 0p e se, m usle ra ws peop e,:,w ,tlll' r: 11 llI V" I~'S , (' lI ~:ourage s, and in sa me instan ces almost requires indi-\ I I Il IlJ ~ tI),Jlarl l('J p'llt' 1Il gro up activity. People who m ighl olh erwise never1IIh'1 '1,1 1 wllI work logclh('r in making music, Farrell' s (1 972) stud), of the11 11'.11I11I '" 0 1 111(' dwra l expc ri('nce for ad ult amateur singers and Hit '(./' IMO) .stlldy. 01' high sellOlll choca l gnmps both rcvealed tha t social i~te~~c~tlOll W IIS, a lugh/ y lI11'allingflll asp ect of the choral experienee. M iIIs's (1988)\ Imly 01 1111' Illt'allin~ o f Ihe high school band cxperience yi clded sim ilarIpsu l.h . 111 ShOl'l, III IlSIC ma king brings people from difTering sociocultural1l 'lrg.I ~ : lI S.' ll(TlJ Jl:llillll'l" ll ivity, lhl'essencc o f whic h is undefinablc . Th is subjeclivily, Ka planlllai ll '1,1Ill\ , }\iv('s mI its slrengt h and rcaso n for being,

l lll' ar ls lIlay lit, lht, collective jJosJt'.uion of a sla le, fra lt' rnal organizal ioll ,1'1l1i tit"al g ro llJl, or olher socia l g ro llp ami m ay be lIScflll in sollle ritua l Ul' lololl lllll'lUOrale sum e speeial ('vents. \"hcn arts are lIsed in this way, tllt' y" 'IVP ho lh to " id t'n tify lh e persons who waleh 0 1' lisIen wilh Ihe in it'nd('d~ l lI ll p illlen 'sls am i va luc s" (Ka plan, p . :~ ()) and to fulfill so llle pan icular, , " 101 1. polilicll, o r p ropaganda cnd,

h ith 1I 0t t'S Ihal young peoplc, in parti cular, cOllsidcr popular lUusi(' aS ;1I',, \ \p\ sion aml lha l they a lso f('c l they possess "the song ilsd f, tht, parl il'ul 'llI" 'il lIlllI 'llU't" ami its pe rfonn er" ( WH7, p, In ), Frilh as \....d l as lI a rgTl 'a v l' ~111 11 1 NOIlh (1!I!I!J) a lso a~;T('(' th at Illusic p lays an im po rlml mil' in l dolp \ "l lh ' idp nlil1t'a lion and d elimilalion of lh l'ir sm:ial b'TOllpS, Adoh'sn 'nl oS mI''11lf'11 llIll.\i(:" as a me;ns for illd udiflg othc rs info tllt' ir socia l g ro llp.\ ;1111\ntllldillJ!. slill olht'rs; i.t" , if YOll like our mll sic, you an~ olle 01' 11.' ; if yoll doIllIt , ) '1111 an IHlt.

I lit' .uts ' loS /rw wal t'xjJeritnct m ay pHlvid(~ a means by wll idl m individ 1I .d f a ll It'Il\OVt himsdf 0 1' hcrsdf fl"llll\ a gro llp, Ihc rl'h y Wt'ake lling pl'rso n,,11l

illd ivid ll.j's II HHlcJ lo IIl' 011" 01 IIII1 Sk 's thn-r- n mn ,~ lJd a l JlIIlll lOllS l'o r Iln-ind ividua l.

T he art s, um l parrukuly muxic-, ; I.~ Ihaoj)yha ve cvolv r-d nvcr Iht' l' a.'i 1hall'n 'lllmy iuto n 'cogll iZt'd n'.~pt'r l a 1J I ( ' p rofcssons. Kap lan no les 111 .11 in theVC'I)' process 01' si n/;,ril1g o r pl ay ing 'In nstru men t, "something huppon s." T hatwhi ch ha ppen s o cn is d ilTicu lt to exp la in, b ut Kaplan sugges ls that a hnnd-ica plJt' cI Indivlduul's m ere participation in gro up music-making expcrienceinvolves a typc 01' com m u n ica tio n, so m e thing which often is no t possible forsuch individ uals through norm al verbal d iscou rse . Kap lan suggests that in apcriod 0 1' g rowing anx ie tles in sociery, the medical profession m ay show anillcTt'as ing in1L"rt'st in such sy m bolic com municaron as rhe arts o lTer.

' )' 11t' ans' values as moral and symholicflrces m ay articul at e concepts that are"r-xn-ma l lo thc arts bUI im portan l Lo society: Go d , freedorn. love, b ravery,)'HlIIII, jo)" or SiI(I!WSS" {Kaplan, p . 32). N oting that the arts m ay teach "p rop-1'1 "'''pon sc's ur atntudes lowards values and institutions 01' the society" (p .:I;) , l\ul' lan admowledges that one can not d srngui sh clearly the arts as_n lll. u lil undmora l fcrccs from collatite possession, an d ci tes m usic 's long his-1"1 \' IU JI 11I 1II'a~:lnda tool , However, he goes on lo note a more general scnsein \\'h.. h ,li t is u sym bo lic fmee in all societies: as plaJ. H e m ainta ins that say-UlK \\1 ' "p l,t)""' musie nI' are "p lay ing" an inslrumenl is m ore lh an a figure 01'-1" " '1 11 1'.ll lil'ipa lillll in m usic a lld Ihe other arts p urportedly "transcends !he11111110"111,11" 111 '1,, 1 (11' !ifl' ami im p a rts m eaning to th e aetion" (p . 33).

1\' ,1 ~O l iuJo.:i sl, Kaplan is illle resled p articu la rly in lh e arts as incitltntal'1I IIIf1/I/(" 'Y 11" 1I0ll's app lic' llions 0 1' the a m in rad io an d lel ev isi()n fo r wh ich

I " 1"l il i\ il plillla r}" lIlo live. lIe views musician s a n d o lher anis ls who work inI hl' ~I' III I ,cl i; .\ im p ly as t'llIp loyees engaged fo r a sp eeific task . Kap lan's eom -Pl l'h"II.\i v,' lIIoch' l rOl" t l H~ arls in socie ly sees th e roles 01' c rea lors a nd d is .Ir ilJlltllls of a r l 01 '\ in lt' r1wined :lnd invo lved d ireetly w ilh th e a rts as a co m-IlIIIC IiI)', W llill' th is par licu larly is Ihe case foc m usic in the various popu lara m i t'1lit'rl.li ll lllC'nl id io ll1s, it a lso is eviden l {oc s()me art m us ic, In sho rl,IlIllsie is hol h a p rcKe ss und p rodlU:t through wh ic h many indi vidu als inlod ay's SI/cid }" a rt' ab ll' to rcalize commcrcial gain,

Kap Jan also vit'wS th e arts as indicators andJorerunners oJsodal change andIlo l, 's Ihal Ih is flln dio n "is so obviollS th a t it ri sks b eing ignored " (p, :i,t).t\. 1 1 1.~k "ol h sh apcs a nd is sbap c d by socic ty, and stud en ts o f music h isto ry111 t' l'o,(lIizlInl 01' l1l 11 sk as a rcl1ec t ion o I" the life a n d social conditions of thcV l l ll lI .~ hislll rical t'n lS, C o n lc m p o rary youth m us ic provid es a notab le exa m-1,1t' ,.r I ,( I'l Hlp's socia l va llles being hnlh rellcc te d in and prom ulgat ed by t1H',(1'll ll)'S Illll.'iit: ,

1'l'Il lU pS Ilw m usl im porta n l fl.l n ct ioll o f th e ar ls fo r Kaptan is their role asI lill~ {rlwrm l/ir jlflJl, /)Te,mlt, (] 1/(IJretlflrioJ ({t/ie jillure. COlltnJs tng Ihe cre-alivi ly 01' a rlis ls wilh th e (Tea live cJTorls 0 1' Ih e scielllisl, Ka p la n nol es thal

h u: -ks t1" 11 lll i" hl 1u, Il'sll 'd or r-vuluan-d I. lIlljl 'l'l1vl' ly rul llt'l'1 1l ~ 1 . jll"l 111 l ' W O l S . ,., . 1 , ,, '111'111 "I III'l l it'" lly 11>' thclr l'cIlll'a.r, lIt'S .uu i f hc- IHI,bli e. 111' S l l.:~t, .~ IS , . 1l 1W: ~ I I, '111 ,11 11 I ~ IJIl' "sll1J jl'Clivl' 1101 111 11' 01' tln- urt s. uud 1 l.\ .'~("('lI ll1l1 [ ;' ~ IV t ' 1 1 ,~ tlll. ~ : 'S, .1

1 .1 "\JI' IYr-ulmn-, t bal g iV " S il 11 11' uniquc stability lo w l ll ~'h lIu I'~ ( lt 1l 11 ' IS,~1"" , . illt v l hi biccti ' ('xl)('l"l nH'nl il WOI (\ 111I 11 liH bis OWII St' IISI' 01 stuhillty III us o J lC ( IVIC , . . . _ltl 'l , " 1 , t i 111 ' lo heur ~H'a l, 11), l it , u mintuin s thut fulu n ' ge llt'ratlo ns \ : 1 (C m 11 I , . . , l kI li t I _, ~ lI l h as lk -cthovcn's N nth Sym/l/uJ1/Y. which there~y su ve, as :1 _ ~ IIt,

"11,, Il"I sI rhrouuh the 1>I"('I.(' n l, ami in lo the futuro. Such a n n1l1'0I 11111 '

111 , . ' o . .. I icf [ k wlcdgc um iIIUl tI 11011, Kuplun arb'lll"s, mukcs m usir a JaSIC orm o n o

11I111"1' ulnuu l valuc" (p. ;17). . , . 1 r ., 'N 11 (lC) l ll)) surmn nrizc m uste s SO CIa uncuon s 1111IIII KIl' ,IVI 'S .IIlC 0 1 1 ,,' . I 1

, 1\ d U\I 1111' 1'01 tb c ndoiduol. notmg that they are m anifeslL'd, "' ,IUet ' 1.1 '\ 11 ,' r 1" d 1 t 'ntfTpfTS01W re al101/I . 01 11I

"111 1111'1111\1' "thc m anagcn u-ru () sr'} -I etl') . t . 1 11 I

11 " , ~ I Iati l' uons s UlII1 )1 '' 1, 7" ) Th e sclf-ldvumy and Intcrpersona re ano ns u ne ., h- mlll ll ,. ,. e l ' H 11 address muste s III l' 11I, \ Id. 'ul h II Ill tb c forcgoing di scussion. raptcr Wl.n 'Uol jJ,in.; mood.

" ' t tl",blg;ral Funrtions

.. d lisie " h e ideuti -In ( :..!: .K l ' l' )n s l ...) music as a so uree 01' grallllc.;) IIO II, .. u d1,'I'lliuu_sll ip lo l le LeJl( e r e m o IC , \ti(l.) 1Il1l .~ i("'s potcm:y in a /;,'To u p, . . ., ', 1

(: 01 _, 11111 vit'wed Ihe nud f or aeJt/ulic exjlTesJion an~ ~x~'eTlet/(r as ('S~I 111",1, 1' :11 .. , t1 t'vl' lop m t' lll nI' hll m anncss, a nd considers s.e l~s l lIv.I l y. lo a l ~lcl< 1.1.11 , I~ I ,', I ~ ~I .I F>

I , (,1' IUlln 'lIlkind 's m ust (i1stm glllshmg e h ll .H It l iS 11 !'l.It l H"UILy to JI.' o nc , , , I( ' 1'10'11 '01'5 so far as to s lIggest th a t ind ivid u als who are.in~em;]tl V I ' lo u 'a l]1; ' wlH'17ll' r in IllIlSic 01' elst'~herc-are nol ach ieving th Clr lu ll lull1l 'lll pol t'lI 't lnl ,IIU[ eVt'n !llay lit' han d lCupped. .. l ' 'l

\VI '1' t ' 1 fllllClioll pe !" se , Ih e vie w lhut tbe cultural l/llItnx 111 IV, IU, i (11/11 t' 110 , , . .. f l ' ' n ta l to (;

- v - _ ''J " IUHIlII I U' IIfIl 'IfIT

tun-. {;a.~lun h l'lit'vl's Ihe' lJlilll lll Y n-nso n for tlu s is lhal l!'l i/o\iom scrvices undmusicul pr-rformauo-s hu ve- SllllJ(' ('OIl UI1011 pllq)().~('S. 1111' g n 'a lc'st 0 1' which isthei r vulcncc Ior drawi ng am i lxmding ndivid uals in lo a gl'Cl II Jl. Music andn-lgiou go togcthcr lo dcfend nn indi vidua l agai nst fear and lo neliness.Mu sc a lso see ms lo be par tculurly app ropriate for helpn g an ind ivid ualcouununicute with the supem aturul, a co nce m o f many re ligious rites.

Fllr Gaston. the importance of musteas communicaton is in its utility as non-verba l corumu nication, w hich provdes m usic with its potency and value.G aston m a intains that people would not need musie if they could com m un-c-a n- vcrbally thal whic h is casi ly communicated musically. Even the best ver-h;L! descnpous of fechngs expre ssed by m usie fail to commu nicate the feel-iUF;s i1dt'flllatl'ly, l'crhaps it is becausc m usi c' s m ean ing is wordless th at philo-sOJlh in[ cx pl.uuuions o f musc ' s meani ngs, verbose though they m ay be, areSllll\l' lllmi iu adequu u-.

'l'lliI l 1II/II;r is ,1(rJJ( (um l ((ahty sho uld be evident to any srudcnt of rnusic11I1'lllp\', '1'111' fat 1 tlnu music is a time-based auditor), p hen omenon d oes not"l ol~" lt ,Iny ll''ls 'll' llso rily llIl/:,rihle than objccts which peoplc tonch. se e,hl ~" , ni _11 11' 11 t :;l'ilo ll lIlai nlain s that music th e refore is a particularJy va lu-111,1.., 11 1l'1l11"IIII. 1l1l'c1iulIl lllll lllgh wh ich individuals who have \\ithdrawnll lltll _' 11 11'1 \' 11l ,1\' 11'l'sla h li\ h COllIl(" t wi th a structured real ity. T hat m tlsic1'" 1\ 1.1. _ 11 _t l ll' II1 Il' 1" 1 " Iln IlIrag ing w ithd rawn individll als to in tera ct with11111 . 1 I tI.. I' tl 'Il1 h ., lllull'li)'illg Gaslon' s fundamental princ ipies o f mll sic1111 1011"

1; '1 tOII ' _ .1Il1ll'IIIIOll IlIal IlIllSil' is drrivrdfiom Jhe tender emotiolls is reflect- d 11" '11 h In II1 ml POl'lIl ,ll lIIusi c, a ~ well as in most religious m usic, folk_111 1/0\" , 011 1 "1I11H", ul1 d l'a lrl nl il' lIlusir. Musl SUd 1 m llsic re fiects a concern for111111'1 illl ltvidu ,c1 " a tu l Ih.. PII'lill lllina nl IhenH' is lo ve in one o f its various1lI,lld ll,\t ,lllom 10 \'1' u f 0111 ' illlol l1l'l'. u f n Jllll lry. o fGod. etc. Such music alsolila)' 11l ' lvil1.. .111 illlli villlla 1wilh a f('l'!ing o f bel ongin g, thus p rovid ing a senseuf I IO\l '11I'ss lo 111111'1".\ alld allt 'v ia ling loncl incss.

III )111 (,l lhun', \ wd l as in ulhers, music ;s litar/ya/waysun ex/Jression 01 good will,tI rrtU/,;IIK 11111 111 IIthn.l, ami is so inli'r prl'lcd. Music, the n, is a powerful expressiC/u 01' lhe inlenll'l'elldencl' 01' ma llkind, alld fram the lullab y lo Ihe funera ldir/o\l', ;tll ('xI'H'ssioll uf 111(' leuder l'mo lions . (Gaston. 1!)6l'l. p" 25)

Th(' I('('og n itiu ll o f 1Illls ic QJ a soll ra vIgratificativll is pal1icula rly apparen tin dli ldll'l\

,1 l ' ly rf l ll( (}};// f" 1'111/1/11(/ (1011.\' I!/ AIII.l tll lld llll'ifll

Imal l'vollllio ll uf Ihal cap,u i l y ' ~ urput. Molino CiUllio m Ihal IUlllll a ll'vo lu-lion ill vo l vl~s Il WH' thnu jU!II Ihe' I)'pt' of biologicall'vo lul illll 1I.' !'rood alt'd withDnrwinism .

' Ii.('huos (:l()( )()) examination of human predispos itio ns for processing1Il1l SIC slIppnrts tbe no on of a bological basls for severa! aspccts of rnu scpron'ssing. As evidc nce, sbe notes substantial infan t-adul t similarities in1I1l 1.~ic perceptlon . Her ex cellc nt review of he r and ot he rs' research indcatesrlnu both infants : lIId ad ults tend lo focus on relational cues (e.g., p ltch and1t'1l1!lOral p~Uerll1ng) rath er than absolute pitches an d d urations whe n pro -("(' SSIllP; a\l{ht~H'y p~t1erns . O n the basis of her findi ngs . Trehub pro posesIhn'I' I.)w.ccssmg universals: "the priori ty of eontour over nterval p rocessing;tln- pnomy of tem poral patterning over spec fic timing eues ; and the rele-~lI l1n: nfg.esl.ah !s.icl principles of gro uping" (p . 431). Trehub suggests that the.\In klll/o; slIllllan lles bctween infaru Isten ers with m inimal exposure lo music

alld ,,1111111 hsrcnc rs with extensve exposure to musc m akc a co mpelling case101 lIIill'l l'lIl pvrccptuul biases in relaton to muste" (p . 4:i6). She goes on lo.UJ.; lll' thal lhl's(' information processing co nstrants may bave m plcations1111 11 11 ' ,II'Vl'h lIIIIH'1l1 ofmusica l systems across cu ltur es and that "one ce nse-llll" II' l' ' 11' 11 III sica I ('uliures bUilding on pereeplua l processing p redisposilion sl lh ,11 1')( l'mlllt.' ami train ing orten lead to progressive improvement in th e\ k l ll~ lha l .11 " .lavol'l'd by nalure" (p . -l:Hi). In short, Trehub suggests thal11111\11' ,. r O( I !'ro s lll~ h' lHh'ncil's and restraints m ay have influenced th e struc-IIU ,d u,lllIIl' 0 1'1111' IlHlsics cOllla ined within tbc world 's va rious cultures.. Iu, r'l i ~iuK lil(' { 1 1 ~cst~o ~l "Does man nud music?' Slobo da (W85. pp.:.t1.IO. :.thH) .1I011'S Ihal 1I.1 d lvldu a ls can go \\'i lhoul music for very long per iodso , tlllll' WlI lIo ll t s!lowlllg an y nOliceab lc ilI e fTec ts. H e suggests that cultures~'H l h l' l' l.han illd ivid ua ls !leed m usic and th at th e "need" might be m ore dircct11I Jlo uhtl'wle cuhurcs Iha n in today' s comp lex contem porary societics. In hiswords (p. ::!()7),

I'rimilivt, cultun's have fe\\' artifacts, and thl' organizatiou of the sociel)" must1,, t'xpn's~l'd lo a grealer exlenl Iheough transient an ions and Ihe way peoplelIlh'rOln \\'llh cadl other..\ Iusie, perhaps, provides a unique framework withwhll h hUlllans ~ III t'xpress, by Ihe lemporal organization of sound and geslure.r1 w .~l l, lI l"1 l1 l'l' 01 lhcir knowledge and social relalions. Sollgs and rhythmically~ I r~ ; ll lt': l ' d pm'ms and sayings fonn Ihe major repositor), of human knowlcdge111 II l1l1 Ji lt-rale n dlllres.

:-i lo llClda ~ Ilggt'sls Ihat hum an ment al pro cesscs, which he views as a pro ducI111 ,'vH.lllllon, hav(' I{od lo a natu ral pro pl'nsity In bc have in adapl ivl' way s.IIIdll lflllg a p ropl'llsity lo lISl' lan b'11age a lld music. lit, ma inla ills Iha t l'volu-lion sllpplied a molivalion fOl" 11m sic, making it "nOl lura l" am i l'njoY' lble forIlt'Oplt' to inliulKl' in il.

I H II, I If, / 1 , ." r ll ll "" 'II " " ' ~I ' ' ''1''' ' ' '' ''' '' ''}' , ~

Advocut tng a simil.u Illl!'ro ilIon. I ) l lwl ill~ ami l lurwo. Id ( I~ IHII, 1111. ::Ui-::!:17)SIIAAl'sl thut W{' shoultl l l lll\ ic ll' l l'velllllillll in tcrms Ilr 1111' ~rtlf IlIml (JI""m1/,\rutber than in terms lit' ItIl/lIJhwl "' /"Plllti01lJ. Thcy agn'l' that nue,ic is vulu-uble lo human b'Tunps und 11011' that as huma ns c volved ovr-r hundreds ufIho llsanc\s u f p 'a rs in small gruu ps, singing and pla ying mu sic scrvcd as a"n llU'sion-facilila ling gn mp uctlvity- un exp resslon uf social solidariry" (p .: :lIi). They rew gnize IlIU Sir ns n powcrfu l sym bol of cultura l idcn ty, espe-.da ny .~ i'KC mu sical srylc tends, likc languagc, to n-Iluct a h igbl y stable sct 01euluuully tra nsmitted shurcd behavlors. They ma inl ain th nt muslc's val uc lohu man socicties retlccts music's bological adapave ualne: Furth crmore, thcynunntain that evcn with changes in social stru ctures and other developmentsIhal have co me with ind ustrialized societies. including sorne divisin of laborla-t ween " m usclans" and "co nsum c rs," m usc' s sociocultura l va les and theundcrlying distribution of mu sical abi lit ies are essen ally the same as inllllll'l' pnnutive soceties.

Hnully, Bro wn ('2000. pp. 'l9{)-'2!)7). as an outgrowth o f his "musilan-,l, llage" modcl of mu slc's origi ns, discusscd latcr in this chap ter, observes th at"1I 111sic making has aU th e hallma rks of a group ada plation au d functions as11 dt 'vi ("(~ for prom oling group ide ntily, coord inalion, action. cOhrnition. and"lIloliona l expression.... Music making is done for the group. and the conll'xls of musical perform ance. the co nlexts of m usical works, and the per-tnrlllance ensembles of m usical ge nres overwhel mi ngly rellcct a role in)/,IOllp funct ion."

TIIl' answer lo "" ny m usic?" co ntinues to be in le rm s of Ihe m any imporlun! flllll"l ions lhal music serves in society and cultur e. Perhaps incr eased1I 11t!n stand ing of Ihe role 0 1" biologica l cvo lutioll, indud ing information-pro -1" ~ ,~ i llg Icn dencies and co nstraints, in the deve!opment o f human adaptivcIU'!l,lviors will provide al least a parlia l a nsWl~r as lo "how" music b ecame solI11pol'l;1Il1 to human soc iel}' an d cultur e .

What Makes Sorn e Sounds Music?

Sllld il's of Ihe d cvdopmenl of musica l behavior suggesl Ihal d ifTerential11'\1'"Il SI' to Illusica l suund an d othe r sound beco lllcs ev idl'1l1dur illg in fancy(I lowling, WHl ; Moog, 1!)7(); Trehub, UJ9:1. '20(0). Virlua ll)' ('ver)' child amiUdllll "kllows" what music is-al !l'ast Ihe 1ll ll Sic 0 1'his n I" lH'r sUHullnd ing clIl1111 1'. Th( ~ 1'IJ(:ult lll'atioll process aSS lIrt ' S Ihal ca d y in life . ch ild l'ell d eve!op IIl O UI "pl 0 1' Illllsic, albe il vag lll', ill ddll ll'd , amI largel y 1II1VI', hal ized . T hallw il\'id uals ' t'llllccpls ren {'el ('lIltllra l h ias is reuli ly apparenl, although moslilu ll\'iduals will fel'ogni zl' allull...1 ( 1111 11 11' \ nmsic as mlHir, e\'en thollgh it

l 111.1)' "lllIH slrang(' .\" hale'vt'!' 111(' 1"1 11111Jl', Illll\l l 1II \' II I \' t ' ~ a ll urga nizal iu n uf sUlluds ami

~ i l l' l H' l s . t'lH~tl Ill P; s:li i ll lo4 vmi , "l'\ I'itdll's, loudn ess ItvIh . lIl I I I Il Il I I I I'S. nll ofwhich O(T III" w bn a I h y l h lllil tnum-work. Muste is a tiuu- busr-d art fon n .lis o rgun i/.tioll ilullIversals are a a eep , c-.,-1 (di ,I, t, divi., . ( ) h . of a slablc relt' f('nce 1'1e 1,

~il: :::I::~~I~:~:~;~~'~ ~~::: ~~~:I~ s~l'J:S~ (~)~he use of refe~ l'~l ~e mlst:s, ~lj 11;1',i.l\di'~-;ltiOI\ of rhylhmic pallcrns by an aSYllun etrical sllbd lVISIOIl ur 111m IlIl SI S.

(' _1 - r rthe , pussible acultural musical commonalities. H.. iclllu;lIl..o nsll c n ng u . di ' I f ..

' 000 )) 3(l:i-:~()5) sllggesl'> tbal music, in aH its va ne e ll .I~l ra c.lnns: I,S(~ . 11' , di . I r relJetilion (o r rl'pl't lllllll wllh V.1I 1l lllilt am i o rga mzed aroun t le pnne~p e o ' . . . '" ' lv in ' hUln ;1 1lIllun ) Conc eiving n\ll sie as an o ngomg. d ynam lc plOt ~ SS I,U VO . .l, r _\1 1

" . ' lh ce redundancy r/eVlu5 I lal jot l"l'al y .1111oI11it:il)alio n, R'chr madn rcc~b:lIZtCS ,-'n music m usic's SIf\ ll'lllfa\ rr/"i /fm , lh

l' " 'n itio n o a n partlClpa Io n .. . ,~;II t hr~;~,I;1 of ! ormuloiom ..t, and the high se nsc of rxpec/allCJ t.s ~t' III' I . I It \'I 'I Il " ~

t ~H'ratt's . Fo rm ulaicness refe rs to th e "store hous,c o r pH't~X I,S ~ III~ lc,II I:IIl\'IS,H . "_ _ d 1 ythm s lh at pcol>1c bnng In nHlslt 1I1 ,lklll.l, (a llllIIlls IIH'mt's, mol l s, a n r \ ' 1 k _

, - d ' h)" ( '-\04) For Ri chman, lhat whll' 1 1II;1 t'S .'1111llvnl}' am i p lay aroll n wl1 1" 1' : 1 lh ' sounds' slm clllf t" il illvulvt,S"l ll1 l1l ls m usie involves m o re t lan JUs t . _,1 . , r

1- - - ' '' -"h th ose so unds Ihe d l'velo pmcnt n i a SIUl t UHI\t ti

\l pt ';IIt't CXpt'f1 t'net's ' l ' I ' ,1I.. . r '1 .. '" " n,ls a ne! musical cxpcc talio lls rcgan IIIS W lal I1IlF. Il11t'mOllCS o IOst, ,>

(ll ll lt' llt' xl in Ihc musical cxperic nct~ , , .. . '

N . , ,1, " "w ha l m lkes sOln t sOHnds mllSlt: tlllt'Sllo ll I .~

\1 (l llt~ answer o ... '. '. ,, 11.,h le to ('ve 0 11(' but so llle so une!s ob vio usly art.' t'i!slcr lo org.llIl....t

It 1 cI ' . f)'I ' 1_ O , 1 .lsic dilTt'rence bc..tw t'e n mosl nillllf ;t1 lyIllto IlI11 S11: than nI w r SOIlIll s. nt l. , , , '. l l 'lit ('111'1"111 ' sOllnds and must so unc!s Ik lih t'nllt' ly crcat t'~t fo l" ,m usu IS I ~ .I I. ~ Itnll lira lIyS ot Tll rr ing SOlllld s a 1'l ' " to l l ~ t a \l l l y t'h. lllg"ing trtlm tllslanl lo I1I sl,Il11

in 11 ]( ' I'rt 'q IJ I 'lIdl " ~ "1I 'M ' 1I1 uud Iu 11 1

1{I'vPS/. (I !J!i,l) , Slol ll ll la ( I!IH,ri). Cll Wll l l 'l.~d ll'k ( 'W:-V I ~ ' 7(l ) ,Bl'nwll" ~1 t' l' k ~ ' r., ' 1I1 ~ 1 \\~lI H lI (:WOO, p. ;1) not e thnt evoJllliollUY approach-

I'S lo lllUSICs onl.p ll ,~ It'JI 11110 ohst:m ity uud cven d isrcpurc afh-r IJI(' I!H Os,I:l'rhaps duo to twu Iacrors : n'ject ion of ruclst notions prcscn t in m uch1'1I 1"01Jt'a1l scholars h tp bl'fim ' \Vorld \Val' IJ and the rise of the cultura l-a ll l h rop~ )logiC~ 1 uppronch lo Illllsicn logy in the United States during the post-wnr pcriod. Wh atcver thc cause, interest in m usc's ori gins wancd th roug hmost u f thc remaining twenticth century. A resurgence of ntcrest carne with\\'a llill's (W!H) co ining of Ihe term hiomusicology, whch includcd the th ree.I},nlllches of evolutionary ~lUsicology, neuromusicology, an d comparat oe musicology.l'lu- ~'x{'d len l volume Te OriginsofMusic (w alltn, Merker, & Brow n, 20(0)ccrtalnly has br~)Ug~1 Iocus to evolutio nary m usicology as a fleld ofstudy and~ lIldOllhl.t'dly will stim ulate rnuch though t, research, and speculation regard-U1 ,L:: 1l1llSlCa~ an l.-'voJlI li~nary process. Much of th is sec on draws heavily on~O IlW theones ,olTen 'd In that volurne. Prior to examining th ose theones,IllIW1 '\ 'I'r, wr- will examine sorne of th e rnytho logy about how rnusic ca rne to111'.

( ',h;li lll'Y (Wt. , pp. 1-1 1) and Wallaschek (1&93/ 1970, pp. 259-2(j2) sum-1II 1I1 /1 ,d "lIllll' of lhl.-' myths and legends, mos t of which suggest tha t so rneIIp' 'I II 'llural hl'ing gavl' music to people_ One H indu myth holds that

1l1 .1I1I1I,I , lhl' Sllprelllt' spiril of the universe in H indu theology, invented1I111\1t 01 \ 1111 ' ,L:: O(I~It.~s of Spl'l.-'ch, Saraswati. A Chinese legend dating fro m IheIllllcl (I OUl llI) n,c.L. says Ihal Ihe Chinese musical scale carn e from six to nes~ Il ll~ hr. Jo'u ng !l oang. a mah"'cal hird . However, Durant (1963, p. 27:1), ofTer-Ill~ .1 dJlIl'lI'UI. lIoll.wian account of the origin of C hinese rnusic. asc ribes1IlIlsi(''s 1,lri.:i n tn Illl' Il'ge ndal}" empe ror. Fu H si. J apan ese tradition holdsIhal IIIII SI Cl'a llle frol1l thl.-' gods lhemselves, perhap s devised lo Jure lhe sungoddt'sS from a cuve lo which she had ret realed .Th ~' Sllllll' ria lls had lhe goddess N ina as the patroness of music, while the

Assyna lls ca ll1.-'d their god dess of la ve, Ishlar, "'the hannonious and sweel-100Wd lllllt," (C hailley, p, fi), Greck mythology recognized several gods andl-\0ddl'.~ .~t'S assod atl'd wilh Inusic: EUlerpe, a m use of song; Alhe na, crealor o rdu 'llult ; 1111' gOl l Pan, who crea!t'd the pipes or reeds; and Hermes, who cre-I (.iI Illl' shl'flhcrd pipc for himsclf an d the Jr.re for Apollo, the go d o r m usic(POI'~tl ClY. W/:-I, I ~ ' 211), Perhaps lhe mo st far-reaching Greek myth ahoutl ~ lIl ~ l t ' was lhat 01 llil' "harmony of the spheres," which origin ated witil theI y ll ~ aW Il"t' a lls and SlliJS('qUClllly hccamc lhe hasis of {'Ja lo's philnsophy oft llll.~ I t' ,7

~ E" ~ " 1I 1 i" Jl ~'. h,' uwJIl Yuf Illl' ' IJIII '1l1 alllhn (S question lhe plau sibi lity of such theories and cUll sl'lage Iwo- combi7lal(J ri(l1f omwliofl ofJ ma!l j:hrases a l ~ d. fXp,re,\:I'.lIf /'h.ra_,':1111/, pr/lll'i/III'.\', 'I'he firsl snbslagc invo lvl'd \1St' 01 (hs~rcte p llt h i ~ ~ t,l ~ \: )..( ~ Hl\ ' 1')' hlOlHI sl' lllanlic meillling; tllt' sl'n llld s llbs t l:-I~ lIl~o l ved ~h,t... .!; lI lt :. l l l,O ~~Id 1'1I1 ,,,t's hy 1111.-' com binalo ria l ilrra llgt'lll

I k Ihl 'l' sbn uluuu-uusly wlrh 1111' d ivl'l'g" lll'l '11\'1 ' st..W, he ('(11I11'IU s'l (',l .' S I. ' " 1"()'I1 so ngs iconc n-pu-wn rution. nnd111 011'\ "1 and I('..ds to SIl( ' 1 1 III1~S .IS ve -rn: ,

uUI \i:ll na rra lo n . ' .. 11 1 , . IIw sexual srkaien th, fJ'Y bolds thatl'u-v io usly calh-d the maung (,1 I u ol") ~ . 1 11" '1 11, .. '"', , 1'"''''1 form. I . . I rsu ncts ' lIH , .. , "

1lI11 \i ts urigin is roon-d 111 1II1ll1II sr-xua 11 . . ' 1', [D arwi n IH7.' 11

. ( j5~ ) .' l' -xtcnsiou of a manng ca

01 IIIII SII" W,IS a rorm or lCX e n I I"J - l' " 1'1< I 1' 1' :tH -117;J Il)r.: f n l ')' vevesz J ' ,

Allhllllgh m a ny (Ne ul, . .) 1, pp. " ~ . ' :' 1 urly theorv whic h m ay( r: :lf,) :lti ti ) highly cn ncrze I le eur . J '

.'i lo hlltla. I.JH.I, pp. l. - I -itc th e mating calls uf so m l'. , .' f ' I ~ . . and fall e p ropone n s e l1' 111 ir YIS IOIlS o urzan r .' l f . rounds u r so ngs Il\ l'd in

" , ( .. 1 , rs that serve a scxua uu cnon- so u .utllllla l.s anr n so ng ( ) b ds ". ,." o utsidc of ll1a t ill~ S('a .sem ;" te e ' f es note th al a Ir s smg_1,11'1tlllg a m a e, rr I T ' , .. . d (el if th e rboor y we-n-(11) musc-ltkc m atin,g ca!ls .a: e abs,e'nt. ~.m~n~I;;I~e: 'I)~:~pondera nt ly Jo V(' \ 01 110: \I t m-, mu sc 0 1'todny s prtnuve cu turcs s Ol

I d a1l'd lo wck ing a mate. h rch 1 ha vo d iSlllis.\l'c1 t1 1f'( ) 'Ei ~) h e vcr a rgues 1 al se o ars

Mrlh-r ~( )( ){ , p . ..." o W . .' d anim a l m ating ca lla, o r "a n lll\lil'111m 11011 01 1 nnalogs between human a

d", t temptuously a mi with loo

1 , " . . h - I 'nns them "too rea 1)', 00 con ,Illm ls IIp as e e '., h , " ~fller suggests Ihat an "d"/,I(I'hlllt appn 'ciatio n of sex~al se le~hon ~ ~o~~xuai sel ec t io n theor)' of music 's1/tIIJilt tl/,/,Tooch is a usefu exle ns lo n o e I to be a " Ieg it im alc,HIIJ{ ns. Ile co nside rs huma.n ~usic. j usi as ic:n~~g:; les lhal, b'lJa ge and m usic.

Wilh regurd to th e p recu rsor, Brown sugges ls it in vol ved referential emotivel/{j{(lI~fl tI11.f, whch have "bo th emova meaning and referemal m eaning, aIIII II" 'r!)' slla rt'd wilh Ihe m usila nguage slage" (p . 291). Such vocalizatio ns a rt'\ lllIlt ll lu (',llIs o f so me primales that refer to so rne object in (he environmentIIIll I 11 1 1111' sa llll' (inw provide a generaJ wa rning to others lo take appropri-,, 1t'IWt'I'n aclor s and IIl0se aCled upon; music's blending syntaxis IMw!! fin pild l bll'nding and pitch pall eming Icading lo complex sound-l'molion fl'latiollShips. This establishes ianguagc's symbolic capacity ror repre-\1'1l 1llioll 'lIld cOlllmullication and music's aco ustic mode (wilh its sound-emo_lion "ysh'/lI alld broad S{'malllcsJ.

' r j l .SlIlIlllla rize, Bro wn H'eognizes a referenlial emotive voca/izalion 5y.rlem asp rlT ltl'SOf lo his 1!lIlJi/all/!,/la/!,e .ftage, which incl udes the commoll a ncestral fe-Iltn 's o f lOlh lan gu age and music . Divergence iuto lanb'llage and musie systemsI'11

Ilo wil1 g- he mU.I'i/flll/!,litlgt' ,rlage oceurs as so m e sounds takc o n refe ren tial11ll'lU illg- (Ia llb"uage) a nd o lhcrs lak e o n e motive mean ing (m usie's acoustie1I/(I" r iu Bro wn 's le nns). Finally , Bro wn n "eogn izcs an il1leracfivr .~lage, wh ichiuvu lv('s ,1 rebi nding of m usie and la ng1.la~;t' iu lo whal he h'nns musie's vthi.dr II/otl, . which involv('s cOll1b ina lions o f langll ag l' alll l m us

:11

SI'UlI p ucuvny, butln- ~ IIRRI ' \h tluu ,1.f'uJmJtl/lu.{ corusng may ha ve plnyed theiu rporta nt role , 11 1' 11011'.\ llllll mnsl m usirs employ an undc rlying pu lse th atis " a cnrd luu l device fo r ( I II U lllnaling th c bchavo r of scveral individuals in a[oint , co bercnt. syuch roulzr-d performance" (p. 316) a nd suggesls that ourcurlicst homi n id a ucestors' abihties to mtrain th emselvcs to m ove or respondlo such a pulse allowcd thcm to engage in synch ronous vocal singng form ate uuract lo n. Such synchrono us call ing; he contends, "would maximizethe summed arnpli tude of the multivoice display to ex tend its geographicrcach bcyond territorial boun daries" (p. :118). lIe cons iders this to be truerooperat ivc synch ro no us ca lling that a group uf males mig ht find useful inaurucrug groups of migrating females who were from beyond tbeir territori-a l boundarics. He argues that this an cestral adaptation for entrainmcnt o f an-pr-ritivc beat sup ples "an ancient bological found aon fo r rhe musicalp lllsl' !lo hum a n culture has failed te feature among ts musical m eans ofl' '' pn'ssion '' a mi , ultimately, "an irreducible biologi ca l root of human m usic"11" :1I!t),

1\1'1kn gm's on lo suggest tha t such synchronous chorus ing involved\" ll ul ll'OIIn ing which wo uld requ ire in crea sed auditory reception and vocalIlllld llt lion dt 'vt'lo pmen l, and lhus facilitate expans io n o f cortical devclop-uWIII 1'" l iliSt,s tllt' )lussibility that langu age for referential purposes might11 ,1\ " 1"" '11 11 fai,ly lI'cenl developmenl and th at we m ay have been singing. Ilfl 11 ,11 11 illJo!. ho m illids hcfore we became talking humans (p . 323).

I 11111'1 \\' litl ' l ~ ,t1so ha ve o ffered soc iob iologicallybased views of music' sllli f.i im, 111,11 killf.i (1!I7:1) a rb'1leS pcrsuasively th al "we shall leam more aboutn 'I . ~it ,llId hUl1l an lllllsk ali ty if we look for rules of musical behavio r which,tl l' ' illlll.: indly , as \\,( ,11 as culturall)', co nd itio ned and species -specific" (p .100), t ;a 'llon ( 1 ~ l l j H . pp. 7- 17) and Sloboda (1985, pp. 241-2(8) concUf. Such" Vil' \\' Sll':Jo!. I'sls a n'rt.lin ('vo lut ionary basis for music's origins, hUI in a m uchd ifl"l l'n t ~ " lIS t ' Ihan Ihe m atin g ca ll notion.

(:.,tun a l'gUt'S Ihal Ihl' beginni ngs of hum an socicty go hand in hand w ilhh llma n hiolog ical dcvc lo pmcnt, and stresscs that b iologi cal and culhlral cvo-Illlio lls Wl'J"( ' parl o f Ihe sa me process. H e notes that with the deve lopment ofIhl' h rain ' s (:ortl'X, primitive people couId sup press rage and hostilit y, a pre-lt'qll isitl' fo l" sod l't)"s devcl opment. Cortical development freed the primilivefl'mall ' jium blind illslinctive behav ior th at would cause her to accep t justa n)' m aJ, a l (',l{" h Iw riod o f cstm s. The cortical bccamc d omin ant o ver th el'IUltll'rill(' fact or,

T1I1',SI' Iwo asp ('('(s o f b iological d l'velupnlt'llt, suppress io n of rage a ndsl'l" 1"I in m aling, fosll'l"l'd th, lJt'gi"lIing~ of family ..... ith its n 'slllting tiivision oflaho r, mlltl ifil'd llla ll' fl'lllal l' a.w,Hssion, nu l inn t'a sl'd ('Olll llllllliratioll , "AIIthis Il'atls lo a llll iqll t'lU'SS in hu ma ns, ,ullo ng: aH a n im a ls. u f 11U' 1II011U'r-dJi ldl l'tl l illn shi p , will10111 wh it- h Iht'H' wlluld lit' 110 t"ll ittl ll ; I ~ WI ' kllo w it"

AI/u;r, A J'j(/ /!III/(lI" " '1-1'(/1/,1" Sori(ly, mili (,'ullllrr

1111l .1 1l iu f.m ls' almost rot al de U'lItil'IH'I' 011 u-ir 1,I10111t'I"s r~H(t ,a slon, p . 11).11 . , 1 1, te muc h lil11t' lo infuut ca rc.

. 1ft' , -'eyon< 1" >Thulog lca an SOCIOCl . . t ',n potenlially musical d I'-

h Y such IIlteracllOns con a,11 11 1 suggests t al man d f . lh e sc" is melod ic and in chule s\ ' p ie lhe p roso )' o m o er 1IIlI 'n ls. 'o r cxa m , d , ., t'" ,n lellll>o changl' s, ,OH

l 1 r"ely ynam lC V.ln,\ , .Illylh l1l ic reb'11 a n ty aJ} ( va 1 '1 h th ' n1"y ,,' e wo rds lhe inl an ts" 1 . l Whi e t e m o e rs . .~ . ,.h,fttlllllS uf voca tlm )fe . . . f d . .'th particular fca lmes ami

bl h , lhe com b m allOns o so un s "". 11'1I 'SIlIIIa y e ar . l . .' .. 1 ( '{ I ),t) niSsilnaYlikt~;t so, ' I . ay COllSl( el muslca p . " , . ,.

H'la llllllSll1ps llal une l~l d > .w hal less ohvioll S sinn la n ltt'Stl"'!Tihes M'veral o lher Important a n s~mcl ll'l \\'I'In 1T1Ilsic am i mothcr-infant in lcractlon :

" , . " .. t ruclural fealUres that rcl)' on cXIll't'laILoll lu n '.';lI"111l'u use of st: qm ntl

in th c umbiancc of a WIIII" Img." (l) lo mark thc Imporrancc of an evcn t. am i(d) virtua lly universally in aS.,m-ialion with dance, uh hougb dance docs not;t(TOmpany all music, ami nrusic docs not accompa ny al l dance.

In much of European a nd American soc cty, a curi ou s paradox exl sts :Musc is readily available, ye l that ve r)' availability may make many pcoph-takc music for grantcd. Music is a type of co mm odity, for use al the pk-as un-nI' thc co nsumero Perhaps th is resu lta from a dichormtizaton of soch-ty inlo arcla tive ly small group of music makers and a re latlvely large gro llp 01' musi clistcncrs, many of whom listen pa ssively rather than actvcly. Despit c m uslc'smportance to pc ople. m an y pcople may not readily rec ognize it.~ lmpor-lance.

Musc serves sorne com mon functions in rnost socie tics, cvcn thoughmusical sryles and forms vary among cultures. T hrough its functionality,music is an integral cultural compone nt, serving as both a co besive and per~pctua ting force . Muste also re lects cu ltural values and rcmperaments.\\'eber's (1958, p . xxvi) analysis 01' musc's ratio na l and soc ia l foundationseveu suggests that the difference berween \\restern music and that of othe r[purtic ula rly Eastern} cultures is rooted in ' ''eslem peoplc's lemperamentund the ir drives to rationalize and understand envi ro nmenla l ph cnomena.Nt't11 (1975, p. 93) agrees tha l a society's cha racte r and qualily or lire greatlyinl1ucn ce its music, but he notes tha t othe r facto rs, e.g., technological level,lypes of raw matcrials avaHable for instrument cons lmction , amount or con-lad with olher cultures, and a ltitudes toward cultural changc 01' continuity,a l.~o influence the developmenl of a culture's mllsic.

Recogn ilion or cross -cultur al "univcrsa ls," noted in lhe aboye citations 0 1'Aro m (2000), Carterette and Kendall (l9!}!l), Richman (2( 00), Rocderer(l!mS). aod Sloboda (I995), docs not negat e the fact tha t socioc ultural con-l..nl influences musical behavior. While m usic obviously m ust exist \\ithinI'hysica l and physiological parameters, and has sorne struclural sim ilaritiesami se rves similar fundions in different cultures, individual m usica l behav-iors val')' greatly fram culture lo culture. Explaining inle rcu ltural va ria tionsis dilli cu lt; Sloboda (1985, pp. 244-248) makes a stro ng case for the use orlIulat ion as an ex pl anatory va riab le, especially rcgarding diffe rences bet weenmal lid lite rate cultures. In an ora l culture, lcarni ng is bound inextricably toIlII lC lamcntLl I hu man intenu:tioll s; ind ividuals gain knowlt'dge through cus-lulIl and ritual. In Iitcrate sod d ic's, know ledge is nollimiled to l1ll'morics or' Iral di scclllfS C' and first-han (1 c'xllt'ril'IKe; sym bol systcms, sur ll as IIt)lation,al10w slo ragc' o f ku owletige'. Tll al slorag l' allows f('uca lio n of prior knowl-..dW' wilh aid ur symbo ls, hll l il "1,,, plll.' a Cf'rta in psychologira l disla lln 'hl'tWC'I'n an individua l alll l tilO' a, 1 UlHul;h'd know!edgc 0 1' Ihl' (1I1I1II"e thallu'ah'd 11ll' sym bol sySh' lI\, hlll lwllIIUll \ indi vidlla ls mar IJI ' scIt,rt ivc'lt 'KiU'ding a"lt'c'ts of know lldWlIl1d 11 101" Ollj"I'livc' in cxam ining Ihal knowl -

I \ VI /" '0l!, lI a// 'illl lll l ll / ;ol/.\ (lj'AfIlJiCflt IIduJllim

inh'Hra lly n -inn-d in IIlm k ul hdlav ior lllda y. And, shc noh 's thut lxuh moth-er-in fam inh'rac tiolls und ruusk- making in prem odern sOelc,tic's a re sha redcndcnvors whcrein conjoiu rucn t, coordinaton, and un iflca tion are integralaSI" '('IS nI' th c ex pe ru-nr -e [pp. :i9.'-:i 9H).

Flnall y, Dlssunuyak i- suggcsts that the moth er-Infam in te ractio ns withtlH'ir p,altl'rns of.mu ltimodally p resented temporal scquences 01' emoti~nallyevoca uve bc haviors, provide th e beginni ngs for human response to th e tern-1'01':1 1urts o f dance, m ime, chan t, and songoAs she states,

tlll'.h i (ll (JgiGI~ ly cndowed sensitivities and compe tences of mothcr-infant inter- ~ r l l () I, 1 were j(Jund.by cvolving human groups to be emotionally affecting andlllllt'tH Jllally effec tive when used and when fur ther shaped and elaborated inculturnlly crcated ~ereI1lon ial rituals where they serve a similar purpose--roaHlllll' 01' syuc hromze, cmouo nal ly conjoin, and enculturate rhe pancpants.(p. 'II II)

1t"1,:allllc 'ss nf ho.w co nv incing any of the aboye theories may be, music,l" ,nl )' \\";1.' iI vc' ry nnportant part 01' early human soc lety and culture. The,\' ~ ,,~w~ 111 ~lll l lHda (19K'i, pp. 265-268), Dowling and Harwood (1986, pp.:.t. l. I ;, IH) , alld ymwn (2()(.)(), pp. 296-297), di scussed aboye, make a slro ng 11\1' 1 ~I ' 1 1 11 111 '11 ' .was an IIlvaluable 1001 in facilitating group ada ptat ion,IIIl lll d l rl~ IIlOlllo tlllg gro up identification, !,'TOUP co hesion , and social bond-IIlH ' Irllplid l, il' 11 01Sla lc'd directly, in cach thcory is thc notioo th at mllSic isji pu wl'l!u l 1111 c.t ' in ;lci litat ing positive int crpersonal in teractions, \\'hetherlu 'IWI" '11 l' llt..nllal mal es, Illnthe r and infant, 0 1' \vithin grOllpS in a broad er~Of al tll ~ lI hll ra l s('ll ing. As H argreaves and Nort h (1999, p. 75) nole, virtu-01./1)' ;d l 01 ~ f,I ' IT i;u n' ~ rllllclion s a re really social in nature. Kaplan also con-slll,'1s IIlIlSI

:

l' t1.!,t thun i nd iv id llUh UIll't .lI ill /ollln nu urnl cul ture uudit iun. wlu-re h-aruingand k llowll'dg(~ M i ' 1II00t ' 01 ;lll illlq ,;nd par l uf O Il C's se lf.

SlollUda no tes thut diflt' /t 'Ilt"(! Il('lwI'('1I di rectIy recal lcd and symbolizedknowll'd l;(' may affec t musi ca l traditlons and bchaviors in the two types ofcuh un-s. In oral cultures, ITlIIsk. Iike verbal knowlcdge, mu tares ayer lime:Rchulvcly cxact knowledge of part icular pleccs of musc that peoplc mightgan throug h repeated examination of scores and Iistening lo recordngs (away of prescrvng sound, consdered an extensi n of notation] is virtu allyimJHlssihl c . Sloboda suggests several implications of oral/Iitcratc differencesfor mu sical bchavio r: (a) mcmory processing strategies and structures of ind i-viduul s in thc two cu ltu res will dffer, (b) the "archtectural" comp lexi ty of anora l culturc's m usic necessa rly will be Iimi Led, (c) the nature of a litera to cul -tures mu sical conteramay be cxamlned separately fro m musical cantea, and(11) nota t iou leads to stlectingsom c aspects of sounds fcr p rese rvauon a nd ds-ntrl li ll~ uth crs .

l :11 1[11 1'1 ' clcarly affects musical beh avior. C onversely, music m ay influence1111' rultun-, Loma x (WG8, P: I:n ) summarzed mu sic's cultura l ro le by sug-;.r. l ' ,' I l l~ [Ilal uursl c is a human vc hlcle for cxpre sslng what is m ost basc inhlll ' l ~udal n 'lalionships. Lo max's cxamination of musk in differe nl cultu ral"1'll illHS lI'vt'al('d lhat a cu lturc's favo rilt m usic "re flecLs a nd rc inforces theIdlld 'l 01' IIl'ha vior csse ntia l to its main subsistencc etTorts a nd to its cen tral.ml! t o llllOlIinl; institution" (p . 133).

HI ',, 'aHh a ll(l wrilings conducted over several decadcs (Bind as, 1992;BI,u killiJ" I!I7:i ; e ross, 2001; Frith , W88; H amm, Ne ttl , & Byrnside , 1975;I I.u iJ,I I'aVt 's & North, l!J97, 199H; Kaplan, 1990; Lomax, IH68; J\.lerriam ,1!lIi 1; Nl'lIl, W5fi, I!J75 ; Wallin, Merker, & Brown, 2 000) continually sup port111( ' h),I'0IIH'sis tha l mu sic is an integral part of cu lture. Two once "c1assic"pSydIUI Cl!."y uf I1lllsic texts (Fa m sworth, 1969; Lundin, 19(7) were prem ised011 Illl' v i(" '" th al mu sic is a cultura l and social phenomeno n. H argreaves a ndNm th's (!!J!)7) (('ccnt vo lume, TheSocial Psychologyo/ Music. reinforces m usic'sI'usitio ll as a sociocultural ph enomenon,

Th(' gTowl h u f rnllsic socio lol,'Y, psychom usicolo,!,'Y. e thnomusico logy,lIllh l'OJlo! ogy Hf I1l llsic, and, especia lly, the re cen t emergcnc e of evoIulion-aly 11lmklllogy as a d iscrete fieId of study furth er atte sl lo musical behavio rli S 01 11 itlh 'gral component of human society and culture . Sludenls 0 1' m usical1l('IHl Vio l', [1H'l'efor l', m ust be cognizant 0 1' the contex l in which suc h bebav-Ol IItTlIl'S,

Sum mary

1. T his dla pl l'r 's conten t relates c1osd)' lo two fi\' lds 0 1' slllll)'. wm!mrativ(1111IJ;rol o/:y, whk h ('xam illt's Illllsk's flllH'li" " s a"d II SI ' " in all IIIII11all cul.

AlII,liI', A l 'hfllOlll ' lII l/I ,{ I hlt/Ir. Sol'il'ly, (/Jl/I ( :111'11I ,

' f I '1' lv 's I'xp!m atillll 1l1 11l 11 Sk 'surrcs. und ( V/'" , i llllfU,Y m ll .llt " /lJ.,.'Y, w lit 1 IIl VU 1 ,

I'Vt tl" till lla ry Ildg illS, 11 I " 1,, 'o,le , ami1, I k' id creun-r )y :'111( Ol'2 . Muste is . 1 plll'IIOl I11'lHtII o ium un 11

ls pr'-~sen~ in ull cI~ I,uresi . I funcnons 01' music nclude (a} emoliona l:t. Mernaru s 10 a nt IOpO ogrca () , rt inmen t (d) conun unica .

(b) heti 'o)'rnent e eu e a ,,- ,ex pression, .aesl re ne e nJ . () h sical response, (g) e nfo rcing con-t jnu, (t~) sp nb(.llrc rcprese(~)llol~d ti Pn ~)f social Instt uons a nd rcl ib,;ollsI'ormity(") sOCla.lb"',)m lss' ,o t~: ~o~tli~Ui t l' and sta bility of culture, and U)rituuls, I contn ti Ion ,

he f of socrctyl'lllllrib utions Lo t e mtegra.Ion . .' I ad musi~ as (a) a form uf

l . Kuplun's socio logica l ~unchons l~c:,d~,a~~r:~llal experience ; (d) the ru-klltlwledge; (b) collcCIlVC.posses~I() incidental cornmodity; (g) symlullirJlY; (e) m ora l ami symbo,h(c

1If~.rc~ , long thc p ast prese nt, and sccua rios

ind icut o r of ch ungc; am 1 111 a n ,

uf tlu- flltl1l'e, . . , 1' " '(a) to create a type of sclf-Is. Frlth lrh-ntific s 10m IUllchons ofpop,u al' mll ,slc, h lat n sbip bctwccn

id . 0 1 m anugmg 1 e re ano ,rk-finiti ou ; (b) lo pro vl e a w~y ' , .. ) sha e o ular m cmory,Ol U" S prvate and public emotona l IIvc,s, (e ~o p P' P . und (di 10

' . d intcnslfy a gwcn expen cnce ,ll liJ, i1 n il. l~ o lle's sCllse o lIme, an .

p. uvidc a SCllst~ of musical OWntTS/ll/J, ., . ' f ctions in cveryday1N th surnm aril.e m uslc s sOCia un

41 Il aI'g reilvcs alH or . ' fested in th ree basic wa ys,Iirl' for Ihe illdividual. noting tha~ thelfY.~c ~ty~llI;nttTptTsonal rtlations, amiradlital ing tlw m anagcment o se I ro I ,

"'(/fui. . ' . for Ihe individ ual includ t (a) tlU'1 ( ;,I..lon \ d ght cuns ldera ll.ons of mUSlC . . (b) the influell cc o f Iht, n ll

11 . . I t ' 'XlrCSSlon and expcnc ncc, . .I ll'l ' l ur .u' st H' ICc . ( ) th integral re la tltlllShlp

. ti (' mode of ex presslun, c elllla Illa tnx un 1 , . ati on (e) musk a\IlI'lwI'(' 1I m usir a mi rcl ib';o.n, (d) m~lslc ha.s comt~U~I~der ~mOl i lt lls , (K)

I "' h' (1) muslc's relatu)Ils lp to e eIl lltl lln '( 11 .1 I ) , . . d (' ) ,h potency 01' m llsic in a g W ll p .

. . \lITt' o f grrahficahon, an 1 c1IU1"1t a s a so f " 1 d a soci al d imensiono

H Vil lllally a ll rlllll"tions and ~~es lmusIC I~~ Uin~portance in socid )' am i, ' . .. g recob'1llllon 11a l IllUSICs .

11 111~;:'III:'I.' :ItI,~II:'.'I: :;I,: I::l par~ 011 hu man biological evo.l.utio n Ihal Ill adt~ po~~ l ~111l' 'Id a ltiVI ' Ill'h avio rs sllch as lallguage and mll SIC, , . . lilr hes~1 'i ' lllf 'dl n dtmes invu lve s organizin g sOllnds wlth va~Ylll~ g I 'k

10, 11 '1 1, I im bnl l lIa!i[it' s wilh in a rhytllllllC l'illl U'W011 '"HI IH' ,~ s k ve ls, a ll< t ' . 1 1" , 1 "It thal fad lilatl ~s pc rn 'p lionlll '' ,lIIi'l,nl

11,1.\ iIVil. E, Hlusi, A., ,'1,[ IJ, , ' ~ , 11. ( I!IMI). 71lt .molflKJ of JlIII.lIr. NlIll'l' Dunu-, IN :University of Notn- Il alllt' I'n 'ss.

1)i\"'lllayake, E. (2000). Alllen'd l'nls of rhe temporal ar ts in ca rly mother.infanuueracuon. In N. L w aln, U. Merker. & S. Brown (Ed s.], 171t origins ufmusir (PJl.:tM!)- 4 1O). Camb ridge , )ol A: M IT Press.

[ lllwling, \V.J (198 4). Development of musical schemata in children's spo nlant'Ol lssinging. In W. R. Crozier & A.J. Chapman (Eds.), Cognive praasses in the jlrue/, tion ef art [pp. 145-163}. Amsrerdam : North-Holland.

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l rurunt, \Y, (1%3). Ol/r oriental heriloge (Vol.l , The stor)' of civili{{1 lioTl ). New York :Simo n an d Schuste r,

l'ulk , D. (2000). Hominid brain evolution and the origins of muste. In N . I ~ Wallin,H. Merker, & S. 8rOVvTI (Ed s.), Te orgins ofmusic (pp. 197-:I()}. Camb ridge, MA:MIT Press.

l'umsw orth, P. R (19fi9). TI/(' social pS)'chology ofmuste (:lnd ed.l . Am es, lA: lowa StareUniversiry Press.

1-urrell, P. (1972). T1u meanngofUIt rearation expm enrt in musir d i it (ltfitlrJ by urbanadults who determ ined typal singer profi/ts t" rol/gh o.:ttehnique. Unpu blishcd doctora ldisse rtaricn, Th e Pennsylvaua State Unvc rsny.

Fu-e-rnau, W. (2000). A neurobio logica l role of music in so cial bonding. In N. L.\\'allin , B. 1\lerker, & S. Brown (Eds.), The origins of musir (pp. 411 -4'14).Cambridge, ).Hall.

I largn 'aves, n.J , & North, A. C. (F.ds.) (l!l!17). T7u Jocial /J.ryclw/oKY ofmilI/e. .

J\lc'l"ke;' ' " . le. lll~~.'i l . an~'1Jage . ~ode~ of m usic evolulioll. In N. l.. WaIHn, B." & S. BlOwn (Lds.J, He oTlgms oJ music (pp. :m-3( 0). CaJ b 'd ' '1A .

~ I 11 " n 'ss. n n ge, 1\

111{ ('1 ",,) ( '. , . 1 M A ' . , . s. , !l e oTlgms o musir pp.,'" . ... ,lI11 ll t(gl', : M l l l'ress.( al(llt lh., E C & K , d ' IJ R A (ICI C) ,

, . 1 1) '0 U I ,l. . . .U J . Co mp ar:llivl' music perc t'I)lion and COI'nt 11111 . n t'ulsch (Ed ) 7n ' 1 oj) - , CA " . . . , e PSYCflOogy of music ('1nd ed .) (pp. 7'2.5-791J. San

11X", . Acadellllc ITes.'>.l :lIaiIJ I'Y'.J (1%- 1). 4U.()()()Y(tJ rJ llf muJic?(R ~1yers ' Ih ns) N , . \ ' k ' S

& ( liro1t x. ' " ' . . t \\ or . 'arrar, . Iraus

1

1 \)' , II IIIII~ I I II I I ' 'l l/IllI l io l/l r{Afu,\'iCfl! l ld/(/ /li lJl

!i:~- l i H) . Restou, VA: " 111 ~ ' Ed w uh'lll Nalional Conf('I'l'IKt' .Kaplan, M . ( I!J!IO). l1u lul, ,' A I/III! /lm/lrdltlr. Rut herford, N I: Fairl l'igh Dtckm son

Uniwrsily I'n' ~s. .

Lomnx, A. (I!JliH). Fulk su,,~ JI)1r al/(I mllllTr. Washinh'1o n, DC : Am erican AssociationIcr Ih.' Advan cemcn t of Sdelln.'.

Lnndin, H. W ( l!Jfi7). An objlivr /JJ).,/wlogy of mssic (2nd ed.). New York: Ro naIdl'n-ss.

I .Ullti'l llisl, B. L. (19M2). Sociologv: A sta tus repon. Colkge MUJU: Symp()Jlum, 22 (1),104- 111.

Ml(ks. W. A. (Ed.) (1989). t larper CoYi/U sludy bible. Lo ndon: Harper CollinsPu blishe rs.

~11' l k(' r , B. (:l()(IO). Synchronous chorusing an d hum an orgns. In re. L. waln , B.M,'rkcr, & S. Bro wn (Eds.), 11/t orgins cf music (pp. 315-32H). C ambridge. ~iA:M IT l'ress.

Mcrruun, A. 1'. (1% 4). 171( a7Jlhru/JOlogy of muste. [n.p.]: l"\orlhwcstern l.IniversityI'n-ss.

Mtlk-r. . ~farl llldale ,.J . Il l('(It'I,

& G. I\c uwirlh . Tr an s. & Ed s.). In.p.l: SoullH'nl IIlin ois Universily l 'r('~'i . . .Whali llg, C . (2(X)()). Whal' s beh ind a song? T Iw ne ur al basis of song 1('arlll.nK 111

hirds. In N. L Wallin. B. M erk er, & S. Brown (Ed s.). 17u OTIg itU of mllHr {pp.j i.'i - 7fi}. Cambridge, MA: ~f lT Press.

Stimulativc a nd Seda tve Music

1 t" oN "' / I",m",1uf Illm i( is a u 'rlHill t' " " " 1" 1.1ll" ll\'"'''' ( 1~ 17 1) - " " l't 'rinwIllal ;uslh'l i. s: " nd ;\ll1",, 1, , 1"''''11 I" "mi'" is lh,u mu sir ' , .tl lUlut.1 ,1",1 ... l.t'.l'. N, ' '''1'" (( I;nl)' Ull lll' l""lh' ;11,, 1 " 'IIlIMI,lul1.., III r (>(11" , nsl'lln ....s In mu ." (N." . I, 11< It 'llltl'"""' . 1'1'17, 1'_:l7.'i). Arm'.... I I'(>h llh;11 ,IS I';nl uf11 , , 1.. ,,,,'o ,o lM'IUl,,' n,.. l ll'lh .u" ",h..". , ,1 In t h '1 ''' '1M

S"'"lIIlaUz/#' Musir

t\111Sil' Iha' slim ulates 0 1" a ro llses listene rs has a slro ng e ne l"b-rjzing COll1pO-1I"I It. "Fo i" mm t peoplc it is rhythm tha l pro vid cs Ihe cncrgy o f Illllsic. be il1'11'11 1 or ,m wll" (G astoll. 1!){;Xb. p . 17). Lu nrlin (Wii7 , p. 172) ami Fm nsworl h( l l l j l ~ l, 11. X:\) IUllh slIgges t that It' lll IH) is 0 1" p rima ry im porla m:c in in tlucll cIt'K IlI ood am i d ivily respom t' lo Illllsk .

1IN lluol irl/lfl l AN ,{/l I/I/1I/1\ II/ AlII,I' ir ill C'oult'lII/l/Imry I .(j l'

Al! music cx ists on a connuum between high ly smulating, invigoratng11I11\ k 'lIHI soothing, scdatng mu sic {Gas te n, 196Mb. p. 18). Mclvlullen's (1982)Il w l )l Plical rnodcl of the dmcnsions un derlying muslc mcaning suggests th at"lit/A')' a lld structure in music a re cxpcricnccd as forms of aaioauon or arousal)I 'H! M(:M ulle ll (1!J!J6. pp . :191- ;{!);{). acti vation may invo lve a "he ightcned. 1.lll ,,1" am usal . ('ilher psycho logiea l. physiolob-rjca l. or beha vio ra l."

Musk th(' rapists and o thers using mll sic to infl uenee behavio r esscn tiall)'~ '" t'onn' rn t'd with a rous ing or supp ress ing activity. a nd the type of musie,.1, ., lt'd I"ur inflllcncing the desired behavio rs gene rally re flecls d ilTerentlI'U lma l dmracte ristics. particu larly regarding (nerS)'.

, onfonut ry a m i ln n-ract iun . h I a, 't'CllIlpallYduncc, lid gl 'lH'lllII }' tn t "Oll lrih ll .I ~'t..wnrd cult ura l con tinult y

St'dalivt' Music

lIijJi'rnllial Rt'.fpomes lo Stimulative and Sedative Music

~A ll 1' '' ' " pilO., lo lh, lIl i.:hl 1", '01110' pf llll' n'''' ilrl'h t'l lllllllt1" 11 h)' ,,, ", ,,h""I' f"r 1111' ~ l lIl.

11

grouud m usic.Dpspi ll' SOtIl{' i ll( Ol\.~ i.~1l' ll l H'.'1Ih.~ 1'1tJ1II physologi cal rcscurcli, strong cv-

d('lln ~ from vanous pl 'rsl )t'('liv('s sllp l' orls t111~ cornention that pcople responddifferen tly lo snmulative aml st'daliv(' m usic. The ev dence includes exam-pk-s of rnusc thro ugho ut lustory . musical exam ples in eo ntemporary dail ylife, uud II lim ilcd numbc r and va rict y 0 1'rcsearch studi es. Discusslon of var-iOlls upplications of thls knowl edge and the subtlety with which it is app liedfor particu lar uses comprses much 01' th e balance of thi s chap te r, Some a ppli-ca tions capita lizo on music's abili ty lo stimulate; others capital ize on its ah il-ity lo soorhe. Thcse ap plicatlons are dt scusscd as they perta in lo music inrcn-monics: background m usic ; com mcrcial, industrial, and therapcu c uses(11' m usic; music to fa cil tate nonmusica l leam tng; a nd music as a reward forcb ungmg bch avior.

Music in Ceremonies

l 'on-monia l music reflecta one of musc's earliest func tional uses, a use thatha'l ( nut iuur-d throughout histo ry and re mains an im po rta n t part of most cc r-I' Il1lJll i( ' ,~ today, C om memo ra tive cere mo nies not onl)' re m ind o ne of pastl' \'l' llh Ol h( ' li t ,[~ ; Ihey re presen l an experience 0 1' a mylh lo people who did!Io1 11 \'1' 1111" original cx perience (Conn e rto n, 1989, p, 43), Mus ic is viewed asUlI IIlh'.tra l pa rl uf n n.lllo ny and does much to enhance the formality 0 1'such0 1 1 il'llo llS, Virllla lly a ll typcs al' ce rem o ny, be Ihey religiou s, m ilitary , sta te,.tlh ll'lk. 0 1 n lllullercia l. incorporal e m usic in so rne way,

t\. l u!'> !'> uIIlMIl (U)7,1. p, 129) notes that music h as functioned m ore consis-11'1111), a mi pusilivel y in re ligio us ritual than in any other area of life in\\"' !'o !l'm d vil iza tio ll. L've n lo Ihe ex ten t that religiou s m usic eomprises one of\\h tl'l"Il Illusic's lun gest a nd rich est traditions, Sullivan (1997) re lales th alU V1'1' t lH' {'{'n tur il's, p('o ple nave attem p ted lo hoId music fundamenta l to the(T('a lioll u f Ilu.' lIniVerSl~ and humanity's place with in iL

MlISic's speeifie functio n in cerem o nial worsh ip tends to vary with itsp lan ' in 11ll' lT rL'1l10 ny, \Vith in Christian ity, particu la r music is design aled 1'0 1'1I1t forma l ~t'c t i ons uf th e Roman C atho lic mass and the main Anglican se rv-in '!'> , as wl'11 as formal Lu the ra n serviccs . t\l uch J ewish worsh ip practicelIla k(,s exk llsiVl' \lse orI iturb'Y' In both Christ ian an d Jewish p ractice, liturgi.('. 111 sk in n ' IgaOUS se rvl ' l ' lo res!)()lld in a ccltain \vay;

, I I tim ulate lh e cOIlbrrega Ion , 1~ I' I VI' ,S as a sIgna o s I . 1 d " re used lo hclp ('stabll !'o 1 a

1, . ,t o rgan 0 1' cho ra mter u es a '

,11 01 lt' r IUlles qmc , ' \ \ ' h.1 gregational sing ing serVt'S lo1 r ' 0 1' tranqmltty I e co n 1 ItIl lO"l o reverence ' , . . -ho " anthem s m ay 11' ;1( I H'

1 . tive partlclpat lo n, e .dlll W pl'opl(' togel lCr III ae " , b l r ld va lul's 'lI1 tl im plical iom 1mn i n th e rchgoon s e le s a l ' wIII!'o lliwl"s lo re ec o , 1 . . moies spl'cial rt'llgio ll'l t't'n '

1 ' r 'd uals Specla m uste acco m11 "'I1I!'> t' ves as I.n( IVI .. , I d s l.cia l rcl igious hulid ays .111', " . t n l)' weddmgs fuoera s, an P " '1

1111111 11''1, '-A.' r al ' . d . 'd I o hance th e on~asil)lI !'> M~1Il 1, !fui b ) ' m US\( eSlgne o e

111' " !lo \110 ft ' llleunm;. . ' , however a re m U l! ' "p l'l, f lisie in re hg ]( IlIS cel em ony , l

1 ,1111 1' , S O Il W US{~ S o nl , ,, , ' f 1 " lo music's im po rla lll'p Iu 1'\ ' 11 " '1,", "cere molllal, a lte sllllg urt lel~ 1I , 1'" \'1'

KIll l\ , ' \) ' r o of music in major wo rld f(' li};io nsl 'I'lI j,: (1!IX5, pp, 12 ,~- 13 _ exa mma .10 "

1... 11 "1 1' '1 plI'liCll larl y 011 IllUsic's persllaslvl' functl0n ,

, ' 'd to Ilt' i . hlt' lI till' desired ('l1\otio nal d fl'(:1in Ilw, I lt ~ 1I ill a ll .....orslup IS ex!Jt'ctt g , 11 ' f 'rtain ~iK' l i lic iln l .....o r

,17,Hi

l'e rris' juxuposltion u l l ll ll l l 'pl ~ hum fuur major world rdi~i(Jll s":Iuda ism,Christ unl ty, ISI:lII1, a II1I I f 1I lIIIIisIII~ n-veuk-d that , even though SIII11t' obviousdiffcreuces cxtst in thc way lht' fou r n-lig iou s use muste, six underly ng fae-tors requirc con sidenu lou wlu-n llsing muste in relgi ous servce: (a) thcwonls must be comp rehensihlc lo the co ngregaton; (b) trad itional melodyund performance practico should be o bserved ; (e) the use of any m us icalinstrumcnts must be moralIy and socially acceptablc; {d} m usic m ust be usedfor proper p Ulposes and a t p roper places in the worship ce rc m ony; (e) musicin a wo rship eeremony sho uld not be misused , i.c ., det raer fro m the cere-mony's purpose ; and (1) compose rs' artistic goal s should not ove rr de theo-logical co ncems. Perr is notes that thi s final ccnsidcrato n is a part icu lar con-r-ern of westc m religious music.

Rchued to artisc-theo lcgica l co nflicts is the way im porta n t musical workswirh ortgiu s in rcligious functlons havc become p art of th e concert repe r-tuin -, es pecially in Westem classica l music. The Bloch Sacred Seroice is bascdInh-wish lurgy , The masses o f Ve rd i, Moza rt, and Bee thoven, o ratorios such11 ' Il ancli'!'s Mr.uiah and H ayd n 's CTtalion, and the wealth of 8ach cantalas11111 11hlll a l('s ("(1I11e fm m C hristian se tt ings . More questionably, people m a)'1 1l1l1 1l 1 ' ~ IJl'li { : pJeasll re in listcning lO rhythmic chanting intended for nat ive\ 11I" IC'UII 1('Ii",io llS ccremon ies o r in the so und of th e 'ahm calling Ihehl ,llllil 1,lHhhd In pra yer. Bo hlman (1997) no les th a t music w hich o riginate dliolll 101'al praetice may ac q uire an in tematio nal audien ce. becomc enter-1.IIIlIIWIlI , a nd Illl'n bdong to m usical consumers more so than lo the re H-Kitl u\ p liLl'l il iollt'rs frolll Wh0 111 the music evolved ,

W hilt, tllll ~i c in rdigious cerem ony m ay se rve more Ihan "ceremo nia l"fllllbse o a [ - but il can also be .1 rl'lid [rutu

1 , F hi mu ste can e part o war~ II atuucs. or un m Th . ld i has no intense necd lo as~a ll llIIIl' starker realities of rhe con lC[t h h

50ter e Ielhal Wea!)OIlS, wlu-rc !lis

b d of mouth- or e as morIIIt' ouemy y wor . . 1.. li 1 .e-belhcose and brearhtng firl' - llw)'

.. ....... In tne Itera sense "-songs are war 5Ono_ . L. d ti express than lo the circlIlllslall(I'S ufnwe thcir appeal less lo me al' our leyrlu-ir cOlu pos ilion, (p. '2 77)

h d ' u' o of war in m usic particu la rlya rl mmi(',A Id (1I)In ) traces t e ep lc on o r w rno - " . f h ' \ Var-rel atcd cOI1l I()~i diff in the charactcr o t e muslC.lIud noles 1 erences I . lo th e twentielh (('nlll ry,, _ 1, 'r I ' d picting battles, were common p nor

IlnUS, .lIge) e [ d d 'T"wentie th-ccnlu rv Cl llll pOSl'rS seld (lIll1

"

- , ., r1y are p er orme lo ay, l . ;1Il1 I KSl. la " \ ' t " Y W.ll" as Wl'll as lo, ' ,'\ . 1 G ree ks use{ m uslC o pOi ra

1 ~\.ydlll ltll!.l I11 '1IfIll d ll f ill ll ,\ 1I/A1I1.\ im l llduwifll

Atta l ( I!JH's, JI. I!J) \' i f' w~ 11l1l, h as I 100 1u f '1- ' 'lI w d l ilualislically l o 111 ' k , , 1" _ s a le I'0WI'I I)( '(';III \(' i l ru u be

,1 f III ul' I OI W ' ( g (' IU' f ' I di . f .ha nnomous w(I,'I,1 "" ,11 , / 1' . a issa us ,U:tIO ll S, hehcve in a

1( '( O Il U' o I IVI )II S 1 .I!! ). "Makl' pcople l'orger, makc tbem ~ ~I.ii e~e~OS~~~~1:7h::I~d~V~ ~~ s~)'s I(~ 'vu-ws ma)' be so m c whal ra dical. m uste certain l h . ~ e ua 1 saspcc t uf totalita rian societies. y as beco an Im porta nt

Mauy occ asions other tha n rcli ' OU5 and . . .musc. Sportlng events are . gJ rnilitary in cludc ce remonial

. o ..... a prime cxample. The . d i'unuues uf the Su mmer and '1" 0 1 . openmg an e osmg cere-

mter ymplc Games lw . 1mnsc, ami thc medal cere , . 1 d a ways mvo ve spec ial.......montes me u e playn th ' IIIIt' gold med al rec pe nts ' . H' g e nanona anthems of

countrtes. igh sc hool co ll d n ro fsports cv ents ope n wth e ' 1 . ' ege, un p ro fessonal

eremoma musrc ofte . 1 d hunt lu-m and teum o r school son ' '''1 ' f ' ~ me u mg t e natlonal

1gs. I~ lISIC o marchnu and pe b ds hil

110 1 a ways ccrcmomal pe r S"" ft . 1::> P an s, W 1 ee , 0 11en serves an im portant t; t r-PV C ' II I.~ , tune Ion te r sporting

Nl'a rIy an y (jllecn (a l' kng) crownne cerem on .h l l lll l ' ( ' lll11 in~' event c r a Miss \,1' Id (bA . y, wh eth cr a high school1, , . or 0 1' m en ea or Uni ' " S b'1' ~ ! l vll l ) llC' iluly Il'ltre'",' 'n ' . ' Ivcl se,or traw erry'l::> ' I COI porates music Th' "

111 11'1'11 111 kilI" 'IS he 'HI of sta' f , . ' e coronatlOn of a "real"1'1 " ,e ca IIres muslc Folk~ t" I h 'j

IllII I l'l1'lJHlllY in 11 ll.' ritualis' ,'c s' 11 ' es lva s, w 1 C perhap scnsc, lIsua y rely on ro " . ,Ii lll l' II ~ wp l! as Ill'ilrhlen ing ,h bl USIC as an mlegrative

. o c memora cness of lhe o .h ll lll lh i"l ('ursory review, it is a a rent that ,. cC~lon ,

1110 ..1 ll ' I'lIlflllic's \\'h,'I" hPPh mUSlC IS an Important part of, , ... rescarc as not ex ' d .dl l'c h I I OIll a "sl'i('ntific" pecsp-c,' th f th

am mecere monia l mu sic's, ... Ive, e act at mus'c h b d

1111111' ." lu In' a IJart of m ., ' I as een an con-os ceremomes attests to 'ts f ' 1l'lI!1alldng Iht, importance and bl 1 unch ona value inmemora eness of many DCcasions .

Com mercial Music

"Colll llll'rd al" uses of musk re fer t 'l1lonl'y fm m Illllsic d in'ct ly or to e h o ubsm~ musie in sorne way to make

N In anee usmess thro up"h th ' f '

o rl l and I lawreavcs (1997 ' I f") o e use o musle.". 1::> , p, , Jo suggest tha t eo mm ' ' 1 ' f 'l'l lll...lIll1 lt' u m' or Ihe I)ri ' I ereJa lIses o muslC

\' nClpa sources of our ex ' .

\ c ' .~ !I' l'll world " Thc next ~ . posure to muslc 10 the

l. . ew secl10ns ex am ine eomm . I f1 1 11 1l ,~ l' V I 'l" al 11I.'l"sIJectiv"'s' h ' 'k ' d ' . crCla uses o musie... , ae gl Ol lll OlllSIC mu s ' ' 1 "

l'llll' l'l ;dnll ll'll t, amI m us(" for 1" '"'" ' ' '. lC lO a( ver tlsmg, musie as. " ti Ion cspec JaJl)' as a ' f I '

~ I llry loll! in ,mo tile!' mcdium,' way o en 1ancmg a

Jl(l('1..gm ll l1d MtL.fir

MlIsic has " C'( ' II a ""'u'k r 1" ~ ,lh'\"l' lul' lllt'nl u f l'1 ('('ln ;"" ,8',~ ),I ~n (. l' 0 1" VU I1'IOllS a("( ivilit,s for n' nl ur it's. T he

1 (01( Ill~ alH n 'ln 1 '1' ..hilt kgro und nlll~ ic lu IU-l'llll . l ' 11 l ' oc 111 Ion ,'y~ lt 'm s t'na bled

JI 1I ,lo; 1)' pn 'va ('ni 1Il ..uti l' )', \\'llI'l lu '- as a part