Knowledge ManagementAn Integrated Approach

Ashok JashaparaUniversity of London (Royal Holloway)

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Contents

Preface xvAbout the author xviiAuthor's acknowledgements xviiiPublishers's acknowledgements xix

Introduction to knowledge management 3Learning outcomes/Management issues 3Links to other chapters 3Opening vignette: Life in an interconnected world 4Knowledge management: an integrated approach 6

Part 1: The nature of knowledge 6Part 2: Leveraging knowledge 7Part 3: Creating knowledge ^ 7Part 4: Knowledge artefacts 7Part 5: Mobilising knowledge 8

Introduction 8The knowledge economy 9What is knowledge management? 10Is knowledge management a fad? 14What are the differences between data, information, knowledge and wisdom? 16

Data 16Information 17Knowledge 18Wisdom 19

Early history of knowledge management: oral tradition to cuneiform 20Knowledge management in ancient Greece and Rome 22Management of knowledge in monastic and cathedral libraries 24Paradigm shift from print to a digital age 26Case study: Ernst & Young (US) 28Summary 30Questions for further thought 30Further reading 31References 31

The nature of knowing 33Learning outcomes/Management issues 33Links to other chapters . 33Opening vignette: Business must learn from the new tribe 34Introduction 35What is knowledge? Philosophers from Plato to Wittgenstein ' 37

Contents

PlatoAristotleDescartesLockeHumeKantHegelPragmatistsPhenomenology and existentialismWittgensteinContemporary philosophers: Ryle, Polanyi and Macmurray

Burrell and Morgan's framework on philosophical paradigmsCompeting philosophical positions in knowledge management: positivism,

constructivism, postmodernism and critical realismThe taxonomic perspective of knowledgeThe process-based perspective of knowingThe practice-based perspective of knowledge and knowingCase study: World Bank (US)SummaryQuestions for further thoughtFurther readingReferences

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Part 2 LEVERAGING KNOWLEDGE

3 Intellectual capital 63Learning outcomes/Management issues 63Links to other chapters 63Opening vignette: A little knowledge is deadly dangerous 64Introduction 65What is intellectual capital? 66History of intellectual capital 68Problems of measuring organisational performance 68Frameworks of intellectual capital 71Human and social capital 75Organisational capital 76Intellectual property and smart patents 76Financial reporting of intellectual capital 79Intellectual capital as a narrative 79Knowledge auditing in practice 81Case study: Infosys (India) 83Summary 85Questions for further thought 85Further reading 86References 86

4 Strategic management perspectives 89Learning outcomes/Management issues 89

Contents xi

Links to other chapters 89Opening vignette: A hunger for knowledge is China's real secret weapon 90Introduction 91Strategic management: schools of thought 92Industrial organisation tradition 93Excellence and turnaround 95Institutionalist perspective 96Resource-based view of the firm 100Information systems strategy 101Developing a knowledge management strategy 103Innovation and personalisation strategies 108Case study: Unilever (UK/Netherlands) 111Summary 113Questions for further thought 114Further reading 114References 115

Part 3 CREATING KNOWLEDGE

Organisational learning 121Learning outcomes/Management issues 121Links to other chapters 121Opening vignette: Recruits fired up by virtual rivalry 122Introduction 124Individual learning 124Team learning 127Drivers of organisational learning: success or failure? 128Single-loop and double-loop learning 130Sensemaking 131Organisational learning frameworks 133Knowledge acquisition 136Information distribution 137Information interpretation 138Organisational memory 139Unlearning 140Organisational routines 141Dynamic capabilities 144Absorptive capacity 147Politics and organisational learning 148Critique of organisational learning 150Case study: Toyota (Japan) 151Summary 153Questions for further thought 153Further reading 154References 154

The learning organisat ion 158Learning outcomes/Management issues " 158Links to other chapters 158

xii Contents

Opening vignette: Teaching materials: From pen to paper to wikis and video 159Introduction 160US contribution: the fifth discipline 161UK contribution: the learning company 163Japanese contribution: the knowledge-creating company 166The competitive learning organisation 169Power, politics and the learning organisation 173Empirical research and the learning organisation 174The learning organisation and knowledge management 176Case study: Honda (Japan) 177Summary 179Questions for further thought 180Further reading 180References 180

Part 4 KNOWLEDGE ARTEFACTS

Knowledge management tools: component technologiesLearning outcomes/Management issuesLinks to other chaptersOpening vignette: Busines's starts to take Web 2.0 tools seriouslyIntroductionOrganising knowledge tools

Ontology and taxonomyCapturing knowledge tools

Cognitive mapping toolsInformation-retrieval toolsSearch enginesAgent technologyPersonalisation

Evaluating knowledgeCase-based reasoning (CBR)Online analytical processing (OLAP)Knowledge discovery in databases - data miningMachine-based learning

Sharing knowledgeInternet, intranets and extranetsSecurity of intranetsText-based conferencingWeb 2.0 platformConversational media: BlogsSyndication and RSS feedsMashupsWikisOnline social networks3-D virtual worldsGroupware toolsVideoconferencing

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Contents xiii

Skills directories: expertise yellow pages 218E-learning 218

Storing and presenting knowledge 219Data warehouses 219Visualisation 220

Case study: Royal Dutch Shell (Netherlands/UK) 222Summary 224Questions for further thought 224Further reading 225References 225

8 Knowledge management systems 228Learning outcomes/Management issues 228Links to other chapters 228Opening vignette: Decision-making software in the fast lane 229Introduction 230Systems thinking 232Drivers of KM systems: quality management processes 235

Deming and Juran 235Total quality management (TQM) 236Business process re-engineering (BPR) 237Lean production ' 238

Document management systems 239Decision support systems 241Group support systems 243Executive information systems 245

Workflow management systems 247Customer relationship management systems 250Economics of KM systems 252Case study: Tata Consultancy Services (India) 253Summary 255Questions for further thought 256Further reading 256References 257

Part 5 MOBILISING KNOWLEDGE

Enabling knowledge contexts and networks 261Learning outcomes/Management issues 261Links to other chapters 261Opening vignette: Building bridges for success 262Introduction 265Understanding organisational culture and climate 265Norms, artefacts and symbols 267Values, beliefs, attitudes and assumptions 270Typologies of organisational culture 272Measuring organisational culture 274

Description of the twelve OCI styles 275

xiv Contents

Creating knowledge-sharing cultures 278Cultural stickiness: developing communities of practice 282Knowledge across organisational boundaries 286Case study: Fluor (United States) 289Summary 291Questions for further thought 292Further reading 292References 293

10 Implementing knowledge management 295Learning outcomes/Management issues 295Links to other chapters 295Opening vignette: Box clever and keep your star performers happy 296Introduction 297The nature of change 298

~" Personal response to change 299Leadership and change 301Change management strategies 302Gaining commitment for change 304Employee involvement 306Training and development 308Reward and recognition ,,j 312Cultural change management 314Politics of change 316Case study: Woods Bagot (Australia) 316Summary 318

^ Questions for further thought 319Further reading 319References . 320

Epilogue KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

Epilogue 325Introduction 325Wrestling with knowledge: some reflections 326Knowledge management - is there an optimal approach? 328Organisational gymnastics: balancing learning with routines and dynamic

capabilities 329Knowledge management between nations ' 330Institutionalist perspective and the knowledge-based view of the firm 332Communities of practice 333Personal knowledge management 334Knowledge management between nations 335Concluding remarks 337Further reading , 338References 338

Glossary 340Index 345