Korean Culture

Korean is religiously broken down into primarily four sects Buddhism (34 percent),

Christianity (66 percent), Confucianism (0.2 percent), and shamanism. Football is one of

the most popular sports in Korea, the martial art of taekwondo is still considered to be the

national traditional sport, and baseball seems to be more recently increasing in popularity.

The South Korean Flag established in January 25, 1950 consists of a white background

which symbolizes peace and purity, a series of the broken and/or solid black lines in each

corner totaling four in all represents the four elements (earth, air, water, and earth), and a

red and blue yin-yang in the middle which is the balance of two opposing forces.

This is an excellent representation of the Korean culture which is primarily based

off Confucianism. This concept surrounds the idea that human beings are teachable,

improvable, and perfectible through personal and communal endeavors especially

including self cultivation and self-creation. Confucianism is practiced by giving up one’s

life, if necessary either passively or actively for the sake of the two moral values ren

(humanity) and yi (righteousness). Other important values Koreans live by are Zhi

(knowledge) Xin (integrity) Zhong (loyalty) shu (kindness and forgiveness) chi (shame

judgment and sense of right and wrong) Yong (bravery) wen (kind and gentle) gong

(respectful and reverent), and rang (modest). They live their life as ethic of reciprocity or

the golden rule, “Treat others the way you wish to be treated.” They believe that at birth

humans are inherently good and kind hearted. Behavioral patterns are controlled by

cognitive thought structured around fear of bringing shame to the family or losing face; in

turn the sense of “right” is an ideal form of social norm. Their way of life involves

politeness and propriety to understand each person’s correct place in society which

encompasses age, gender, and social expectations and status. This concept is taken from

the Analects of Confucius, which are his recorded philosophies. It states that, a division of

people into categories known as “rites”, and a system of hierarchical relationships through

protocols and ceremonies assigns everyone a place in society and creates a proper form of

behavior. As a result the general goal of Confucianism is to know his or her place according

to social order. So in turn children obey their parents, the wife the husband, the younger

sibling the older and so on. The large extended family has become less common more

recently, but the roles and relationships within the family typically remain the same.

Education can be a 15 year process. The literacy rate in Korea is 98.3%.

Kindergarten which is not publicly offered consists of children ages 3 – 7 combined into the

same class. Elementary school which is six grades includes subjects such as math, social

science, fine arts, PE, moral education, practical arts, and music. During these years

children are passed from grade to grade despite the level of the child’s knowledge or

accomplishments. Middle school consists of 3 grades. Most of them have regulated

uniforms and haircuts, and students live very regulated lives. Saturdays are typically used

for club or extracurricular activities. School previously was divided by sex, but more

recently have been converted into co-ed class rooms. At the end of middle school

examination scores determine entrance into private, elite, or vocational high schools.

Approximately 30% of Koreans go to vocational high school while the other 70% attend

either public or private preparatory college schools. The education process during Middle

and High School is taken quite seriously, and students commonly have private tutors after

normal schools hours, and do not return to their homes until after midnight.

Within the family structure the first son is responsible in staying with his parents

and taking care of them for the rest of their lives. In addition he also inherits the family

wealth and the duty of ancestor worship. Many Korean women will avoid marrying them

because of the added work and responsibility that is put upon her. The younger sons will

stay with his parents after marriage, but is able to leave the family whenever he feels like it.

For a daughter the social norm is much different. When she is married off she becomes a

part of her husband’s family, and her name is stricken from her family’s registry and added

to the registry of her husband’s, yet she will keep her maiden name. Marriage can be a very

stressful event for a woman because she becomes an outsider to her biological family, and

is not completely accepted by her husband’s. After she gives birth to a son to carry on her

husband’s name the bond with her new family strengthens. The wife’s role is to take care

of the family within the boundaries of her home, and the husband’s role is to provide the

income to support the family. He is also considered the head of the family and is known as

the primary authority. The age of consent for women is 16 while for men it is 18.

Korean marriages are typically arranged in four different ways. There is an

arranged marriages referred to as Seon, which the parents arrange a meeting of the couple,

but ultimately it is the couples decision to marry one another. Marriage does not typically

occur on the first Seon. There is also match makers where the family presents the son or

daughter to the match maker and analyzes a resume and then is match according

compatibility. A Korean also has the option of going to a marriage agency which is known

as a Duo or Sunoo. The last way is a love marriage, which is when two people meet and fall

in love with one another. Although marriage is typically the choice of the individual a

Korean will not marry another person if their family disapproves with their decision. A

Korean woman will only marry a man who is equal or greater social-economical class and

height than she is.

When a woman becomes pregnant she must first inform her mother-in-law, then

her husband, and then her mother. After the family is informed they all take part in caring

for the mother to be. During this time a pregnant woman is to only look at “beautiful

things” and think of good thoughts. Koreans believe that what she thinks, sees, and eats

influences the shape and features of the baby. At conception the child’s age begins, in turn

when the child is born they are considered one year old, and after one hundred days the

family and town celebrates that the child has survived an important time frame.

After the child is born a straw rope is tied on the doorframe of the house to

announce the birth; if it has chili peppers it is a boy and if it has charcoal it is a girl. The

rope signifies to other to stay away for a while. The mother will have seaweed soup as her

first meal, and later on when she is disappointed with the child; it is common to hear the

mother reflect, “to think I ate sea weed soup for you.” The child is named by the father-in-

law, which is interpreted as a “wish” for the child. The placenta is saved, cremated, and

used during times the child is ill as a “healing potion.” At this time the mother is excused

from work for 30 – 40 days to recuperate and “make the body whole again.” After her

period of rest the mother will carry the baby piggy back so that their hearts are aligned. If a

wife does not provide her husband with a son it is socially acceptable for him to take on a

concubine, and his children become property of the wife. The concubine is not recorded in

the family registry.

The wife becomes responsible to remember all the birthdays of the husband’s

family, and holidays. Some important holidays that are recognized by Koreans are the

Seollal (First day of the First Month by the Lunar Calendar). This is one of the most

important holidays to Korean’s. It is commonly compared to Christmas to the Western

world. During this time families who live from all areas around the nation come together.

There is a ritual of honoring ancestors and many traditional games such as tug of war, kite

flying, see-saw, and yunnori, which is a board game played with sticks. Tug of war to

Koreans is not just a game of strength because the rope symbolizes the joining of man and

woman, and the contest promises fertility and productivity for the winning team. This is

essential for farming and fishing communities. Flying kites is a sophisticated sport, and

also is used to release previous year’s bad luck and illness to the heavens. See-saw is

traditionally for girls over 7 allowing them to see over the courtyard wall, which represents

a window into their new world. The meal for the day is tteokguk a soup of slices of rice

cake in beef or chicken broth, and eating it means eating another year. During this day the

families offer food and drink to ancestors in a memorial ceremony. Children dress up in

rainbow-colored silk hanbok and perform the sebae (New Years Bow) before all the elders

of the family and wish them a bok (good fortune) for the new year to come. The children

are then rewarded with words of advice and money, the amount is based upon their age

and position in the family. Other holidays are Samil which is the Independence Movement

Day (March 1) the day Korea became independent from the Japanese colonist. Another

holiday is Children’s Day (May 5) which children are the center of attention and their

parents give them a large amount of presents and take them on outings, Parents’ Day (May

8) is not an official holiday but is celebrated in many homes. Children give their parents

carnation with letters of thanks. Yet another celebrated holiday is Teacher’s day (May 15)

because teachers hold a special place in society, which is strongly influenced by Confucian

way of life; on this day students give their teachers a flower. Another holiday is

Constitution Day (July 17) this is a national holiday to celebrate the Korean Constitution on

July 17, 1948; the Republic of Korea was created about a month later. There is also

Liberation Day (August 15) which celebrates the end of the 35 year Japanese colonial rule

in 1945, and the Korean national flag is flown on nearly every building. Another

celebration is Harvest day which is the 15th day of the eighth month according the Lunar

calendar; this is a great national holiday of the year where a feast is prepared, and families

hold memorial services at family grave sites and view the full moon. A couple traditional

holidays are National Foundation Day (October 3) which was the day Dangun founded the

first Korean Kingdom and Hangeul Day (October 9) which celebrates the alphabet created

by King Sejong, which is scientifically-based on phonetic, and freed the populace from

memorizing thousands of Chinese characters. Christmas Day (December 25) started to be

celebrated in the 19th century when Christianity began populated Korean territory, but has

less religious significance, but still is a time to exchange greetings and gifts. Santa Clause is

known as Grandfather Santa, and has a smaller build than in the Western World. Another

important day is a Korean’s 60th birthday because it represents the full circle of life

according to the zodiac calendar.

Korean’s maintain certain superstitions such as red ink is associated with death and

is only used on documentation to record a deceased person’s name in the family register

and on funeral banners to drive off evil spirits. An unlucky number for Korean’s is the

number 4 pronounced “sa”. This is associated with the sound of the Chinese word death

(sa-mang). This has caused many buildings to not have a fourth floor, and instead it goes

from third to fifth. Another superstition is a woman whistling will have bad luck. Mother

used to tell children if they whistled at night a snake would come into their rooms. Other

superstitions surround dreams. For example if they dream of a pig it is good luck and

money is coming their way. Other lucky dreams would entail a cow walking into thier

house, seeing a burning house, or eating raw meat. Some unlucky dreams are seeing a dog,

using a rake or a plow, or being swept away by water. If they dream of losing a tooth it

meant a relative may die soon. If they laugh in a dream they may end up crying during the

day.

January 1903 Koreans began to immigrate into the United States to fill the gap

created by the Chinese and Japanese workers. The immigration act of 1924 also known as

the Oriental Exclusion Act banned Asians from entering the United States. The Immigration

and Nationality Act of 1952 opened the United States Border to a limited amount of Asian

Immigrants. In 1953 at the end of the Korean War small amounts of Korean students and

professionals began to populate the U.S. . The Korean populous was also created by the

service man returning with Korean wives. After the Immigration and Nationality Act of

1965, which abolished the limitation on the amount of Asian immigrants there was a large

influx in the Korean population. Currently the Korean American population in the US is

approximately 230,0000. Christianity among Koreans began to emerge during the Second

World War, which served as a rally against Japanese occupants. Although only 25% of

Korean American practice it 60 – 70% identify as Christian. Koreans also take part in the

Church’s services such as a support group, help with income tax preparation, English

education classes, health education, employment, aid for the elderly, and information about

the U.S. citizenship.

All forms of personal problems are kept within the family structure, and if help is

sought then it is a family decision not an individual’s. Korean’s typically associate mental

health disorders as a physiological manifestation, and do not believe in the concept of

psychological dysfunctions. They believe that depression is sickness due to lack of

motivation. This will cause them to try to overcome emotional problems with willpower

and self discipline. In the Korean language there is no specific word for depression, and

instead they can describe the feeling as “down hearted”. With the influence of the

Confucian philosophy they are discouraged to openly display emotions in order to maintain

family bonds and social harmony as well as to not show personal weakness. This can

ultimately cause the body to become overwhelmed with psychological distress. They also

believe that mental health issues bring shame to the family, and are commonly hidden due

to family influence. Koreans associate health with the balance of the Ki which is energy,

and is intellectualized as the interdependence of a person with social, supernatural, and

climatic conditions. According to the DSM IV culture bound syndromes the folk Korean

syndromes are Shin-byung (symptoms of anxiety or panic episode with bodily complaints)

and Hwa-byung which (anger syndrome) which is connected to the suppression of anger,

disappointment, grudges, and unfulfilled expectation. Another association to mental health

is the kibun, but has no direct English translation, but is referring to a person’s mood and

feelings, and must be in good order for a person to function properly. Korean’s believe

that keeping the kibun in balance is crucial in interpersonal relationships and takes

precedence over all other considerations.

If services are sought the individual typically will have reached the point of crisis.

The Asian population is underrepresented in the outpatient level, but has been seen to be

more likely to have psychotic disorders. Korean Americans seem to be at a higher risk for

depression than Japanese , Filipino, and Chinese Americans. It is more commonly

diagnosed in Males. It has been documented that self-medication for depressive symptoms

and other mental health disorder correlate with increased rate of alcohol abuse. The

Korean immigrant group that does report depression seems to be caused by an adjustment

to life in a new country. Another issue of adjustment that Korean immigrants face is the

challenge of learning a new language. Being unable to speak fluently in the native language

can lead to anxiety and/or can exacerbate an already existing mental health disorder,

especially for immigrants who were highly educated in Korea. Men hold a higher status

than women, and these values are often challenged during the American acculturation

process.

The Institute of Domestic of Violence showed that 33% of “male-dominated

relationships” have had at least one incident of domestic violence during the year as

opposed to 12% of egalitarian relationships. Korean American men are 3x more

likely to divorce and women are 5x compared to rates in Korea.

Male mental health difficulties typically surround work related factors such as income and

job satisfaction, and report higher levels of anxiety. They also face the challenge of

suppressing their anger and resentment for the American egalitarian way of life. Female

are associated with social factors such as quality of family life and socialization. There

were few differences between woman who worked or did not work, but there were reports

that higher amount of income seemed to have a negative impact on mental health for

woman. If a woman works outside of the home due to economical demands of American

society; they are still expected to take care of the house work. Korean American

adolescence seem to present more mental health problem than other ethnic groups. The

lack of maternal affection and conflict with acculturation seems to correlate with

depressive symptoms and low self-esteem. The parents’ cultural values of educations can

create high demands on a child for success, and in turn pledge the adolescent with a need

for perfectionism. Research suggest family intervention emphasizing parental affection

and letting go of intergenerational acculturation conflicts can be productive in helping

improve a child’s depressive symptoms.

According to the World Health Organization Korea has the second highest rate in

suicides in the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development World, which

includes 33 different countries. Suicide rate for American Koreans have doubled from 15

to 34 per 100,000 in 2009 this is attributed to the American economical crisis, and the

Koreans high regard for achievement and feelings of dishonor over failure. The length a

Korean immigrant has been in the U.S. greatly influences their general mental health. In

the first two years in the U.S. they are faced with stress factors of a language barrier,

culture shock, social isolation, and difficulty in gaining employment. With cultural

integration, learning the language, and an increase in economical statues mental health

seems to improve. The Elderly rarely seek professional help or prescription medication for

mental health difficulties, and will try using cognitive, religious, physical, social, and/or

artistic strategies for treatment. They present to have a more difficult time in

acculturation, which causes stress, creates a smaller social support, and is associated with

higher risk of depression. The burdens of these problems are put upon the adult Korean

American child, which in turn causes a risk for mental health problems for the caregiver.

Things to be aware of when dealing with Korean immigrants is that eye contact is

considered highly disrespectful this is especially true between different genders, ages,

and/or social statues. Another issue to be aware of is small talk is seen as pointless,

meaningful conversation is highly regarded, and silence is valued. Another thing to be

conscious of is smiling and joking are acceptable only in certain conditions, and in some

cases can be seen as disrespectful. These cultural concepts can make it uncomfortable for

clients to talk to clinicians about their feelings.

Other thing a clinician needs to be aware of is how strong the family bonds are

among the family structure. There are 3 core concepts within the Korean culture:

Haan – Suppressed anger, unexpressed grievance, resentment

Jeong – Strong feeling of kinship/interpersonal trust, emotional bonding

Noon-chi – A capacity to quickly evaluate another person or social situations

Understanding Jeong (Strong feeling of kinship/interpersonal trust, emotional

bonding) provides relationship. Practicing noon-chi (A capacity to quickly evaluate

another person or social situations) and acknowledging the presence of Haan (Suppressed

anger, unexpressed grievance, resentment) is the start for clinicians to gain cultural

competence with Korean American clients. Lastly the Korean Americans respond well to

family and group psychoeducational intervention. Studies have shown a decrease in

stigma, symptoms of severity, and increase in coping skills. They often respond to lower

doses of medication for psychiatric disorders, but experience a higher rate and more

severity of side effects.

In conclusion when dealing the Korean culture there is an extreme difference in not

only cultural practices, but as well as social structure. While the Koreans culture is based

off of collectivism valuing conformity, self-restraint, and silence the American culture lives

in an individualistic society valuing autonomy, assertiveness, and self-expression. The

Korean Immigrant populations acclimate themselves to the American culture typically

through four methods integration, separation, assimilation, or marginalization.

Integration is when the Korean Immigrant is able to balance in both the Korean and the

American culture. Assimilation is when the Korean immigrant takes on only the American

culture. Separation is when they completely dismisses the American culture, and only

recognize their own. Lastly there is marginalization which is when they will reject both the

Korean and American culture. The groups that have shown the highest probability of

maintaining a healthy mental health status is integration, while the highest risk of suffering

mental health issues is seen through the method of separation.

References:

Anthony J. Marsella, Geoffrey Miles White. “Cultural conceptions of mental health and therapy” Springer, 1982<http://books.google.com/books?id=P6Xpf87G1W4C&dq=Cultural+conceptions+of+mental+health+and+therapy&lr=&source=gbs_navlinks_s>

Akutsu, Phillip D.; Castillo, Eleanor D.; Snowden, Lonnie R. “Differential referral patterns to ethnic-specific and mainstream mental health programs for four Asian American groups.” American Psychological Association; American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, Vol 77(1), Jan 2007, 95-103.< http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=main.doiLanding&uid=2007-02819-012>

Berry J. W. “Immigration, Acculturation, and Adaptation” Psychology Press, part of the Taylor & Francis Group; Applied Psychology, Volume 46, Number 1, 1 January 1997 , pp. 5-34(30)< http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/psych/papr/1997/00000046/00000001/art00002>

Berry J. W.; Annis R. C. “Acculturative Stress The Role of Ecology, Culture and Differentiation” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology December 1974 vol. 5 no. 4 382-406< http://jcc.sagepub.com/content/5/4/382.abstract>

Chen, Sheying; Sullivan, Ning Yang; Lu, Yuhwa Eva; Shibusawa, Tazuko. "Asian Americans and Mental Health Services -- A Study of Utilization Patterns in the 1990s" Journal of Ethnic And Cultural Diversity in Social Work

12.2 (2003). 08 Dec. 2010< http://www.informaworld.com/10.1300/J051v12n02_02 >

Chi-Ah Chun, Kana Enomoto and Stanley Sue. “Health Care Issues among Asian AmericansImplications of Somatization” Handbook of Diversity Issues in Health Psychology 1996<http://www.springerlink.com/content/xt713207j45780w1/>

Donnelly, PaJa Lee "Mental Health Beliefs and Help Seeking Behaviors of Korean American Parents of Adult Children with Schizophrenia". Journal of Multicultural Nursing & Health. FindArticles.com. 07 Dec, 2010. <http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3919/is_200507/ai_n14825642/>

Greenberger, Ellen; Chen, Chuansheng. “Perceived Family Relationships and Depressed Mood in Early and Late Adolescence: A Comparison of European and Asian American.” Journal Articles Developmental Psychology, v32 n4 p707-16 Jul 1996<http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ529864&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ529864>

Hae-Ra Han, Miyong Kim, Hochang B. Lee, Gina Pistulka and Kim B. Kim. “Correlates of Depression in the Korean American Elderly: Focusing on Personal Resources of Social Support” Springerlink; Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology 22 (1)< http://www.springerlink.com/content/r156w54613u0k78l/>

Josephine M. Kim “Culture-Specific Psychoeducational Induction Talk as an Interventionto Increase Service Utilization Among Minority Populations:The Case of Korean Americans” 2005<http://www.counseling.org/Resources/Library/VISTAS/vistas05/Vistas05.art27.pdf>

Ja-Ma. “Culture of South Korea” Advameg, Inc. 2010< http://www.everyculture.com/Ja-Ma/South-Korea.html>

Julie Moore. “Korean Health Beliefs” October 7, 2005<http://www.hawcc.hawaii.edu/nursing/RNKorean00.htm>

Kim, Eunjung, Cain, Kevin C “Korean American Adolescent Depression and Parenting” Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, May 2008

< http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3892/is_200805/ai_n27900701/>

Keum Young Chung Pang. “Self-care strategy of elderly Korean immigrants in the Washington DC Metropolitan Area” Springerlink; Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology 11 (3) 1996-09-01< http://www.springerlink.com/content/mn14776875r4j1x4/>

“Korean Culture Kaleidoscope” International Spouses of Koreans Association 2003 – 2010 <http://www.iskakorea.com/sub/sub1.php>

“Living in Korea Culture & Society” PlanetESL Recruiting 2007< http://www.planetesl.com/information/society.html>

Nancy Sung Shelton, Dana Matsushita, and Rachel Levenson. “Korean Americans” Statistics and Services Research Division, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research 2008<http://ssrdqst.rfmh.org/cecc/index.php?q=node/29>

Nicole C.E. Duranceaux, Marc A. Schuckit, Susan E. Luczak, Mimy Y. Eng, Lucinda G. Carr, Tamara L. Wall. “Ethnic Differences in Level of Response to Alcohol Between Chinese Americans and Korean Americans” Rutgers University 2010

<http://www.jsad.com/jsad/article/Ethnic_Differences_in_Level_of_Response_to_Alcohol_Between_Chinese_American/2221.html>

Pyong Gap Min. “Changes in Korean Immigrants' Gender Role and Social Status, and Their Marital Conflicts” November 2, 2001< http://www.springerlink.com/content/p73211v135164415/>

Roberta L. Coles. “Race & family: a structural approach “ Sage Publishing Inc 2006< http://books.google.com/books?id=VO99SPnt-kEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Race+and+family:+A+structural+approach&ei=7KI2SdrGDJicMvqf1IkP&client=firefox-a#v=onepage&q&f=false>

Sandra L. Somers. “Examining Anger in 'Culture-Bound' Syndromes” UBM Medica LLC January 1, 1998< http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/cultural-psychiatry/content/article/10168/55206>

Yuri Jang, David A. Chiriboga, Giyeon Kim and Soyeon Cho. “Changes in Perceived Health and Depressive Symptoms: A Longitudinal Analysis with Older Korean Americans” Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health 2009-02-01 <http://www.springerlink.com/content/93223078km3l2620/>